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 Behavior Modification
Principles and Procedures

R a ymond G . Milt enberger

University of South Florida

S e v enth Edition

Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Behavior Modification: Principles and Last three editions, as applicable: © 2016, © 2012
Procedures, Seventh Edition Copyright © 2024 Cengage Learning, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Raymond G. Miltenberger

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 To my wife, Nasrin, and my kids, Ryan, Roxanne, and Steven

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About the Author
Raymond G. Miltenberger received his Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1985 from
Western Michigan University. He is currently a professor and director of the Applied
Behavior Analysis Program at the University of South Florida. Dr. Miltenberger teaches
courses in the applied behavior analysis master’s and doctoral programs. He conducts
applied behavior analysis research with his students and publishes widely in the areas of
sports and fitness, child safety skills training, habit disorders, and functional assessment
and treatment of behavioral disorders. In addition to spending time with his family, he
Raymond G. Miltenberger

enjoys walking and biking, golf, reading, and travel.

iv

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Brief Contents
1 / Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

Part 1 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change

2 / Observing and Recording Behavior 13
3 / Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 31

Part 2 Basic Principles

4 / Reinforcement 51
5 / Extinction 71
6 / Punishment 82
7 / Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 97
8 / Respondent Conditioning 112

Part 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior

9 / Shaping 124
10 / Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 137
11 / Chaining 154
12 / Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 169

Part 4 Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease Undesirable Behavior

13 / Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional Assessment 183
14 / Applying Extinction 205
15 / Differential Reinforcement 221
16 / Antecedent Interventions 242
17 / Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 262
18 / Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics of Punishment 277
19 / Promoting Generalization 290

Part 5 Other Behavior Change Procedures

20 / Self-Management 305
21 / Habit Reversal Procedures 318
22 / The Token Economy 329
23 / Behavioral Contracts 345
24 / Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 359
25 / Cognitive Behavior Modification 374

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Contents
Preface xvi

1 Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

1-1 Defining Human Behavior 1 Prevention 8

1-2 Examples of Behavior 3 Sports Performance 9
Health-Related Behaviors 9
1-3 Defining Behavior Modification 3
Gerontology 9
1-4 Characteristics of Behavior Modification 3
1-7 Professional Practice, Certification, and Ethics 9
1-5 Historical Roots of Behavior Modification 5
1-8 New Directions in Behavior Modification 9
Major Figures 5
Early Behavior Modification Researchers 6 1-9 The Structure of This Textbook 10
Major Publications and Events 7 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change 10
Basic Principles of Behavior 10
1-6 Areas of Application 7
Procedures to Establish New Behaviors 10
Developmental Disabilities and Autism Spectrum
Disorder 7 Procedures to Increase Desirable Behaviors and
Decrease Undesirable Behaviors 10
Mental Illness 7
Other Behavior Change Procedures 10
Education and Special Education 8
Rehabilitation 8 Chapter Summary 10
Community Psychology 8 Key Terms 11
Clinical Psychology 8 Practice Quiz 1 11
Business, Industry, and Human Services 8 Practice Quiz 2 11
Self-Management 8 Practice Quiz 3 12
Child Behavior Management 8
Practice Test 12

Part 1: Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change

2 Observing and Recording Behavior 13

2-1 Direct and Indirect Assessment 14 2-6 Reactivity 24

2-2 Defining the Target Behavior 14 2-7 Interobserver Agreement 25
2-3 The Logistics of Recording 15 Chapter Summary 26
The Observer 15 Key Terms 27
When and Where to Record 16 Practice Quiz 1 27
2-4 Choosing a Recording Method 17 Practice Quiz 2 27
Continuous Recording 17
Practice Quiz 3 28
Product Recording 19
Practice Test 28
Sampling Methods 19
Applications 29
2-5 Choosing a Recording Instrument 21
Misapplications 30
vi

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 Contents vii

3 Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 31

3-1 Components of a Graph 32 Alternating-Treatments Design 44

3-2 Graphing Behavioral Data 34 Changing-Criterion Design 45
Graphing Data from Different Recording Chapter Summary 46
Procedures 34 Key Terms 47
Evaluating Behavior Change in a Graph: Level, Practice Quiz 1 47
Trend, and Variability 36
Practice Quiz 2 48
3-3 Graphing Data to Evaluate Treatment: The A–B
Graph 37 Practice Quiz 3 48

3-4 Graphing Data to Demonstrate a Functional Practice Test 49

Relationship: Research Designs 39 Applications 49
A–B–A–B Reversal Design 40 Misapplications 50
Multiple-Baseline Design 41

Part 2 Basic Principles

4 Reinforcement 51

4-1 Defining Reinforcement 52 Variable Ratio 63

4-2 Positive and Negative Reinforcement 54 Fixed Interval 63
Social versus Automatic Reinforcement 56 Variable Interval 64

4-3 Escape and Avoidance Behaviors 57 4-7 Reinforcing Different Dimensions of Behavior 65

4-4 Conditioned and Unconditioned Reinforcers 57 4-8 Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 65

4-5 Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of 4-9 Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement 65
Reinforcement 58 Chapter Summary 66
Immediacy 58 Key Terms 67
Contingency 59 Practice Quiz 1 67
Motivating Operations 59 Practice Quiz 2 67
Individual Differences 60
Practice Quiz 3 68
Magnitude 61
Practice Test 68
4-6 Schedules of Reinforcement 61
Appendix A 69
Fixed Ratio 62
Appendix B 70

5 Extinction 71

5-1 Defining Extinction 71 5-6 Factors That Influence Extinction 77

5-2 Extinction Burst 73 The Reinforcement Schedule before Extinction 77
5-3 Spontaneous Recovery 74 Reinforcement of the Behavior after Extinction 77
Reinforcement of Functionally Equivalent Alternative
5-4 Procedural Variations of Extinction 75
Behavior during Extinction 77
5-5 A Common Misconception about Extinction 76

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viii Contents

Chapter Summary 79 Practice Quiz 3 80

Key Terms 79 Practice Test 80
Practice Quiz 1 79 Appendix A 81
Practice Quiz 2 80

6 Punishment 82

6-1 Defining Punishment 82 Emotional Reactions to Punishment 92

6-2 A Common Misconception about Punishment 84 Escape and Avoidance 92
Negative Reinforcement for the Use of Punishment 92
6-3 Positive and Negative Punishment 84
Punishment and Modeling 92
6-4 Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishers 87
Ethical Issues 92
6-5 Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment 88 Self-Assessment 93
6-6 Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Chapter Summary 94
Punishment 89
Key Terms 94
Immediacy 89
Practice Quiz 1 94
Contingency 90
Motivating Operations 90 Practice Quiz 2 95
Individual Differences and Magnitude of the Practice Quiz 3 95
Punisher 90 Practice Test 96
6-7 Problems with Punishment 91 Appendix A 96

