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 Eighth Edition

The Psychology
of Women
and Gender

Margaret W. Matlin
SUNY Geneseo

With Rebecca D. Foushée

LINDENWOOD University

Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

 The Psychology of Women and Gender,
Eighth Edition
Margaret W. Matlin
with Rebecca D. Foushée
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To the students in our Psychology of Women and Gender classes
 About the Authors

Margaret W. Matlin earned her bachelor’s degree from Stanford University

and her PhD from the University of Michigan. She currently holds the title of
Distinguished Teaching Professor of Psychology, Emerita at SUNY Geneseo,
where she taught courses in the Psychology of Women for 39 years.
Dr. Matlin received the State University of New York Chancellor’s Award
for Excellence in Teaching in 1977. She has also won three national teaching
awards: the American Psychological Association Teaching Award for 4-year
institution in 1985, the American Psychological Foundation’s Distinguished
Teaching Award in 1995, and the Society for the Psychology of Women’s Her-
itage Award in 2001, for lifetime contributions to the teaching of the psychol-
ogy of women.
Rebecca D. Foushée earned her PhD from Virginia Tech. For the past 24
years, she has taught courses in Developmental Psychology and the Psychology
of Women and Gender at The University of Alabama in Huntsville, Fontbonne
University, Washington University in St. Louis, and Lindenwood University,
where she currently holds the title of Professor of Psychology.
Dr. Foushée has received several research and teaching awards throughout
her career, including the APA Division 6 Frank A. Beach Award in 1997 and
an APA Dissertation Award in 1998, the Joan Goostree Stevens Award for
Excellence in Teaching in 2006, the Emerson Award for Excellence in Teaching
in 2006, the Lindenwood University Professor of the Year Award in 2018, and
the NCAA Roars Excellence in Teaching Award in 2020.

v
 Four General Themes About the
Psychology of Women and Gender
Theme 1 Psychological gender differences are typically
small and inconsistent.
Theme 2 People react differently to men and women.
Theme 3 Women are less visible than men in many
important areas.
Theme 4 Women vary widely from one another.
Pages 28 through 30 discuss the four themes in greater detail.
 Brief Contents

Preface xvii

1 Introduction 1
2 Gender Stereotypes and Other Gender Biases 35
3 Infancy and Childhood 77
4 Adolescence 111
5 Gender Comparisons in Cognitive Abilities and Attitudes
About Achievements 143
6 Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality
Characteristics 173
7 Gender and Work 207
8 Love Relationships 243
9 Sexuality 283
10 Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Motherhood 317
11 Gender and Physical Health 349
12 Gender and Mental Health 383
13 Gender and Victimization 415
vii
viii BRIEF CONTENTS

14 Women and Older Adulthood 453

15 Moving Onward… 481

References 503
Glossary 617
Name Index 627
Subject Index 649
 Contents

Preface xvii

1 Introduction 1
1-1 Central Concepts in the Psychology of Women and Gender 3
Sex and Gender 4
The Extent of Social Biases 4
Feminist Approaches 6
Psychological Approaches to Gender Similarity and Difference 8
1-2 A Brief History of the Psychology of Women and Gender 10
Early Studies of Gender Comparisons 11
The Emergence of the Psychology of Women as a Discipline 11
The Current Status of the Psychology of Women and Gender 12
1-3 Women and Ethnicity 13
The White-Privilege Concept 14
Women of Color 14
U.S.-Centered Nationalism 19
1-4 Potential Problems and Biases in Current Research 20
Formulating the Hypothesis 21
Designing the Study 23
Performing the Study 24
Interpreting the Data 24
Communicating the Findings 25
Critical Thinking and the Psychology of Women and Gender 27
1-5 About This Textbook 28
Themes of the Book 28
How to Use This Book Effectively 31

2 Gender Stereotypes and Other Gender Biases 35

2-1 Biased Representations of Women and Men 38
Gender Biases Throughout History 38
Gender Biases in Religion and Mythology 40
Gender Biases in Language 42
Gender Biases in the Media 45
ix
x CONTENTS

2-2 People’s Beliefs About Women and Men 51

The Content of Stereotypes 51
Implicit Gender Stereotypes 55
The Complexity of Contemporary Sexism 56
Gender Discrimination in Interpersonal Interactions 61
Heterosexism 61
2-3 The Personal Consequences of Gender Stereotypes 65
Gender Stereotypes and Cognitive Errors 66
Gender Stereotypes and Behavior 69
Applying Gender Stereotypes to Ourselves 70

3 Infancy and Childhood 77

3-1 Background on Gender Development 79
Prenatal Sex Development 79
People’s Responses to Infant Girls and Boys 83
Theories of Gender Development 86
3-2 Factors That Shape Gender Typing 89
Parents 90
Peers 94
School 97
The Media 100
3-3 Children’s Knowledge About Gender 104
Infants’ Basic Information About Gender 105
Children’s Usage of Gender Labels 105
Children’s Stereotypes About Activities and Occupations 105
Children’s Stereotypes About Personality 107
Factors Related to Children’s Gender Stereotypes 108

4 Adolescence 111
4-1 Puberty and Menstruation 113
Puberty 114
Biological Aspects of the Menstrual Cycle 114
Menstrual Pain 116
The Controversial Premenstrual Syndrome 117
Cultural Attitudes Toward Menstruation 121
4-2 Self-Concept and Identity During Adolescence 122
Self-Esteem 123
Body Image and Physical Attractiveness 123
Feminist Identity 125
Cultural Identity 127
Transgender Identity 128
4-3 Education and Career Planning 129
Young Girls’ Experiences in Middle School and High School 130
Early Experiences in Math and Science 130
 CONTENTS xi

Gender Issues in Higher Education 131

Career Aspirations 133
4-4 Interpersonal Relationships During Adolescence 135
Family Relationships 135
Friendships 136
Romantic Relationships 137

