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OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 01/03/19, SPi
A N I N T R O DU C T IO N T O
E N G L I SH L E G A L H I ST O RY
An Introduction to
English Legal History
Fifth Edition
SI R J O H N BA K E R , Q. C . , L L . D. , F. B. A .
Emeritus Downing Professor of the Laws of England
and Honorary Fellow of St Catharine’s College, Cambridge;
Barrister and Honorary Bencher of the
Inner Temple and Gray’s Inn
1
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Sir John Baker 2019
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
Fourth Edition published in 2002
Fifth Edition published in 2019
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Crown copyright material is reproduced under Class Licence
Number C01P0000148 with the permission of OPSI
and the Queen’s Printer for Scotland
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018959363
ISBN 978–0–19–881260–9 (hbk.)
ISBN 978–0–19–881261–6 (pbk.)
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Preface to the Fifth Edition
This edition retains the structure and coverage of its predecessor, but it has been sub-
stantially revised throughout and parts have been rewritten. It might be thought that
legal history would not need much revision. In truth, it can become outdated with sur-
prising rapidity. Although historical facts do not change, information which has been
known for many years can be reinterpreted or reassembled in different ways, and new
evidence is always coming to light. Original source material is now more freely available
than ever before through the internet – almost to an overwhelming extent – and yet
many sources of the common law remain in manuscript and cannot be found online. In
the case of an elementary book such as this, there are added difficulties arising from the
wide range of periods and topics addressed: the need to abridge and simplify voluminous
and complex matter, with the added dimension of time, presents challenges which can
never be fully overcome.
It is gratifying to notice how much legal history has been written since the fourth
edition of this book appeared in 2002; but then, to some who will read this edition, that
amounts to a whole lifetime. Particular attention should be drawn to the Oxford History
of the Laws of England, the first volume of which appeared in 2003. Although more than
half of the series remains to be completed, the six volumes already in print are a deep
store of information and insight, and it is hoped that more will appear in the near future.
A great deal of new scholarship has also been gathered in Comparative Studies in
Continental and Anglo-American Legal History. Some of the most awkward remaining
gaps in basic knowledge have been in the area of public law, a subject long neglected by
English legal historians. But a new interest in the history of constitutional law was
awakened by the commemoration of Magna Carta in 2015, and this is reflected in the
author’s monograph The Reinvention of Magna Carta 1216–1616. Some of that interest
has percolated here and there into this edition.
The present edition takes account of relevant new discoveries and interpretations,
and of the second (enlarged) edition of Baker and Milsom. It would be impossible,
however, to incorporate all the new learning into this single volume, which is an intro-
duction rather than an encyclopaedia. The aim of an elementary textbook cannot be to
trace the history of every aspect of the law and the legal system, or to weigh all the
conflicting opinions on difficult questions, and so the concentration has been on the
main characteristics, institutions, and doctrines of English law over the longer term –
and particularly the evolution of the common law before the extensive statutory changes
and regulatory regimes of the last two centuries. This policy has inevitably resulted
in the exclusion of some whole areas of law and practice which have been important in
their time, or which have grown in importance in recent times, where their proper
treatment would have required major diversions and more pages than these two covers
can contain.
Another reservation concerns the relationship between law and time. Law does not
develop in a vacuum, because it operates in direct connection with real life, and yet the
relationship between legal development and social or economic change is less direct or
vi Preface to the Fifth Edition
automatic than might be supposed. Straightforward cause and effect are most likely to
be discernible in the case of legislative reform, where the law is changed deliberately
and suddenly in order to address a perceived defect. But even legislation, as will be seen
repeatedly throughout the book, was for most periods before the nineteenth century
regarded as a way of restoring, repairing, or reinforcing the common law rather than
supplanting it with something wholly new. If the common law itself sometimes lagged
behind society, it was because judges did not like deliberately to overturn the wisdom
of their predecessors. Many of the larger changes in the law came about less through
the explicit reversal of settled law than through unconscious shifts in the underlying
assumptions. Only changed assumptions can explain, for example, how judges could
take a benevolent approach to legal fictions which might otherwise be seen as brazen
attempts to undermine the law. But gradual evolution makes for long stories. How far
those legal stories can be aligned with the factual state of society in specific periods is
the difficulty. Social changes obviously raise new legal questions, but they do not in
themselves dictate the answers or indicate at what point in history the answers will be
forthcoming. Inclinations towards change were rarely unanimous, and they usually
only led to an alteration in the common law once thinking had shifted so generally that
it seemed inevitable. In any case, since judges and legal advisers were obliged to operate
within the existing frameworks of legal rather than popular thought, they had to find
intellectually manageable ways of squaring evolution with inherited wisdom. Even when
everyone could see the need for some new legal remedy, the process of finding one – in
a system tied constitutionally to the ancient forms of ‘due process’ – might require con-
siderable ingenuity.
For such reasons as these, it was not practicable for the present purpose to map
developments in the law against changes in the temper of succeeding ages by taking
one period at a time. It may seem elementary to divide history into periods, and that
is the scheme of the much larger Oxford History, but in a briefer survey of long-term
developments and lines of thought it would mean leaving lots of loose ends at the end
of every section. A seamless web is more readily understood by tracing the threads
than by cutting it into pieces. This introductory history is therefore, after the initial
chapters, arranged by legal or institutional topics, each of which is approached more
or less chronologically.
I am grateful to all my colleagues in the world of legal history, and to my wife Liesbeth
van Houts, for raising and discussing various questions over the years. Professor Yuzo
Fukao’s heroic enterprise of translating the fourth edition into Japanese in 2010–11
resulted in many helpful suggestions for improvement to the wording, and sometimes
to the thinking as well. Above all, I should record my lifelong indebtedness to the work
of Professor S. F. C. Milsom, who died in 2016. I attended his undergraduate lectures
over fifty years ago and have never lost my fascination with the subject into which he
inducted me. My own attempts to write legal history over five decades have made me
appreciate more and more every year the genius of his insights, the elegance of his writ-
ing, and the enduring power of his scholarship.
John Baker
April 2018
Contents
Preface to the Fifth Edition v