7 Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 97

7-1 Examples of Stimulus Control 97 7-6 Generalization 102

7-2 Defining Stimulus Control 98 Examples of Generalization 102
7-3 Developing Stimulus Control: Stimulus 7-7 Stimulus Equivalence 105
Discrimination Training 99 Chapter Summary 108
Discrimination Training in the Laboratory 99 Key Terms 108
Developing Reading and Spelling with Practice Quiz 1 108
Discrimination Training 100
Practice Quiz 2 109
Stimulus Discrimination Training and
Punishment 101 Practice Quiz 3 109
7-4 The Three-Term Contingency 101 Practice Test 109
7-5 Stimulus Control Research 101 Appendix A 110

8 Respondent Conditioning 112

8-1 Examples of Respondent Conditioning 112 8-6 Extinction of Conditioned Responses 117
8-2 Defining Respondent Conditioning 113 Spontaneous Recovery 117
8-3 Timing of the Neutral Stimulus and Unconditioned 8-7 Discrimination and Generalization of Respondent
Stimulus 114 Behavior 117
8-4 Higher-Order Conditioning 115 8-8 Factors That Influence Respondent
Conditioning 118
8-5 Conditioned Emotional Responses 115
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 Contents ix

The Nature of the Neutral Stimulus and 8-10 Respondent Conditioning and Behavior
Unconditioned Stimulus 118 Modification 121
The Temporal Relationship between the Neutral Chapter Summary 121
Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus 118
Key Terms 121
Contingency between the Neutral Stimulus and
Unconditioned Stimulus 118 Practice Quiz 1 122
The Number of Pairings 118 Practice Quiz 2 122
Previous Exposure to the Neutral Stimulus 118 Practice Quiz 3 122
8-9 Distinguishing between Operant and Respondent Practice Test 123
Conditioning 119

Part 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior

9 Shaping 124

9-1 An Example of Shaping: Teaching a Child to Talk 124 Chapter Summary 134
9-2 Defining Shaping 124 Key Terms 134
9-3 Applications of Shaping 126 Practice Quiz 1 134
Getting Mrs. F to Walk Again 126 Practice Quiz 2 134
Getting Mrs. S to Increase the Time between Practice Quiz 3 135
Bathroom Visits 126
Practice Test 135
9-4 Research on Shaping 127
Applications 136
9-5 How to Use Shaping 131
Misapplications 136
9-6 Shaping of Problem Behaviors 132

10 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 137

10-1 An Example of Prompting and Fading: Teaching Echoic 148

Tee-Ball Players to Hit the Ball 137 Mand 148
10-2 What Is Prompting? 138 Tact 148
Intraverbal 148
10-3 What Is Fading? 139
Multiple Control of Verbal Operants 149
10-4 Types of Prompts 140
Teaching Verbal Behavior to Children with
Response Prompts 140 Autism 149
Stimulus Prompts 141
Chapter Summary 150
10-5 Transfer of Stimulus Control 142
Key Terms 151
Prompt Fading 142
Practice Quiz 1 151
Prompt Delay 144
Stimulus Fading 144 Practice Quiz 2 151

10-6 How to Use Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Practice Quiz 3 152
Control 146 Practice Test 152
10-7 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control in Applications 153
Autism Treatment 147 Misapplications 153
10-8 Verbal Behavior 148

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x Contents

11 Chaining 154

11-1 Examples of Behavioral Chains 154 Self-Instructions 164

11-2 Analyzing Stimulus–Response Chains 154 11-8 How to Use Chaining Procedures 165
11-3 Task Analysis 155 Chapter Summary 166
11-4 Backward Chaining 157 Key Terms 166
11-5 Forward Chaining 159 Practice Quiz 1 166
11-6 Total Task Presentation 160 Practice Quiz 2 166
11-7 Other Strategies for Teaching Behavioral Practice Quiz 3 167
Chains 161 Practice Test 167
Written Task Analysis 161 Applications 168
Picture Prompts 163 Misapplications 168
Video Modeling 163

12 Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 169

12-1 Examples of Behavioral Skills Training 12-6 Behavioral Skills Training and the Three-Term
Procedures 169 Contingency 174
Teaching Marcia to Say “No” to the Professors 169 12-7 Behavioral Skills Training in Groups 175
Teaching Children to Protect Themselves from 12-8 Applications of Behavioral Skills Training
Abduction 170
Procedures 175
12-2 Components of the Behavioral Skills Training
12-9 How to Use Behavioral Skills Training
Procedure 170
Procedures 178
Instructions 170
Chapter Summary 179
Modeling 172
Key Terms 180
Rehearsal 172
Feedback 173 Practice Quiz 1 180

12-3 Enhancing Generalization after Behavioral Skills Practice Quiz 2 180

Training 173 Practice Quiz 3 180
12-4 In Situ Assessment 173 Practice Test 181
12-5 In Situ Training 174 Applications 181
Misapplications 182

Part 4: Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease

Undesirable Behavior

13 Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional Assessment 183

13-1 Examples of Functional Assessment 183 13-3 Functions of Problem Behaviors 185
Jacob 183 Social Positive Reinforcement 186
Anna 184 Social Negative Reinforcement 186
13-2 Defining Functional Assessment 185 Automatic Positive Reinforcement 186

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 Contents xi

Automatic Negative Reinforcement 186 Key Terms 200

13-4 Functional Assessment Methods 186 Practice Quiz 1 201
Indirect Methods 186 Practice Quiz 2 201
Direct Observation Methods 189 Practice Quiz 3 201
Experimental Methods (Functional Analysis) 192
Practice Test 202
13-5 Functional Analysis Research 196
Applications 202
13-6 Conducting a Functional Assessment 198
Misapplications 204
13-7 Functional Interventions 199
Self-Assessment 204
Chapter Summary 200

14 Applying Extinction 205

14-1 The Case of Willy 205 14-6 Research Evaluating the Use of Extinction 214
14-2 Using Extinction to Decrease a Problem Chapter Summary 216
Behavior 206 Key Terms 216
Collecting Data to Assess Treatment Effects 207 Practice Quiz 1 216
Identifying the Reinforcer for the Problem Behavior
Practice Quiz 2 217
through Functional Assessment 207
Eliminating the Reinforcer after Each Instance of the Practice Quiz 3 217
Problem Behavior 208 Practice Test 218
14-3 Taking Account of the Schedule of Reinforcement Applications 218
before Extinction 211 Misapplications 218
14-4 Reinforcing Alternative Behaviors 212 Appendix A 219
14-5 Promoting Generalization and Maintenance 213 Appendix B 219

15 Differential Reinforcement 221

15-1 Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Variations of DRL 233

Behavior 221 How are DRO and Spaced-Responding DRL
Getting Mrs. Williams to Be Positive 221 Different? 234
When to Use DRA 222 Implementing DRL Procedures 234
How to Use DRA 222 Research Evaluating DRL Procedures 235
Using Differential Negative Reinforcement of Chapter Summary 237
Alternative Behaviors 224 Key Terms 237
Variations of DRA 226 Practice Quiz 1 238
Research on DRA 226
Practice Quiz 2 238
15-2 Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior 228
Practice Quiz 3 239
Defining DRO 229
Practice Test 239
Implementing DRO 229
Research Evaluating DRO Procedures 231 Applications 240