5 Gender Comparisons in Cognitive Abilities and Attitudes

About Achievements 143
5-1 Background on Gender Comparisons 145
Cautions About Research on Gender Comparisons 145
The Meta-Analysis Approach to Summarizing Multiple Studies 148
5-2 Cognitive Abilities 149
Cognitive Abilities That Show No Consistent Gender Differences 150
Memory Ability 150
Verbal Ability 152
Mathematics Ability 154
Spatial Ability 156
Explaining the Gender Comparisons 159
5-3 Attitudes About Achievement 163
Achievement Motivation 164
Confidence in Your Own Achievement and Ability 164
Personal Definitions of Success 168
Attributions for Your Own Success 168

6 Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality

Characteristics 173
6-1 Communication Patterns 176
Verbal Communication 177
Nonverbal Communication 180
Potential Explanations for Gender Differences in Communication 183
6-2 Characteristics Related to Helping and Caring 186
Altruism 187
Nurturance 188
Empathy 189
Moral Judgments About Social Relationships 190
Attitudes About Social Justice 191
Friendship 191
6-3 Characteristics Related to Aggression and Power 195
Gender and Aggression: The Social Constructionist Perspective 195
Comparing Physical Aggression with Relational Aggression 196
Other Factors Related to Gender and Aggression 197
Leadership 199
Persuasion 201
xii CONTENTS

7 Gender and Work 207

7-1 Background Factors Related to Women’s Employment 209
General Information About Employed Women 210
Women, Employment, and Financial Assistance 211
Discrimination in Hiring Patterns 212
7-2 Discrimination in the Workplace 215
Discrimination in Salaries 216
Discrimination in Promotions 219
Other Kinds of Treatment Discrimination 220
Discrimination Against Lesbian Women in the Workplace 221
What to Do About Treatment Discrimination 222
7-3 Women’s Experiences in Selected Occupations 223
Employment in Traditionally Female Occupations 224
Employment in Traditionally Male, High-Prestige Professions 228
Employment in Traditionally Male, Blue-Collar Jobs 229
Why Are Women Scarce in Certain Occupations? 230
7-4 Coordinating Employment with Personal Life 232
Marriage 233
Children 236
Personal Adjustment 238

8 Love Relationships 243

8-1 Dating and Heterosexual Relationships 245
The Ideal Romantic Partner 245
Explanations for Gender Differences in Patterns of Preference 249
Characteristics of Heterosexual Love Relationships 251
Breaking Up 252
8-2 Marriage and Divorce 254
Marital Satisfaction 256
Distribution of Power in Marriages 257
Marriage and Women of Color 258
Divorce 260
8-3 Lesbian and Bisexual Women 263
The Psychological Adjustment of Lesbian Women 265
Characteristics of Lesbian Relationships 266
Lesbian Women of Color 268
Legal Status of Lesbian Relationships 269
Bisexual Women 270
The Fluidity of Female Sexual Orientation 271
Theoretical Explanations About Sexual Orientation 272
8-4 Single Women 276
Characteristics of Single Women 276
Attitudes Toward Single Women 278
Advantages and Disadvantages of Being Single 278
Single Women of Color 278
 CONTENTS xiii

9 Sexuality 283
9-1 Background on Women’s Sexuality 285
Theoretical Perspectives 285
Female Sexual Anatomy 286
Sexual Responses 287
Sexual Desire 289
9-2 Attitudes and Knowledge About Sexuality 291
Attitudes About Sexuality 291
Sexual Scripts 293
Sex Education 293
9-3 Sexual Behavior and Sexual Disorders 297
Sexual Behavior in Heterosexual Adolescents 297
Sexual Behavior in Heterosexual Adults 298
Communication About Sexuality 299
Sexuality in Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Women 300
Older Women and Sexuality 301
Sexual Disorders 302
9-4 Birth Control, Abortion, and Other Alternatives 305
Birth Control Methods 305
Emergency Contraception: A New Option 306
Who Uses Birth Control? 307
Obstacles to Using Birth Control 308
Contraception and Family Planning in Developing Countries 310
Abortion and Other Alternatives 310

10 Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Motherhood 317

10-1 Pregnancy 319
The Biology of Pregnancy 320
Physical Reactions During Pregnancy 320
Emotional Reactions During Pregnancy 320
Attitudes Toward Pregnant Women 323
Employment During Pregnancy 324
10-2 Childbirth 326
The Biology of Childbirth 326
Cesarean Births 327
Social Factors Affecting the Childbirth Experience 328
Emotional Reactions to Childbirth 328
Alternative Approaches to Childbirth 328
10-3 Motherhood 331
Stereotypes About Motherhood 331
The Reality of Motherhood 332
Motherhood and Women of Color 335
Lesbian Mothers 336
BreastFeeding 337
Postpartum Disturbances 338
xiv CONTENTS

Employment Following Childbirth 340

Deciding Whether to Have Children 341
Infertility 344

11 Gender and Physical Health 349

11-1 H
 ealth Care and Health Status of Women and LGBTQ+
People 352
Biases Against Women and LGBTQ+ People 352
Gender Comparisons in Life Expectancy 354
Gender Comparisons in Overall Health 355
Intersectional Perspectives on Health 356
Health Issues for Women and LGBTQ+ People in Developing
Countries 357
Cardiovascular Disease, Breast Cancer, and Other Specific
Health Problems 358
11-2 Women with Disabilities 365
Background Information on Disability Studies 365
Education and Work Patterns of Women with Disabilities 366
Personal Relationships of Women with Disabilities 367
11-3 AIDS and Other Sexually Transmitted Infections 369
Background Information on HIV and AIDS 369
Medical Aspects of HIV and AIDS 371
Psychological Aspects of HIV and AIDS 371
Preventing HIV and AIDS 372
Other Sexually Transmitted Infections 374
11-4 G
 ender and Substance Use 376
Smoking 376
Alcohol Use 377
Use of Other Substances 379