15-3 Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Misapplications 240

Responding 233 Self-Assessment 241
Defining DRL 233

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xii Contents

16 Antecedent Interventions 242

16-1 Examples of Antecedent Interventions 242 Manipulating Motivating Operations 250

Getting Marianne to Study More 242 16-4 Using Antecedent Interventions 255
Getting Cal to Eat Right 243 Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the
Desirable Behavior 255
16-2 Defining Antecedent Interventions 243
Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the
Presenting the Discriminative Stimulus (SD) or Cues
Undesirable Behavior 255
for the Desired Behavior 243
Arranging Establishing Operations for the Desirable 16-5 Functional Interventions for Problem
Behavior 244 Behaviors 256
Decreasing Response Effort for the Desirable Chapter Summary 257
Behavior 245
Key Terms 257
Removing the Discriminative Stimulus or Cues for
Undesirable Behaviors 246 Practice Quiz 1 257
Presenting Abolishing Operations for Undesirable Practice Quiz 2 257
Behaviors 247 Practice Quiz 3 258
Increasing the Response Effort for Undesirable Practice Test 258
Behaviors 248
Applications 259
16-3 Research on Antecedent Interventions 249
Misapplications 260
Manipulating Discriminative Stimuli 249
Manipulating Response Effort 249 Self-Assessment 261

17 Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 262

17-1 Time-Out 262 Research Evaluating Response Cost

Procedures 271
Types of Time-Out 264
Using Reinforcement with Time-Out 264 Chapter Summary 273
Considerations in Using Time-Out 264 Key Terms 273
Research Evaluating Time-Out Procedures 266 Practice Quiz 1 274
17-2 Response Cost 269 Practice Quiz 2 274
Defining Response Cost 269 Practice Quiz 3 274
Using Differential Reinforcement with Response Practice Test 275
Cost 269
Applications 275
Comparing Response Cost, Time-Out, and
Extinction 270 Misapplications 276
Considerations in Using Response Cost 270 Self-Assessment 276

18 Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics of Punishment 277

18-1 Punishment by Application of Aversive Physical Restraint 280

Activities 277 Cautions in Punishment by the Application of
Overcorrection 278 Aversive Activities 281
Contingent Exercise 279 18-2 Punishment by Application of Aversive
Guided Compliance 280 Stimulation 282

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 Contents xiii

18-3 Positive Punishment: Treatment of Last Peer Review 286

Resort 284 Accountability: Preventing Misuse and Overuse 286
18-4 Considerations in Using Positive Punishment 284 Chapter Summary 286
18-5 The Ethics of Punishment 285 Key Terms 286
Informed Consent 285 Practice Quiz 1 287
Alternative Treatments 285 Practice Quiz 2 287
Recipient Safety 285
Practice Quiz 3 287
Problem Severity 285
Practice Test 288
Implementation Guidelines 285
Training and Supervision 286 Applications 288
Misapplications 289

19 Promoting Generalization 290

19-1 Examples of Generalization Programming 290 Incorporating Self-Generated Mediators of

Generalization 297
19-2 Defining Generalization 291
19-4 Implementing Strategies to Promote
19-3 Strategies for Promoting Generalization of
Generalization 298
Behavior Change 291
19-5 Promoting Generalized Reductions in Problem
Reinforcing Occurrences of Generalization 291
Behaviors 298
Training Skills That Contact Natural Contingencies
of Reinforcement 292 Chapter Summary 300
Modifying Contingencies of Reinforcement and Key Terms 300
Punishment in the Natural Environment 292
Practice Quiz 1 300
Incorporating a Variety of Relevant Stimulus
Situations in Training 294 Practice Quiz 2 301
Incorporating Common Stimuli 296 Practice Quiz 3 302
Teaching a Range of Functionally Equivalent Practice Test 302
Responses 296 Applications 303
Providing Cues in the Natural Environment 296
Misapplications 303
Self-Assessment 304

Part 5: Other Behavior Change Procedures

20 Self-Management 305

20-1 Examples of Self-Management 305 Goal Setting and Self-Monitoring 309

Getting Murray to Run Regularly 305 Antecedent Interventions 309
Getting Annette to Clean Up Her Mess 305 Behavioral Contracting 309
20-2 Defining Self-Management Problems 307 Arranging Reinforcers and Punishers 310
Social Support 311
20-3 Defining Self-Management 308
Self-Instructions and Self-Praise 311
20-4 Types of Self-Management Strategies 308

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xiv Contents

20-5 Steps in a Self-Management Plan 312 Practice Quiz 2 315

20-6 Clinical Problems 314 Practice Quiz 3 316
Chapter Summary 314 Practice Test 316
Key Terms 315 Applications 317
Practice Quiz 1 315 Misapplications 317

21 Habit Reversal Procedures 318

21-1 Examples of Habit Behaviors 318 21-6 Other Treatment Procedures for Habit
21-2 Defining Habit Behaviors 319 Disorders 324
Nervous Habits 319 Chapter Summary 325
Motor and Vocal Tics 319 Key Terms 326
Stuttering 319 Practice Quiz 1 326
21-3 Habit Reversal Procedures 320 Practice Quiz 2 326
21-4 Applications of Habit Reversal 320 Practice Quiz 3 326
Nervous Habits 320 Practice Test 327
Motor and Vocal Tics 321
Applications 327
Stuttering 322
Misapplications 328
21-5 Why Do Habit Reversal Procedures Work? 322

22 The Token Economy 329

22-1 Rehabilitating Sammy 329 22-4 Practical Considerations 334

22-2 Defining a Token Economy 330 22-5 Applications of a Token Economy 335
22-3 Implementing a Token Economy 331 22-6 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Token
Defining the Target Behaviors 331 Economy 341
Identifying the Items to Use as Tokens 331 Chapter Summary 341
Identifying Backup Reinforcers 331 Key Terms 341
Deciding on the Appropriate Schedule of Practice Quiz 1 341
Reinforcement 332
Practice Quiz 2 342
Establishing the Token Exchange Rate 333
Establishing the Time and Place for Exchanging Practice Quiz 3 342
Tokens 333 Practice Test 343
Deciding Whether to Use Response Cost 334 Applications 343
Staff Training and Management 334
Misapplications 343

23 Behavioral Contracts 345

23-1 Examples of Behavioral Contracting 345 23-3 Components of a Behavioral Contract 347
Getting Stavros to Complete His Dissertation 345 23-4 Types of Behavioral Contracts 349
Helping Dan and His Parents Get Along Better 346 One-Party Contracts 349
23-2 Defining the Behavioral Contract 347 Two-Party Contracts 349

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 Contents xv

23-5 Negotiating a Behavioral Contract 351 Practice Quiz 1 355

23-6 Why Do Behavioral Contracts Influence Practice Quiz 2 356
Behavior? 351 Practice Quiz 3 356
23-7 Applications of Behavioral Contracts 352 Practice Test 357
Chapter Summary 355 Applications 357
Key Terms 355 Misapplications 357

24 Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 359

24-1 Examples of Fear and Anxiety Reduction 359 Chapter Summary 370
Overcoming Trisha’s Fear of Public Speaking 359 Key Terms 371
Overcoming Allison’s Fear of Spiders 360 Practice Quiz 1 371
24-2 Defining Fear and Anxiety Problems 360 Practice Quiz 2 371
24-3 Procedures to Reduce Fear and Anxiety 362 Practice Quiz 3 372
Relaxation Training 362
Practice Test 372
Fear Reduction Procedures 364
Applications 372
24-4 Clinical Problems 370
Misapplications 373

25 Cognitive Behavior Modification 374

25-1 Examples of Cognitive Behavior Modification 374 Practice Quiz 1 383

Helping Daniel Control His Anger 374 Practice Quiz 2 384
Helping Claire Pay Attention in Class 375 Practice Quiz 3 384
25-2 Defining Cognitive Behavior Modification 376 Practice Test 385
Defining Cognitive Behavior 376
Applications 385
Functions of Cognitive Behavior 376
Misapplications 385
25-3 Cognitive Behavior Modification Procedures 377
Cognitive Restructuring 377 Glossary 387
Cognitive Coping Skills Training 380 References 396
Acceptance-Based Therapies 382 Name Index 423
25-4 Clinical Problems 383 Subject Index 431
Chapter Summary 383
Key Terms 383

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Preface
I am gratified that the first six editions of Behavior Modifica- Principles and Procedures The various procedures for changing
tion: Principles and Procedures received positive reviews from behavior are based on the fundamental principles of behavior
students and professors. The seventh edition has kept the established in experimental research over the past 90 years. In the
positive features of the first six editions, has been revised to belief that the student will better understand the procedures after
address the suggestions of reviewers, and has been updated first learning the fundamental principles, the principles under-
to reflect the latest research in behavior modification. lying operant and respondent behavior are reviewed in Chapters
The goal of this seventh edition (as with the earlier 4–8; the application of the principles in the behavior modifica-
editions) is to describe basic principles of behavior so that the tion procedures is described in Chapters 9–25.
student learns how environmental events influence human
behavior and to describe behavior modification procedures so Examples from Everyday Life Each chapter uses a variety of
that the student learns the strategies by which human behav- real-life examples—some relevant to college students, some
ior may be changed. The text is divided into 25 relatively short chosen from the author’s clinical and research experience—to
chapters, each covering a manageable amount of information bring the principles and procedures to life.
(for example, one principle or procedure). This text can be
used in a standard one-semester course in behavior modifi- Examples from Research In addition, both classic studies and
cation, applied behavior analysis, behavior management, or the most up-to-date research on behavior modification
behavior change. principles and procedures are integrated into the text.
The material in the text is discussed at an introductory
Practice Quizzes Three fill-in-the-blank quizzes with 10
level so that it may be understood by students with no prior
questions are provided at the end of each of the 25 chapters.
knowledge of the subject. This text is intended for undergrad-
The practice quizzes provide students with further exercises for
uate students or beginning graduate students. It would also
self-assessment of their knowledge of the chapters’ content.
be valuable for individuals working in human services, edu-
cation, or rehabilitation who must use behavior modification Practice Tests Practice tests at the end of each chapter have
procedures to manage the behavior of the individuals in their short-answer essay questions and include page numbers where
care. the answers can be found.
I have made a concerted effort in this text to ensure
examples reflect the fullness of human diversity with respect Application Exercises At the end of each chapter where proce-
to ability, language, culture, gender, age, socioeconomics, and dures are taught (Chapters 2, 3, and 9–25), several application
other forms of human difference that students may bring to exercises are provided. In each exercise, a real-life case is described
the classroom. and then the student is asked to apply the procedure described in
the chapter. These exercises give students an opportunity to think
Features of the Text Continued about how the procedures are applied in real life.

from the First Six Editions Misapplication Exercises The application exercises are followed
by misapplication exercises. In each one, a case example is
The following features of the text are intended to help the provided, and the procedure from the chapter is applied to the
reader learn easily. case in an incorrect or inappropriate manner. The student is asked
to analyze the case example and to describe what is wrong with
Organization of the Text Following a general introduction to
the application of the procedure in that case. These misapplication
the field in Chapter 1, Chapters 2 and 3 present information on
exercises require the student to think critically about the applica-
behavior recording, graphing, and measuring change. This infor-
tion of the procedure. Answers to the applications and misappli-
mation will be used in each subsequent chapter. Next, Chapters
cations are in the Solution and Answer Guide; these are valuable
4–8 focus on the basic principles of operant and respondent
tools for instructors, as they assess their students’ abilities to apply
behavior. The application of these principles forms the subject of
the information provided in the chapter.
the remaining 17 chapters. Procedures to establish new behav-
iors are described in Chapters 9–12, and procedures to increase Step-by-Step Approach In each chapter in which a particular
desirable behaviors and decrease undesirable behaviors are con- behavior modification procedure is taught, the implementa-
sidered in Chapters 13–19. Finally, Chapters 20–25 present a tion of the procedure is outlined in a step-by-step fashion, for
survey of other important behavior modification procedures. ease of comprehension.