12 Gender and Mental Health 383

12-1 Depression 385
Characteristics of Depression 386
Explanations for the Gender Difference in Depression 387
12-2 Body Weight and Eating Disorders 393
The Culture of Thinness 394
Body Weight and Dieting 396
Eating Disorders 397
12-3 Treating Psychological Disorders 401
Psychotherapy and Sexism 402
Psychotherapy with LGBTQ+ Individuals 403
Psychotherapy and Economic Status 404
Psychotherapy with People of Color 404
Traditional Therapies and Women 408
Feminist Therapy 410
 CONTENTS xv

13 Gender and Victimization 415

13-1 Sexual Harassment 417
Why Is Sexual Harassment an Important Issue? 420
How Often Does Sexual Harassment Occur? 420
Women’s Reactions to Being Sexually Harassed 421
What to Do About Sexual Harassment 422
13-2 Sexual Assault and Rape 424
How Often Does Rape Occur? 426
Acquaintance Rape 427
The Role of Alcohol and Drugs 428
Women’s Reactions to Rape 428
Fear of Rape 430
The Public’s Attitudes About Rape 432
Myths About Rape 434
Child Sexual Abuse 434
The Prevention of Sexual Assault and Rape 435
13-3 The Abuse of Women 440
How Often Does the Abuse of Women Occur? 442
Women’s Reactions to Abuse 443
Characteristics Related to Abusive Relationships 443
The Public’s Attitudes About the Abuse of Women 445
Myths About the Abuse of Women 445
Reducing Intimate Partner Violence 447
Society’s Response to the Problem of Abuse 448

14 Women and Older Adulthood 453

14-1 Attitudes Toward Older Women 455
Older Women and the Media 456
The Double Standard of Aging 457
Cross-Cultural Views of Older Women 459
14-2 Older Women, Retirement, and Financial Issues 461
Planning for Retirement 461
Adjusting to Retirement 461
Financial Issues 462
14-3 Menopause 464
Physical Changes During Menopause 465
Why Hormone Replacement Therapy Is Controversial 465
Contemporary Attitudes About Menopause 466
Women’s Psychological Reactions to Menopause 467
14-4 Social Relationships in Older Women’s Lives 469
Family Relationships 469
The Death of an Intimate Partner and Coping with Bereavement 472
Older Women of Color 473
Satisfaction with Life 474
xvi CONTENTS

Rewriting Our Life Stories 475

Final Words 477

15 Moving Onward… 481

15-1 The Future of the Discipline of the Psychology of Women
and Gender 483
The Increased Number of Women in Psychology 484
Increasing Multicultural, Intersectional, and Nonbinary Research
Perspectives 484
15-2 Women of Color and the Feminist Movement 485
Latina/o Feminisms 486
Black Feminisms 487
Asian American Feminisms 487
Native American Feminisms 488
15-3 The Men’s Movement 490
Profeminist Approaches 491
Mythopoetic Approaches 492
Religious Approaches 492
15-4 Current Trends in Feminism 493
Women’s Studies Courses in the United States 494
The Women’s Movement in the United States 495
The Women’s Movement Worldwide 497
Helping to Change the Future: Becoming an Activist 498

References 503
Glossary 617
Name Index 627
Subject Index 649
 Preface

Dr. Margaret W. Matlin began writing the first edition of Psychology of Women and ­Gender
in 1983. By this point, she had taught courses on the psychology of women for 9 years.
Every year, she tried a different textbook. One book was too brief. Another was too psycho-
dynamic. The third book was a collection of research articles that didn’t capture women’s
voices.
One of her goals in writing the first edition of Psychology of Women and Gender was
to demonstrate how the empirical research about women and gender often contradicts pop-
ular opinion. A second goal was to include women’s descriptions of their experiences and
thoughts, because her own students were especially responsive when they heard women’s
own words. Her third goal was to create pedagogical features that would help students
learn and remember the material more effectively.
These three goals are even more important now than they were in the 1980s. The
amount of research about women and gender has increased dramatically. For instance,
­PsycINFO shows that about 11,300 journal articles were published—listing “women”
or “gender” as a keyword—during the period from 1980 through 1985. In contrast,
­PsycINFO shows 122,577 journal articles from 2015 through 2020 that list these same
two keywords. Students therefore need a textbook that captures the research in a clear,
well-organized fashion.
In addition to those three goals, this text emphasizes a fourth goal—social justice. During
the 1970s and 1980s, Dr. Matlin’s personal emphasis on social justice became c­ larified. The
Vietnam War forced her to become an activist: Why should people in the United States,
devalue the lives of people in Southeast Asia and assume the obligation to decide what is best
for them? With the rise of feminism during the 1970s, it was easy to translate those same
concerns to the issue of gender. Why should people—throughout the world—devalue the
lives of women and gender minorities and also assume that these p ­ eople have the ­obligation
to make decisions about women’s lives? She felt compelled to write about this problem and
to encourage students to think about this inequality. Social justice is therefore an overarch-
ing feature of this textbook.
For the eighth edition, Dr. Rebecca Foushée joined as a coauthor. She is a developmen-
tal psychologist, a member of APA Divisions 2 and 35, and an award-winning professor
who has taught psychology of women and gender courses for more than two decades. She
shares a passion for intersectional and interdisciplinary perspectives, as well as a dedication
to critically analyzing how social and economic inequalities in societies around the world
affect the lives of women and gender minorities. Together, they share a goal of advocating
for social justice through the transformative processes of education and research.

xvii
xviii PREFACE

Organization of This Book

Another important feature of this textbook is its organization. The various topics in the
women and gender course does not align themselves in a linear fashion. It was impossible
to place the chapters in either a clearly topical order or a clearly lifespan-developmental
order. Therefore, there are two approaches when writing the eight editions of Psychology of
Women and Gender.
For example, the introductory chapter of this eighth edition presents general concepts
and several important cautions about research methods and biases. Chapter 2 explores
how stereotypes help to shape gender-related expectations and behavior. Chapters 3 and
4 examines sex and gender development throughout infancy, childhood, and adolescence.
The following nine chapters (Chapters 5–13) considers important components of wom-
en’s lives prior to late adulthood. These include cognitive and social gender comparisons
(Chapters 5 and 6), work experiences (Chapter 7), love relationships (Chapter 8), sexuality
(Chapter 9), childbirth (Chapter 10), physical health and psychological health (Chapters 11
and 12), and gender and victimization (Chapter 13).
Some of the material in Chapters 5 through 13 also foreshadows the descriptions of
older women, whose lives are examined in Chapter 14. Chapter 8 considers the long-term
romantic relationships of older women, Chapter 9 sexuality and aging, and Chapter 11
relevant health issues. Following those nine topical chapters, C
­ hapter 14 returns to the lifes-
pan-developmental framework to focus specifically on gender during middle age and late
adulthood. Chapter 15, the concluding chapter of this textbook, assesses the current status
of the psychology of women and gender, women of color, the men’s movement, and recent
trends in feminism.
The combination of lifespan and topical approaches provides a cohesive framework
that students appreciate. In addition, each chapter is self-contained, because each section
within a chapter has its own section summary. Therefore, instructors who prefer a different
organizational framework can easily rearrange the sequence of topics within the course. For
example, an instructor could move the section on menopause from Chapter 14 to the earlier
section on menstruation in Chapter 4.
A second organizational feature is the four general themes about the psychology of
women and gender (refer to pages 28–30). These themes can be traced through many aspects
of women’s lives. In addition, the four themes help to provide continuity for a course that
might otherwise seem overwhelming to both instructors and students.

Pedagogical Features of This Book

Professors and students have provided positive feedback about the variety of special features
that facilitate learning about the psychology of women and gender. This book is intended for
students from a variety of backgrounds. It includes extensive learning aids to make it readable
for students who have taken only an introductory course in psychology. However, Psychology
of Women and Gender should also be appropriate for advanced-level students, because the cov-
erage of topics is complete and the references are extensive. To help all students, Psychology of
Women and Gender (8th ed.) continues to include the following pedagogical features:
• Topical outlines provide students with an overall structure at the beginning of each chapter.
• The writing style is clear and interesting and includes many examples and quotations in
which girls and women describe their own experiences.
 PREFACE xix

• All of the key terms appear in boldface type, and they are defined within the same
sentence and in the glossary section. Some professors choose to assign chapters in a
nonlinear order. To accommodate this preference, a key term is defined in each chapter
where it appears. For example, the term social constructionism is defined in Chapter 1,
as well as in several subsequent chapters. Students can also consult the pronunciation
guide for terms that have potentially ambiguous pronunciations.
• Informal demonstrations encourage active involvement and clarify the procedures used
in important research studies.
• Section summaries help students review the major concepts in one section of a chapter
before they begin the next section. This feature increases an instructor’s flexibility, as
noted on page XVIII. Section summaries are also helpful to those students who do not
read an entire chapter in one sitting. They can read one or two sections and then take a
break. When they return to read the remaining sections, they can refresh their memory
by reviewing the previous section summaries.
• The end-of-chapter review questions encourage students to clarify and synthesize con-
cepts. Some instructors also use these questions as writing assignments or as topics for
class discussion.
• A list of key terms at the end of each chapter invites students to test themselves on
important concepts. The page number on which the term is defined is listed, if students
want to check their accuracy.
• The recommended readings suggest extra resources for students who want to explore
the topics in each chapter in greater detail. Each reference is annotated to clarify its
scope. Most of these readings are books, but a few chapters in books and comprehen-
sive journal articles are included.
• Finally, the subject index is very comprehensive. The detailed index in this textbook
will be especially helpful to students who want background information when writing
a paper, who are curious about a particular topic, or who want to share some informa-
tion with a friend.

New Material in This Book

Instructors and students who have read previous editions of this textbook continue to be enthu-
siastic about a variety of features, including the pedagogical features, the writing style, the schol-
arly information, and the sequence of topics. Accordingly, this eighth edition retains the same
topic sequence as in the seven earlier editions. However, this new edition includes more exten-
sive coverage about women of color who live in the United States and Canada, consistent with
the increasing information available in books and journal articles. Similarly, this edition includes
more cross-cultural and intersectional perspectives, as well as updated examples and terminol-
ogy throughout the text to emphasize gender diversity, inclusion, and equity among people of
all genders and sexualities. Also included are more recent quotations for the eighth edition; the
older quotes were retained only if there was no appropriate replacement.
This eighth edition of The Psychology of Women and Gender is thoroughly revised. It
now features a total of 3,270 references, and about 538 of these references are new to this
edition. A few references to classic studies remain, but a majority of citations throughout
the text were published in 2005 or later. This new edition therefore reflects changes in
women’s lives, changes in their perspectives about themselves, and changes in society’s atti-
tudes toward women and gender and sexual minorities.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
quite excited by this prospect of blue flowers in clumps, with narrow
intervals, such a profusion of the heavenly, the Elysian color, as if
these were the Elysian fields.... That is the value of the lupine. The
earth is blued with it.”

Harebell.
Campanula rotundifolia. Campanula Family.

Stem.—Slender, branching, from five to twelve inches high. Root-leaves.—

Heart-shaped or ovate, early withering. Stem-leaves.—Numerous, long and
narrow. Flowers.—Bright blue, nodding from hair-like stalks. Calyx.—Five-cleft,
the lobes awl-shaped. Corolla.—Bell-shaped, five-lobed. Stamens.—Five. Pistil.—
One, with three stigmas.
This slender, pretty plant, hung with its tremulous flowers,
springs from the rocky cliffs which buttress the river as well as from
those which crown the mountain. I have seen the west shore of the
Hudson bright with its delicate bloom in June, and the summits of
the Catskills tinged with its azure in September. The drooping
posture of these flowers protect their pollen from rain or dew. They
have come to us from Europe, and are identical, I believe, with the
celebrated Scotch bluebells.

Blue-eyed Grass.
Sisyrinchium angustifolium. Iris Family.

Four to twelve inches high. Leaves.—Narrow and grass-like. Flowers.—Blue or

purple, with a yellow centre. Perianth.—Six-parted, the divisions bristle-pointed.
Stamens.—Three, united. Pistil.—One, with three thread-like stigmas.