xvi

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 Preface xvii

Summary Boxes Periodically throughout the text, information Cultural Diversity Added a discussion of cultural diversity to
from a chapter is summarized in a box that has been set off Chapters 1 and 13. The names that appear in all chapters are
from the text. These boxes are intended to help the student now more culturally diverse.
organize the material in the chapter.
Graphing and Functional Relationships Added a discussion
Chapter Summaries Chapter summaries provide information of level, trend, and variability in evaluating data in a graph in
that is consistent with the major headings in each chapter. Chapter 3. Made the distinction between graphs to evaluate
behavior change (A–B design) versus graphs to demonstrate a
Examples for Self-Assessment In the early chapters on basic functional relationship (research designs).
principles (Chapters 4–7), there are tables with examples of
the principle discussed within that chapter. Later in the Reinforcement Added information in Chapter 4 to include
chapter (or in a subsequent chapter), the student is directed to more information on concurrent schedules, a description
return to a specific table and, using the new information being of the matching law, a description of multiple schedules
presented in the chapter, to analyze specific aspects of the of reinforcement, and a description of behavioral contrast.
examples provided in that table. Also added a discussion of decision rules for analyzing
reinforcement.
Self-Assessment Questions At intervals throughout the text,
students are presented with self-assessment questions. To answer Resurgence Described the concept of resurgence in the
these questions, students will need to use the information already discussion of reinforcement of functionally equivalent
presented in the chapter. These questions will help students assess responses when using extinction in Chapter 5.
their understanding of the material. In most cases, answers are
presented in the text immediately following the question. Self-Assessment Exercises Added self-assessment exercises in
more chapters to help students understand concepts and
Figures Most of the chapters include figures from the research distinguish among concepts presented in the chapters.
literature to illustrate important principles or procedures. Students
must use information from earlier chapters on behavior recording, Stimulus Equivalence Added a section in Chapter 7 on
graphing, and measuring change to analyze the graphs. stimulus equivalence, with new figures to help explain the
concepts.
For Further Reading Each of the chapters includes a For
Further Reading box. In this feature, interesting articles that Verbal Behavior Added a section on verbal behavior in
are relevant to the content of the chapter are identified and Chapter 10. Explained the different verbal operants, discussed
briefly described. Citations for these articles have also been multiple control, and discussed training verbal behavior.
provided. These articles are from major behavioral journals, so
Functional Assessment Added information in Chapter 13
they can be easily accessed online by students. Instructors can
on using the functional assessment interview, the importance
assign these articles for extra credit or as reading assignments
of multiple informants and having experts in behavior anal-
for when more advanced students use the textbook.
ysis conduct the interview, using the interview to build rap-
List of Key Terms After each Chapter Summary section, there port with caregivers, and assessing factors related to cultural
is a list of the new terms that were used in the chapter. The list diversity. Provided more information on test versus control
of key terms shows the page number on which each term was conditions in conducting a functional analysis. Discussed the
introduced. Although these terms are all found in the Glossary interview informed synthesized contingency analysis as a type
at the end of the text, having the new terms, and their page of hypothesis testing functional analysis. Discussed functional
numbers, listed at the end of each chapter will allow the stu- assessment in research versus practice.
dent to have an easy reference to the terms when reading the
Antecedent Interventions Added information in Chapter
chapter or when studying for a test or quiz.
16 on the high-p instructional sequence as an antecedent
Glossary At the end of the text is a glossary of the important intervention, described behavioral momentum theory as an
behavior modification terms used in the text. Each term is fol- explanation for its effectiveness, and described noncontingent
lowed by a succinct and precise definition. reinforcement.

Acceptance-Based Therapies Added a discussion in Chapter 25

New Features in the Seventh of mindfulness and mindfulness-based therapies. Added more
Edition information on acceptance and commitment therapy.

Learning Objectives Added new learning objectives at the New References Added 178 new references to reflect recent
beginning of each chapter to guide students’ attention to the research and provide the scientific support for the principles
most important topics in each chapter. and procedures presented in the text.

Copyright 2024 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii Preface

Other New Features Harnish, Rochester Institute of Technology; Gerald Harris, The
University of Houston; Robert Heffer, Texas A&M Univer-
• Discussed telehealth as a new direction in behavior sity; Stephen W. Holborn, University of Manitoba; Dorothea
modification in Chapter 1. Lerman, Louisiana State University; Tom Lombardo,
University of Mississippi; John Malouff, Nova Southern East-
• Introduced the term sampling methods to categorize inter- ern University; Guenn Martin, Cumberland University; Kay
val recording and time sample recording in Chapter 2. McIntyre, University of Missouri–St. Louis; Ronald Miller,
• Added a “For Further Reading” box to discuss the choice Brigham Young University–Hawaii; Robert W. Montgom-
of continuous versus discontinuous recording methods in ery, Georgia State University; Charles S. Peyser, University
Chapter 2. of the South; Brady Phelps, South Dakota State University;
• Added more information to help students distinguish Joseph J. Plaud, University of North Dakota; Robyn Rogers,
between positive and negative reinforcement and positive Southwest Texas State University; Johannes Rojahn, George
and negative punishment in Chapters 4 and 6. Mason University; Paul Romanowich, Mesa College; Alison
• Added new information on momentary DRO in Chapter 15. Thomas Cottingham, Rider University; J. Kevin Thompson,
University of Southern Florida; Bruce Thyer, University of
• Added more information on the function of habits in Georgia; James T. Todd, Eastern Michigan University; Sharon
Chapter 21. Van Leer, Delaware State University; Timothy Vollmer, Uni-
• Introduced comprehensive behavioral intervention for tics versity of Florida; Robert W. Wildblood, Northern Virginia
in Chapter 21. Community College; Kenneth N. Wildman, Ohio Northern
• Discussed new research on treatment for habits during University; Douglas Woods, University of Wisconsin–
public speaking in Chapter 21. Milwaukee; and Todd Zakrajsek, Southern Oregon State
• Added new information on behavioral contracting for College. I especially want to thank Marianne Taflinger, for-
parents in Chapter 23. mer senior editor at Wadsworth, for her guidance and support
throughout the initial development of the text.
• Restructured information to emphasize relaxation procedures
and fear reduction procedures in Chapter 24.
For the Behavior Modification
Instructor Resources Student
Additional instructor resources for this product are available To get the most out of this text and out of your behavior
online. Instructor assets include an Instructor’s Manual, Solu- modification course, you are encouraged to consider the
tion and Answer Guide, PowerPoint® slides, and a test bank following recommendations.
powered by Cognero®. Sign up or sign in at www.cengage.com 1. Read the assigned chapters before the class meeting at
to search for and access this product and its online resources. which the chapter is to be discussed. You will benefit
more from the class if you have first read the material.
Acknowledgments 2. Answer each of the self-assessment questions in the chapter
I want to thank the anonymous reviewers for their construc- to check if you understand the material just covered.
tive comments on this manuscript and the first six editions: 3. Complete the end-of-chapter practice quizzes to assess
Stacie Curtis, Zane State College; Alan H. Teich, University your knowledge of the chapter content.
of Pittsburgh-Johnstown; Sheri Narin, Wake Tech Commu- 4. Answer the practice test questions at the end of each
nity College; Samantha Bergmann, University of North Texas; chapter. If you can answer each question, you know that
Dera Johnson, Mayville State University; Judith Rauenzahb, you understand the material in the chapter.
Kutztown University of Pennsylvania; Paul Ginnetty, St.
Joseph’s College, Patchogue; Veda Charlton, University of 5. Complete the application and misapplication exercises at
Central Arkansas; Robert W. Allan, Lafayette College; Viviette the end of the procedure chapters. In that way, you will
Allen, Fayetteville State University; Cynthia Anderson, West understand the material in the chapter well enough to
Virginia University; Jennifer Austin, Florida State University; apply it or to identify how it is applied incorrectly.
Charles Blose, MacMurray College; Kristine Brady, California 6. The best way to study for a test is to test yourself. After
School of Professional Psychology; James Carr, Western Mich- reading and rereading the chapter and your class notes,
igan University; Carl Cheney, Utah State University; Darlene test yourself in the following ways.
Crone-Todd, Delta State University; Paula Davis, Southern Illi-
nois University; Richard N. Feil, Mansfield University; Deirdre • Review the key terms in the chapter and check if you
Beebe Fitzgerald, Eastern Connecticut State University; Stephan can define them without looking at the definitions in
Flanagan, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Roger the text.