For the sun is no sooner risen with a burning heat,

But it withereth the grass,
And the flower thereof falleth,
And the grace of the fashion of it perisheth.

So reads the passage in the Epistle of James, which seems so

graphically to describe the brief life of this little flower, that we might
almost believe the Apostle had had it in mind, were it to be found in
the East.
 The blue-eyed grass belongs to the same family as the showy
fleur-de-lis and blossoms during the summer, being especially
plentiful in moist meadows. It is sometimes called “eye-bright,”
which name belongs by rights to Euphrasia officinalis.

Venus’s Looking-glass.
Specularia perfoliata. Campanula Family.

Stem.—Somewhat hairy, three to twenty inches high. Leaves.—Toothed,

rounded, clasping by the heart-shaped base. Flowers.—Blue. Calyx.—Three, four,
or five-lobed. Corolla.—Wheel-shaped, five-lobed. Stamens.—Five. Pistil.—One,
with three stigmas.
We borrow from Mr. Burroughs’s “Bunch of Herbs” a
description of this little plant, which blossoms from May till August.
“A pretty and curious little weed, sometimes found growing in the
edge of the garden, is the clasping specularia, a relative of the
harebell and of the European Venus’s looking-glass. Its leaves are
shell-shaped, and clasp the stalk so as to form little shallow cups. In
the bottom of each cup three buds appear that never expand into
flowers, but when the top of the stalk is reached, one and sometimes
two buds open a large, delicate purple-blue corolla. All the first-born
of this plant are still-born as it were; only the latest, which spring
from its summit, attain to perfect bloom.”

Skull-cap.
Scutellaria. Mint Family (p. 16).

Stem.—Square, usually one or two feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong, lance-

shaped or linear. Flowers.—Blue. Calyx.—Two-lipped, the upper lip with a small,
helmet-like appendage which at once identifies this genus. Corolla.—Two-lipped,
the upper lip arched, the lateral lobes mostly connected with the upper lip, the
lower lip spreading and notched at the apex. Stamens.—Four, in pairs. Pistil.—
One, with a two-lobed style.
The prettiest and most striking of this genus is the larger skull-
cap, S. integrifolia, whose bright blue flowers are about one inch
long, growing in terminal racemes. In June and July they may be
found among the long grass of the roadsides and meadows. They are
easily identified by the curious little appendage on the upper part of
the calyx, which gives to this genus its common name.

PLATE LXXXVIII

BLUE-EYED GRASS.—S. angustifolium.

Perhaps the best-known member of the group is the mad-dog

skull-cap, S. lateriflora, which delights in wet places, bearing small,
inconspicuous flowers in one-sided racemes. This plant is quite
smooth, while that of S. integrifolia is rather downy. It was formerly
believed to be a sure cure for hydrophobia.
S. galericulata is usually found somewhat northward. Its
flowers are much larger than those of S. lateriflora, but smaller than
those of S. integrifolia. They grow singly from the axils of the upper
leaves.

Fleur-de-lis. Larger Blue Flag.

Iris versicolor. Iris Family.

Stem.—Stout, angled on one side, leafy, one to three feet high. Leaves.—Flat
and sword-shaped, with their inner surfaces coherent for about half of their length.
Flowers.—Large and showy, violet-blue, variegated with green, yellow, or white;
purple-veined. Perianth.—Six-cleft, the three outer divisions recurved, the three
inner smaller and erect. Stamens.—Three, covered by the three overarching, petal-
like divisions of the style. Pistil.—One, with its style cleft into three petal-like
divisions, each of which bears its stigma on its inner surface.

Born in the purple, born to joy and pleasance,

Thou dost not toil nor spin,
But makest glad and radiant with thy presence
The meadow and the lin.[11]

In both form and color this is one of the most regal of our wild
flowers, and it is easy to understand why the fleur-de-lis was chosen
as the emblem of a royal house, although the especial flower which
Louis VII. of France selected as his badge was probably white.
It will surprise most of us to learn that the common name which
we have borrowed from the French does not signify “flower-of-the-
lily,” as it would if literally translated, but “flower of Louis,” lis being
a corruption of the name of the king who first adopted it as his
badge.
 PLATE LXXXIX

FLEUR-DE-LIS.—I. versicolor.

For the botanist the blue-flag possesses special interest. It is a

conspicuous example of a flower which has guarded itself against
self-fertilization, and which is beautifully calculated to secure the
opposite result. The position of the stamens is such that their pollen
could not easily reach the stigmas of the same flower, for these are
borne on the inner surface of the petal-like, overarching styles. There
is no prospect here of any seed being set unless the pollen of another
flower is secured. Now what are the chances in favor of this? They
are many: In the first place the blossom is unusually large and
showy, from its size and shape alone almost certain to arrest the
attention of the passing bee; next, the color is not only conspicuous,
but it is also one which has been found to be especially attractive to
bees; blue and purple flowers being particularly sought by these
insects. When the bee reaches the flower he alights on the only
convenient landing-place, one of the recurved sepals; following the
deep purple veins which experience has taught him lead to the
hidden nectar, he thrusts his head below the anther, brushing off its
pollen, which he carries to another flower.
The rootstocks of the Florentine species of iris yield the familiar
“orris-root.”
The family name is from the Greek for rainbow, on account of
the rich and varied hues of its different members.
The plant abounds in wet meadows, the blossoms appearing in
June.

American Brooklime.
Veronica Americana. Figwort Family.

Stem.—Smooth, reclining at base, then erect, eight to fifteen inches high.

Leaves.—Mostly opposite, oblong, toothed. Flowers.—Blue, clustered in the axils of
the leaves. Calyx.—Four-parted. Corolla.—Wheel-shaped, four-parted. Stamens.—
Two. Pistil.—One.
Perhaps the prettiest of the blue Veronicas is the American
brooklime. Its clustered flowers make bright patches in moist ground
which might, at a little distance, be mistaken for beds of forget-me-
nots. It blossoms from June till August, and is almost as common in
wet ditches and meadows as its sister, the common speedwell, is in
dry and open places. Some of the members of this genus were once
believed to possess great medicinal virtues, and won for themselves
in Europe the laudatory names of Honor and Praise.
 PLATE XC

AMERICAN BROOKLIME.—V.
Americana.