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 specific, 38, 56, 79;
to modern man, 340, 341
Responsibility, 232, 360, 361;
harmful consequences, 360;
implies mastery of will over its own actions, 232;
of evolutionary propagandists, 360, 361
Resultants, 233 note, 234 note
Resurrection, natural basis of, 202
Reversion, 17, 303, 304, 305;
to type, 305
Rhinoceros etruscus, 319;
merckii, 329;
tichorhinus, 326, 329, 332
Rhodesian Man, 340, 341;
may be modern, 341
Rhynchonella, 118
Right-handedness, human, 288;
duration of, 290
River drift, 327
Rocks, 66, 93, 96, 103, 104, 107, 118, 120, 181, 297, 335;
composition and mineral contents disregarded in
classification, 96;
crystalline, 104, 181;
fossiliferous, 104, 107, 118, 181, 279, 335;
European classification of, 107;
groups of, 120;
igneous, 181;
metamorphic, 104;
sedimentary, 66, 93, 96, 107, 181;
systems of, 103
Rubidium, isotopes of, 173
Rudiment, 293, 297, 301, 302;
 ontogenetic, 301, 302;
phylogenetic, 301, 302
Rudimentary, 299
Rudimentary organs, 286, 291, 293, 298, 305;
criticism of, 286;
evolutionary argument from, 286;
ontogenetic explanation of, 298;
phylogenetic, 298
—explanation of, 286
Running birds, 114, 305

S-R bonds, 204

Salamander, 248
Saurians, 60
Savagery, not prior to civilization, 337
Savages, descended from civilized ancestry not vice versa, 338
Scandinavia, 110
Scepticism, 198
logic of, 198
Scholastics, 191, 225
Scholastic, theory of origin of concepts, 220
Science, 188, 304, 359;
as religion, 359;
gives no heed to consequences, 360;
its attitude towards philosophy, 188;
sham, 304
Scientists, 344, 348;
many not satisfied with “evidence” for human evolution, 344;
fallibility of, 348
Scientific questions, decided by evidence, not by authority, 344
Scotland, 107
Sea-anemone, 261
Sea floor, 113
Sea-urchin, 119, 140;
egg of, 140
Second causes, 52, 71;
efficacy finite, 71
Sediment, 93, 103, 125;
primordial, 125;
universal layer of, 103
Seedlings, 161
Segregation, 25
Selection, 11, 12, 13, 65, 152, 153, 306;
artificial, 152
—not on a par with natural selection, 152;
intelligent and fortuitous, 152, 153;
principle, 11, 12, 13, 65;
values, 306
Self, 205
Self-fertilization, 159
Self-observation, 224, 225;
impossible for an organ, 226;
power of, cannot reside in material organ, 224, 225;
requires a spiritual principle, 225
Self-regulation, 174, 176, 179
Self-sacrifice, rendered meaningless, 356
Semilunar fold, 296, 297
Senescence, 26, 157, 160, 162;
an inherent tendency of living matter, 160;
tendency practically if not actually universal, 162
Sensationists, 218
Sensations, 209, 227, 242;
intensity of, 227
Sense, 204, 227, 228, 235, 254, 350;
debilitated by powerful stimulus, 227;
external, 204;
organic nature of, 227;
their power of reaction temporarily inhibited by process of
repair, 227, 228
Sense organs, 213, 251
Sense-perception, 199, 203, 214, 219, 220, 227, 231, 235;
a brain function 199;
a psycho-organic function, 214;
concerned with factual reality of existence, 219;
involves a decomposition of neural tissue, 227;
not independent of body, 227;
organic function, 203
Sensibility, organic, 244, 245
Sensori-motor, 251
Sensory functions of the nervous system, 199
Sensual appetites, exhaustible, 232
Sensual emotion, organic function, 203
Sequence, 100, 107, 108;
inverted or “wrong,”107, 108;
no invariable order of, 100;
of fossiliferous strata, 100;
“wrong,”107, 107 note
Serum, 15
Sexual (gametic) incompatibility, 4, 5, 19, 20, 21
Sharks, 80, 119, 296
“Shell-craters,”347
Shoots, 160
Sight, 217;
intrinsic dependence on eye, 217;
extrinsic dependence on object, 217
Silurian, 92, 106, 111, 118;
Middle, 92, 106
Simia satyrus, 32
Simple explanations not necessarily true, 350
Siwalik beds, 95, 310
Skeleton, 60, 61, 331;
human, 331
Skulls, 328, 329, 331, 333, 340, 341;
fossil, 33, 341;
human, 331
Skull cap, 271, 313, 314, 324, 328
Sleep, would interrupt process of relaying consciousness from
thought to thought, 212, 213
Sloth, 52
Snapdragon, 88
Social inequalities, artificial laws for benefit of rich, 361
Socialism, 357, 360;
Marxian, 357;
Scientific, 357
Sodium, 165, 166;
bromide, 165;
chloride, 165, 166;
iodide, 165
Solemn burial, 331, 332, 343;
most ancient instances, 332
Solutreans, 333
Soma, 13, 59, 303
Somatella, 59
Somatic cells, 13, 14, 17, 136, 156, 163
Somites, 280
Sophism, Comte’s like that of Zeno, 226
Soul, 172, 179, 193, 194, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 205,
206, 209, 210, 211, 216, 268, 311, 350, 361;
definition of, 200;
a “formative power” and “integrating” and unifying principle,
200, 211;
a vital entelechy, 210;
as revealed in biology and psychology, 205;
consubstantial with matter, 202;
differs in kind, not merely in degree from bestial soul, 194;
discarded by Descartes, 197;
discarded by scientific psychology, 359;
formal principle of life, 203;
functional, 203, 206, 209
—cannot be primary principle of life, 206;
name, not reality of, rejected, 200;
not a complete entity, 201;
primary ground of life, 206;
rejected in dynamic, not in entitive sense, 200, 201;
spiritual, not a product of evolution, 193, 216, 268
—originates by a creative act, 193, 268;
subject of psychology, 197;
subsistent in man, 202;
substantial, 203, 209;
term alleged to be meaningless, 200
Specialism, advantages and disadvantages of, 189
Species, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 19, 26, 37, 38, 74, 75, 78, 80, 83, 84, 86,
87, 110, 111, 112, 119, 120-123, 131, 157, 256, 257, 312, 313,
320, 334, 342;
definition of, 4;
change of, 4, 6;
 differentiation and multiplication of, 131;
difficulty of distinguishing, 120-123;
elementary, 17;
extinct and extant, 120-123, 334;
extinct, precarious basis for time-scale, 334;
formation as contrasted with transformation of, 74, 75, 131;
fossil, 3, 4, 83, 92, 120, 122, 312, 313;
intermediate, absence of, 80, 83, 84, 334;
intersterility of, 4, 5, 26, 38;
only one human, 342;
persistent, 123;
syngamy, an essential requisite of, 5
Species-by-species method, 87
Spectral analysis of constitution of sun, 216
Spectroscope, 144
Speech, bestial, 245, 246
Sperm, 156, 158, 159, 160;
activation by means of, 159
Spermists, 160
Sphex gryphus (Sm), 261
Spiders, 257
Spiral cleavage, 278
Spirit, 194, 311;
definition of, 194
Spiritual, 206
Spiritualism, 202, 230, 231;
Aristotelian, 230, 231
—admits direct dependence of lower psychic functions on
organism, 230
—admits indirect dependence of higher psychic functions
upon organism, 231;
Cartesian, 230;
 destroyed by facts of physiological psychology, 230;
hylomorphic, 202;
of Aristotle, 202;
psychophysical of Descartes, 202, 203
Spirituality, 203, 351;
excludes co-agency of organism, 203;
of human soul, 351
Spiritual representations, 221
Spleen, 301
Splitters, 37
Splitting, 121
Spontaneous generation, 131, 132, 133, 136, 142, 148, 149,
167, 179, 182, 185, 186;
defined, 131-133;
antiquity of, 133;
old and new exception of, 167;
philosophical “proof” of, 185
Spontogenesis, an outlawed hypothesis, 164
Spores, 134, 136, 156, 181;
bacterial, 181
Sporulation, 156, 157
Springopora, 118
Spy, 329, 330, 333;
bones, 329;
crania, capacity underestimated, 330
Spy remains, 319, 325, 326, 327, 329, 330, 332;
skeletons of No.1 and No.2, 327
Squatting, a habit of savage races, 328
Squirrel, 260
Starfish, 140, 154, 382;
egg of, 140;
 symmetry of, 154
States, 203, 208;
conscious or psychic, 203, 208;
mental, active and passive, 208;
of matter, not more real, 203
Statistics, moral, 361
Stems, 160
Stentor, 174
Sterility, interspecific, 5, 21, 38
Sterilization, 134, 135
Stimulators, 243
Stimulus, 227, 228
Stizus ruficornis, 247
Stock, 310, 311;
hylobatic and troglodyte, 310, 311;
pithecoid, 311
Stone implements, 329, 331, 334, 340, 342;
characteristic, unsafe basis for time-scale, 334
Stratification, 102;
scheme of, universal, 102;
synchronous deposition of, different in mineral content, 102
Stratigraphers, 106
Stratigraphic, 101, 102, 107;
continuity, 101;
facts, 107;
horizons, 101;
sequence, 101
—invariable order of, 102
Stratigraphy, 93
Strata, 66, 83, 87, 92-96, 102, 103,108, 109, 116, 119, 120, 125;
 classification of, 103;
concrete sequence of, 109;
dated by fossils and fossils by strata, 94;
fossiliferous, 92, 96, 102, 109, 116, 119
—classification of, 119
—European classification of, 102;
how characterized, 96;
intervening, skipped, 120;
mineral, 102;
substitution of fossiliferous for lithological, 103;
substitution of fossiliferous for mineral, 103;
wrong order of, 108;
“younger” and “older,”108, 116
Strontium, isotopes of, 173
Structures, 122, 284;
constant and adaptive, 122;
distinction influenced by personal equation, 122;
embryonic, undifferentiated, 284;
homologous and adaptive, 122
Struggles for existence, 291
Sturgeons, 119
Sub-archæan beginnings of life impenetrable, 126
Subject, 205, 207, 208;
abiding, of our thoughts, feelings and desires, 205;
active, 208;
of thought, active, 207
Subjective abstractions, phenomenalist objectivation of, 209
Subjectless thought, an abstraction, 209
Submicron, 140, 183 note
Submicroscopic dimensions, no obstacle to manifestation of
vital phenomena, 170
Submicroscopic organisms show genetic continuity,
reproductiveness and typical vital power, 169, 170
Subspecies, 334, 342
Substages, 96, 103
Substance, 209
Substantial composite of body and soul, 203
Succession, 75, 76;
to be distinguished from filiation, 75;
not descent, 75, 76
Sunlight, once richer in actinic rays, 148
Superciliary ridges, 272
Superorganic, 240
Superorganic functions, 214, 227;
have soul as their exclusive agent and recipient, 214
Superorganic functions, soul alone active cause and receptive
subject, 203
Supernatural, 186, 187;
defined, 187
Supernumerary, 303, 304, 306;
mammary glands, 304;
organs, 303, 304
Superposition, 93, 101, 111;
as a criterion of comparative antiquity, 93;
criterion of, confined to local areas, 101
—not available
for correlation of strata in different localities, 101;
only safe means of distinguishing between spatial and
chronological distribution, 101, 111;
restricted to local areas, 93
Suppression of organs, 305
Sweden, 289
Syllogisms, of no avail against facts, 226
Symbiosis, 52, 124
Symbiotes, 46, 53
Synapsis, 17, 25
Syngamy, 5, 25, 156, 157-161;
essential to biparental inheritance, 160;
means of rejuvenation, 161;
qualification of a true species, 5
Synthesis, chemical, spontaneous and artificial, 151, 152
Systems, 96, 101, 141, 142, 151;
colloidal, 142;
complete polyphasic, 142;
how determined, 96;
of rocks, 96;
of strata, 101;
polyphasic, 141;
protoplasmic, 141, 142;
simple, 151
Systematist, 46, 121