Common Speedwell.
Veronica officinalis. Figwort Family.

The little speedwell’s darling blue

is noticeable during June and July, when clusters of these tiny

flowers brighten many a waste spot along the sunny roadsides. This
is a hairy little plant, with a stem which lies upon the ground and
takes root, thus spreading itself quickly over the country.
 Arethusa.
Arethusa bulbosa. Orchis Family (p. 17).

Scape.—Sheathed, from a globular bulb, usually one-flowered. Leaf.

—“Solitary, linear, nerved, hidden in the sheaths of the scape, protruding after
flowering.” (Gray.) Flower.—Rose-purple, large, with a bearded lip.
In some localities this beautiful flower is very plentiful. Every
June will find certain New England marshes tinged with its rose-
purple blossoms, while in other near and promising bogs it may be
sought vainly for years. At least it may be hoped for in wet places as
far south as North Carolina, its most favorite haunt being perhaps a
cranberry-swamp. Concerning it, Mr. Burroughs writes: “Arethusa
was one of the nymphs who attended Diana, and was by that goddess
turned into a fountain, that she might escape the god of the river
Alpheus, who became desperately in love with her on seeing her at
her bath. Our Arethusa is one of the prettiest of the orchids, and has
been pursued through many a marsh and quaking-bog by her lovers.
She is a bright pink-purple flower an inch or more long, with the
odor of sweet violets. The sepals and petals rise up and arch over the
column, which we may call the heart of the flower, as if shielding it.
In Plymouth County, Mass., where the Arethusa seems common, I
have heard it called Indian pink.”

Purple Fringed Orchises.

Orchis Family (p. 17).

Habenaria fimbriata.

Leaves.—Oval or oblong; the upper, few, passing into lance-shaped bracts.

Flowers.—Purple, rather large; with a fan-shaped, three-parted lip, its divisions
fringed; with a long curving spur; growing in a spike.

Habenaria psycodes.

Leaves.—Oblong or lance-shaped, the upper passing into linear bracts.

Flowers.—Purple, fragrant, resembling those of H. fimbriata, but much smaller,
with a less fringed lip; growing in a spike.
 We should search the wet meadows in early June if we wish to
be surely in time for the larger of the purple fringed orchises, for H.
fimbriata somewhat antedates H. psycodes, which is the commoner
species of the two and appears in July. Under date of June 9th,
Thoreau writes: “Find the great fringed orchis out apparently two or
three days, two are almost fully out, two or three only budded; a
large spike of peculiarly delicate, pale purple flowers growing in the
luxuriant and shady swamp, amid hellebores, ferns, golden senecio,
etc.... The village belle never sees this more delicate belle of the
swamp.... A beauty reared in the shade of a convent, who has never
strayed beyond the convent-bell. Only the skunk or owl, or other
inhabitant of the swamp, beholds it.”

American Pennyroyal.
Hedeoma pulegioides. Mint Family (p. 16).

Stem.—Square, low, erect, branching Leaves.—Opposite, aromatic, small.

Flowers.—Purplish, small, whorled in the axils of the leaves. Calyx.—Two-lipped,
upper lip three-toothed, the lower two-cleft. Corolla.—Two-lipped, upper erect,
notched at apex, the lower spreading and three-cleft. Fertile stamens.—Two. Pistil.
—One, with a two-lobed style.
This well-known, strong-scented little plant is found throughout
the greater part of the country, blossoming in midsummer. Its taste
and odor nearly resemble that of the true pennyroyal, Mentha
pulegium, of Europe.

Monkey-flower.
Mimulus ringens. Figwort Family.

Stem.—Square, one to two feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong or lance-

shaped. Flowers.—Pale violet-purple, rarely white, growing singly from the axils of
the leaves. Calyx.—Five-angled, five-toothed, the upper tooth largest. Corolla.—
Tubular, two-lipped, the upper lip erect or spreading, two-lobed, the lower
spreading and three-lobed, the throat closed. Stamens.—Four. Pistil.—One, with a
two-lobed stigma.
From late July onward the monkey-flowers tinge the wet fields
and border the streams and ponds; not growing in the water like the
pickerel-weed, but seeking a hummock in the swamp, or a safe
foothold on the brook’s edge, where they can absorb the moisture
requisite to their vigorous growth.
The name is a diminutive of mimus—a buffoon, and refers to the
somewhat grinning blossom. The plant is a common one throughout
the eastern part of the country.

Common Motherwort.
Leonurus cardiaca. Mint Family (p. 16).

Stem.—Tall and upright. Leaves.—Opposite, the lower rounded and lobed, the
floral wedge-shaped at base and three-cleft. Flowers.—Pale purple, in close whorls
in the axils of the leaves. Calyx.—“With five nearly equal teeth, which are awl-
shaped, and when old rather spiny, pointed, and spreading.” (Gray.) Corolla.—
Two-lipped, the upper lip somewhat arched and bearded, the lower three-lobed
and spreading. Stamens.—Four, in pairs. Pistil.—One, with a two-lobed style.
The tall erect stems, opposite leaves, and regular whorls of
closely clustered pale purple flowers help us to easily identify the
motherwort, if identification be needed, for it seems as though such
old-fashioned, time-honored plants as catnip, tansy, and
motherwort, which cling so persistently to the skirts of the old
homestead in whose domestic economy they once played so
important a part, should be familiar to us all.
 PLATE XCI

MONKEY-FLOWER.—M. ringens.

Corn Cockle.
Lychnis Githago. Pink Family.

About two feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, long and narrow, pale green, with
silky hairs. Flowers.—Rose-purple, large, long-stalked. Calyx-lobes.—Five, long
and slender, exceeding the petals. Corolla.—Of five broad petals. Stamens.—Ten.
Pistil.—One, with five styles.
In many countries some of the most beautiful and noticeable
flowers are commonly found in grain-fields. England’s scarlet
poppies flood her farm-lands with glorious color in early summer;
while the bluets lighten the corn-fields of France. Our grain-fields
seem to have no native flower peculiar to them; but often we find a
trespasser of foreign descent hiding among the wheat or straying to
the roadsides in early summer, whose deep-tinted blossoms secure
an instant welcome from the flower-lover if not from the farmer.
“What hurte it doeth among corne! the spoyle unto bread, as well in
colour, taste, and unwholesomeness, is better known than desired,”
wrote Gerarde. The large dark seeds fill the ground wheat with black
specks, and might be injurious if existing in any great quantity. Its
former generic name was Agrostemma, signifying crown of the
fields. Its present one of Lychnis, signifies a light or lamp.

Blue Vervain. Simpler’s Joy.

Verbena hastata. Vervain Family.

Four to six feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, somewhat lance-shaped, the lower

often lobed and sometimes halberd-shaped at base. Flowers.—Purple, small, in
slender erect spikes. Calyx.—Five-toothed. Corolla.—Tubular, somewhat unequally
five-cleft. Stamens.—Two, in pairs. Pistil.—One.
Along the roadsides in midsummer we notice these slender
purple spikes, the appearance of which would be vastly improved if
the tiny blossoms would only consent to open simultaneously.
 PLATE XCII

BLUE VERVAIN.—V. hastata.

In earlier times the vervain was beset with classic associations. It

was claimed as the plant which Virgil and other poets mention as
being used for altar-decorations and for the garlands of sacrificial
beasts. It was believed to be the herba sacra of the ancients, until it
was understood that the generic title Verbena was a word which was
applied to branches of any description which were used in religious
rites. It certainly seems, however, to have been applied to some
especial plant in the time of Pliny, for he writes that no plant was
more honored among the Romans than the sacred Verbena. In more
modern times as well the vervain has been regarded as an “herb of
grace,” and has been gathered with various ceremonies and with the
invocation of a blessing, which began as follows:
Hallowed be thou, Vervain,
As thou growest on the ground,
For in the Mount of Calvary
There thou was first found.

It was then supposed to be endued with especial virtue, and was

worn on the person to avert disaster.
The time-honored title of Simpler’s joy arose from the
remuneration which this popular plant brought to the “Simplers”—as
the gatherers of medicinal herbs were entitled.

Beard-tongue.
Pentstemon pubescens. Figwort Family.

Stem.—One or two feet high, clammy above. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong to

lance-shaped. Flowers.—Dull purple or partly whitish, showy, in a slender open
cluster. Calyx.—Five-parted. Corolla.—Tubular, slightly dilated, the throat nearly
closed by a bearded palate; two-lipped, the upper lip two-lobed, the lower three-
cleft. Stamens.—Four, one densely bearded sterile filament besides. Pistil.—One.
These handsome, showy flowers are found in summer in dry or
rocky places. They are especially plentiful somewhat southward.
The white beard-tongue of more western localities is P. digitalis.
This is a very effective plant, which sometimes reaches a height of
five feet, having large inflated white flowers.

Self-heal. Heal-all.
Brunella vulgaris. Mint Family (p. 16).

Stems.—Low. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong. Flowers.—Bluish-purple, in a spike

or head. Calyx.—Two-lipped, upper lip with three short teeth, the lower two-cleft.
Corolla.—Two-lipped, the upper lip arched, entire, the lower spreading, three-cleft.
Stamens.—Four. Pistil.—One, two-lobed at the apex.
 PLATE XCIII

SELF-HEAL.—B. vulgaris.

Throughout the length and breadth of the country, from June

until September, the short, close spikes of the self-heal can be found
along the roadsides. The botanical name, Brunella, is a corruption
from Prunella, which is taken from the German for quinsy, for which
this plant was considered a certain cure. It was also used in England
as an application to the wounds received by rustic laborers, as its
common names, carpenter’s herb, hook-heal, and sicklewort, imply.
That the French had a similar practice is proved by an old proverb of
theirs to the effect that “No one wants a surgeon who keeps
Prunelle.”

Wild Bergamot.
Monarda fistulosa. Mint Family (p. 16).
 Two to five feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, fragrant, toothed. Flowers.—Purple
or purplish, dotted, growing in a solitary, terminal head. Calyx.—Tubular,
elongated, five-toothed. Corolla.—Elongated, two-lipped. Stamens.—Two,
elongated. Pistil.—One, with style two-lobed at apex.
Although the wild bergamot is occasionally found in our eastern
woods, it is far more abundant westward, where it is found in rocky
places in summer. This is a near relative of the bee balm (Pl.
LXXXII.), which it closely resembles in its manner of growth.

Day-flower.
Commelina Virginica. Spiderwort Family.

Stem.—Slender, branching. Leaves.—Lance-shaped to linear, the floral ones

heart-shaped and clasping, folding so as to enclose the flowers. Flowers.—Blue.
Calyx.—Of three unequal somewhat colored sepals, the two lateral ones partly
united. Corolla.—Of three petals, two large, rounded, pale blue, one small, whitish,
and inconspicuous. Stamens.—Six, unequal in size, three small and sterile, with
yellow cross-shaped anthers, three fertile, one of which is bent inward. Pistil.—
One.
The odd day-flower is so named because its delicate blossoms
only expand for a single morning. At the first glance there seem to be
but two petals which are large, rounded, and of a delicate shade of
blue. A closer examination, however, discovers still another, so
inconspicuous in form and color as to escape the notice of the casual
observer. This inequality recalls the quaint tradition as to the origin
of the plant’s generic name. There were three brothers Commelin,
natives of Holland. Two of them were botanists of repute, while the
tastes of the third had a less marked botanical tendency. The genus
was dedicated to the trio: the two large bright petals commemorating
the brother botanists, while the small and unpretentious one
perpetuates the memory of him who was so unwise as to take little or
no interest in so noble a science. These flowers appear throughout
the summer in cool woods and on moist banks.