Tactisms, 204
Tactualist, 219
Taenia, 248
Taiga, 91
Tarantula, 247, 263
Tasmanian blacks, 325
Tautomerism, 202
Taxonomic questions, 334
Taxonomist, 122
Taxonomy, 36, 37, 38, 77, 101, 121, 122, 123, 320;
fossil, 101, 122
—basis of correlation, 101
—arbitrary and unreliable, 122;
homology, basis of, 36;
influence of palæontology, 77;
need of revision in, 121, 123
Teleological, 225
Teleology, 154, 240, 248, 249, 259, 267;
a material expression of intelligence, 259;
does not entail vibrant intelligence, 259;
its combination with sentient consciousness, 240;
of organisms, 154;
of artefacts, 154;
psychic implication of, 154;
unconscious, 240
Teleosts, 120
Telic, 150, 249;
phenomena of nature, 249
Terebratulina, striata, 118, 120;
caput serpentis, 118
Termitomyia, 46
Termitoxenia Heimi, 48
Tertiary, 72, 82, 99, 100, 104, 109, 111, 112, 113, 118, 154, 270,
308, 311;
ancestor, 312;
Man, 154
Tertiary envelopes of eggs, 300
Tethelin, 294
Tethys, 109
Tetraploid race, 23, 45;
 origin of, not yet observed, 23
Tetraploidy, 22, 23, 44
Thigh, bone, 316, 317
Third eyelid, 296, 297
Third Interglacial Period, latter half of, 331
Thoatherium, 78
Thought, 218-222, 227, 229, 230, 233;
and imagery, concomitant but incommensurable, 219;
digs below phenomenal surface, 219;
distinguished from imagery, 218, 219;
intellectual, steady, lucid and continuous, 229;
not function of material organism, 233;
power does not always degenerate with old age, 230;
presupposes imagery, 221;
proceeds with complete ease after initial exertion of
imagination, 229;
rational, 222, 224, 231, 233
—has spiritual soul for source and subject, 233
—reflective, 224
—spiritual, 222
—superorganic function of, 231;
reflective, a superorganic function, 227;
requires substrate of sensible images, 220
—on which it is objectively dependent, 222;
some in all individuals, 219;
spiritual, 222;
untranslatable into adequate imagery, 219
Thrust faults, 107
Thrust planes like bedding planes, 108
Thymus, 299, 300, 301, 302;
an ontogenetic rudiment, 301, 302
Thyroid glands, 292, 294, 295, 301
Thyroxin, 294
Time-value, 75, 82, 83, 84, 95, 96, 101;
of geological formations, dubious, 75;
of index fossils, 95, 96
—affords no basis for scientific certainty, 101
Tissue, lymphatic, 301
Tissue cells, 13, 14, 136, 156
Tonsils, 301
Tools, use of, by animals, 261
Trachelocerca, 138
Training, 244, 245, 256
Transformism, 3, 4, 6, 16, 24, 25, 32, 40, 43, 52, 53, 55, 56, 59,
61, 67, 69-72, 75, 80, 84, 109, 117, 123, 124, 126, 127, 131,
263, 268, 343;
definition of, 3;
impotent to explain origin of intelligence, 216, 233 note, 263;
interpretation, not corollary, of fossil facts, 126;
monophyletic, 69, 70;
“natural” explanation of homology, 52;
proofs for, empirical, aphoristic, and aposterioristic, 55, 56;
rests on personal belief rather than on facts, 127;
ultra-partisans of, 343;
unconcerned with origin of life, 131;
unifies origins in time, but not in space, 69
Transformist, 38
Transmutation, 6, 28, 35, 40, 50, 65, 69, 70, 71, 73, 123, 193
Trial and error, 241, 243
Triassic, 118, 119
Trilobites, 100, 117
Triploidy, 21, 22
Troglodyte, 34, 50, 314,
 type, 314
Troglodytes niger, 33, 314
Tropisms, 204
Tubercule of Darwin, not homologous with apex of horse’s ear,
303
Tubers, 160
Tubules, nephridial or excretory, 280
Types, 54, 55, 66, 83, 84, 92, 116-120, 123, 124, 141, 328, 329,
334, 335, 336;
Ancestral, 92, 117, 276;
annectant, 92;
approximation in, 66;
common ancestral, 83;
Crô-Magnon, 332, 334, 335;
no evidence of its descent from Neanderthal type, 334;
generalized, 54, 55, 81, 84;
are abstractions, 54, 55;
generic, 116, 117;
persistence of, 118, 123;
Grimaldi, 332;
intergradent, 83;
invertebrate, 117;
modern, 116, 120, 334;
Neanderthaloid, 329, 335;
persistent, 116;
persistence of, 119;
phyletic, 116, 117;
permanence of, 118;
specific, 116, 141
—persistence of, 118, 123;
fossil doctrine of their invariable sequence, 104, 312

Ultramicron, 144, 168;

destitute of reproductive power, 168;
may not be natural unit, 168;
 of colloidal solutions, 168
Ultramicroscope, 140, 144;
limit of, 140
Ultraspiritualism of Descartes, 199, 202
Ultra-violet rays, 148, 184
Unchange, not explained by theory of exchange, 123
Understanding, 235
Ungulates, 78, 82;
fossil, 82
Uniformitarianism, 67, 68
Uniformity of nature, 149, 186;
only justification for reconstruction of the past, 149;
principle of, 169
Union of soul and body, according to Descartes, 198, 199
Units, 144, 162, 163, 166, 167, 168, 170, 174-177, 199-201;
difference between, 170;
inorganic, 144, 163, 166, 170, 174, 175, 176, 177, 201
—and living, 170, 175-177
—incapable of other than transitive action, 174, 177;
living and non-living, 199, 200;
natural, 168;
new, of life to be discovered, 167;
of nature, non-living, 162, 163
Universe, Stone Book of, 127
Uranium, 146
Urea, 173
Ureter, 282
Uroleptus mobilis, 138, 161
Urosthenic, 270
Ursus spelaeus, 326, 329
Use, 291
Utility, 291

Valence, 165;
atomic, 165;
molecular (residual), 165
Variation, 9, 18, 40, 41, 42, 45, 63, 64, 88, 303;
agencies of, 42;
cause of modification, 41;
converges and diverges, 63, 64;
fluctuational, 9, 303;
heritable, 42;
intra-specific, 43;
mutational, a change of loss, 18;
non-inheritable, 42;
process of diversifying, 40, 45;
trans-specific, 43, 88
—no experimental evidence of, 45
Varieties, 334, 342
Vault, 329, 332
Vegetarians, 236
Versatility, 257, 258, 259;
distinctive mark of intelligence, 257, 258
Vertebræ, 279
Vertebrate, 60
Vertebrata, 119, 270, 271, 279-284, 292, 297, 300, 302;
amniotic, 280-282;
anamniotic, 280, 282
Vestigial remnants, 299
Viability, 4, 5, 25, 26, 43, 44
Vibration, 209;
pure, 209;
 without vibrant medium, 209
Vinegar fly, 19, 85
Violet, 25, 159
Visceral arches and clefts, 278, 279
Visualist, 219
Vital activity, 201
Vital continuity, 134, 139, 155;
genetic, first article of, 134;
law of, 134, 155;
law of, 139;
its fourth article, 139
Vital force, no special, 201
Vitality, 150;
eludes art of chemist, 150
Vital principle, 172, 200, 203;
as defined by Neo-Vitalists, 172;
entitive, not dynamic, 172;
term alleged to be meaningless, 200;
term in disfavor, 200
Vivisection, 360
Volcanic bombs, 346-348
Volition, 221, 231, 233;
not function of the material organism, 233;
presupposes conception, 221;
rational, has spiritual soul for source and subject, 233;
rational, superorganic, 231

Walrus, 296
Wasp, predatory, 247, 263
Weddas, cranial capacity of, 315
Weight, 315
Whale, 35, 46, 60, 279;
flipper of, 35, 60, 279
White Leghorns, 19
Wild Kirchli, industry of, 331
Will, 221, 232, 235;
insatiable, 232;
of man, free, 232;
self-determining or reflexive, 232;
superior to sensual appetite, 235
Wing venation, 49 note, 49
Wisconsin, Cambrian sediments of, 105
Wolffian duct, 281, 282
Woods Hole, 23, 42, 47
World War, 359
Worm, 249
Wormwood, 248, 255;
common, 255
Würtzburg, School of, 219

X-rays, 144, 317

Yoldia Sea, 289

Yolk-sac, 276

Zamia, 118
Zebra, 81
Zones, stratigraphic, 96, 103, 106;
zoögeographical, 99
Zoölogists, 66, 77
Zoölogy, 35, 37, 55, 126, 304