Blue Linaria. Blue Toadflax.

Linaria Canadensis. Figwort Family.
 Stems.—Slender, six to thirty inches high. Leaves.—Linear. Flowers.—Pale
blue or purple, small, in a long terminal raceme. Calyx.—Five-parted. Corolla.—
Two-lipped, with a slender spur, closed in the throat. Stamens.—Four. Pistil.—One.
The slender spikes of the blue linaria flank the sandy roadsides
nearly all summer, and even in November we find a few delicate
blossoms still left upon the elongated stems. These flowers have a
certain spirituality which is lacking in their handsome, self-assertive
relation, butter-and-eggs.

Spiderwort.
Tradescantia Virginica. Spiderwort Family.

Stems.—Mucilaginous, leafy, mostly upright. Leaves.—Linear, keeled.

Flowers.—Blue, clustered, with floral leaves as in the day-flower. Calyx.—Of three
sepals. Corolla.—Of three petals. Stamens.—Six, with bearded filaments. Pistil.—
One.
The flowers of the spiderwort, like those of the day-flower, to
which they are nearly allied, are very perishable, lasting only a few
hours. They are found throughout the summer, somewhat south and
westward. The genus is named in honor of Tradescant, gardener to
Charles I. of England.

Pickerel-weed.
Pontedaria cordata. Pickerel-weed Family.

Stem.—Stout, usually one-leaved. Leaves.—Arrow or heart-shaped. Flowers.—

Blue, fading quickly, with an unpleasant odor, growing in a dense spike. Perianth.
—Two-lipped, the upper lip three-lobed and marked with a double greenish-yellow
spot, the lower of three spreading divisions. Stamens.—Six, three long and
protruding, the three others, which are often imperfect, very short and inserted
lower down. Pistil.—One.
The pickerel-weed grows in such shallow water as the pickerel
seek, or else in moist, wet places along the shores of streams and
rivers. We can look for the blue, closely spiked flowers from late July
until some time in September. They are often found near the delicate
arrow-head.
 Blueweed. Viper’s Bugloss.
Echium vulgare. Borage Family.

Stem.—Rough, bristly, erect, about two feet high. Leaves.—Alternate, lance-

shaped, set close to the stem. Flowers.—Bright blue, spiked on one side of the
branches, which are at first rolled up from the end, straightening as the blossoms
expand. Calyx.—Five-parted. Corolla.—Of five somewhat unequal, spreading
lobes. Stamens.—Five, protruding, red. Pistil.—One.
When the blueweed first came to us from across the sea it
secured a foothold in Virginia. Since then it has gradually worked its
way northward, lining the Hudson’s shores, overrunning many of the
dry fields in its vicinity, and making itself at home in parts of New
England. We should be obliged to rank it among the “pestiferous”
weeds were it not that, as a rule, it only seeks to monopolize land
which is not good for very much else. The pinkish buds and bright
blue blossoms with their red protruding stamens make a valuable
addition, from the æsthetic point of view, to the bunch of
midsummer field-flowers in which hitherto the various shades of red
and yellow have predominated.

Nightshade.
Solanum Dulcamara. Nightshade Family.

Stem.—Usually somewhat climbing or twining. Leaves.—Heart-shaped, the

upper halberd-shaped or with ear-like lobes or leaflets at the base. Flowers.—
Purple, in small clusters. Calyx.—Five-parted. Corolla.—Five-parted, wheel-
shaped. Stamens.—Five, yellow, protruding. Pistil.—One. Fruit.—A red berry.
 PLATE XCIV

BLUEWEED.—E. vulgare.

The purple flowers, which at once betray their kinship with the
potato plant, and, in late summer, the bright red berries of the
nightshade, cluster about the fences and clamber over the moist
banks which line the highway. This plant, which was imported from
Europe, usually indicates the presence of civilization. It is not
poisonous to the touch, as is often supposed, and it is doubtful if the
berries have the baneful power attributed to them. Thoreau writes
regarding them: “The Solanum Dulcamara berries are another kind
which grow in drooping clusters. I do not know any clusters more
graceful and beautiful than these drooping cymes of scented or
translucent, cherry-colored elliptical berries.... They hang more
gracefully over the river’s brim than any pendant in a lady’s ear. Yet
they are considered poisonous; not to look at surely.... But why
should they not be poisonous? Would it not be bad taste to eat these
berries which are ready to feed another sense?”

Great Lobelia.
Lobelia syphilitica. Lobelia Family.

Stem.—Leafy, somewhat hairy, one to three feet high. Leaves.—Alternate,

ovate to lance-shaped, thin, irregularly toothed. Flowers.—Rather large, light blue,
spiked. Calyx.—Five-cleft, with a short tube. Corolla.—Somewhat two-lipped, the
upper lip of two rather erect lobes, the lower spreading and three-cleft. Pistil.—
One, with a fringed stigma.
The great lobelia is a striking plant which grows in low ground,
flowering in midsummer. In some places it is called “High-Belia,” a
pun which is supposed to reflect upon the less tall and conspicuous
species, such as the Indian tobacco, L. inflata, which are found
flowering at the same season.
If one of its blossoms is examined, the pistil is seen to be
enclosed by the united stamens in such a fashion as to secure self-
fertilization, one would suppose. But it is hardly probable that a
flower as noticeable as this, and wearing a color as popular as blue,
should have adorned itself so lavishly to no purpose. Consequently
we are led to inquire more closely into its domestic arrangements.
Our curiosity is rewarded by the discovery that the lobes of the
stigma are so tightly pressed together that they can at first receive no
pollen upon their sensitive surfaces. We also find that the anthers
open only by a pore at their tips, and when irritated by the jar of a
visiting bee, discharge their pollen upon its body through these
outlets. This being accomplished the fringed stigma pushes forward,
brushing aside whatever pollen may have fallen within the tube.
When it finally projects beyond the anthers, it opens, and is ready to
receive its pollen from the next insect-visitor.