Table of Statutes xii
Table of Cases xxii
Kings and Queens since 1066 lix
List of Abbreviations lxi
PA RT O N E
1 Law and Custom before 1066 3
Communal Justice 6
From Communal to Personal Authority 10
Further Reading 13
2 The Common Law of England 15

Regional and Itinerant Royal Justice 17
Central Royal Justice 20
Effects on Local Justice 25
Justice outside the Common Law 31
The Reach of the English Common Law 33
Further Reading 41
3 The Superior Courts of Common Law 44

Magna Carta and Common Pleas 44
The Resurgence of the King’s Bench 48
The Exchequer of Pleas 54
Uniformity and Abolition 57
Further Reading 59
4 The Forms of Action 60
Originating an Action 60
Types of Original Writ 64
Judicial Writs 71
End of the Forms of Action 74
Further Reading 76
Table A. Principal types of original writ 77
5 The Jury and Pleading 78

From ‘Proof ’ to ‘Trial’ 79
Medieval Pleading and Legal Argument 83
The System Transformed 89
Decline of the Common-Law System 94
End of the Common-Law System 98
Further Reading 103
viii Contents
6 The Court of Chancery and Equity 105

The Chancery 107
Law and Equity 114
Mischiefs of the Chancery 120
Reform and Abolition 122
Further Reading 124
7 The Conciliar Courts 126

The Court of Star Chamber 127
The Court of Requests 128
Regional Conciliar and Equity Courts 130
The Courts of the Admiral and Marshal 131
Further Reading 133
8 The Ecclesiastical Courts 135

Canon Law and Common Law 137
Effect of the Break with Rome 140
Nineteenth-Century Reforms 142
Further Reading 143
9 Judicial Review of Decisions 145

The Writ of Error 146
Development of the Appeal 148
The Prerogative Writs 153
Administrative Law 161
Further Reading 164
10 The Legal Profession 165

Origins of a Professional Bench and Bar 165
The New Profession 171
The Judiciary 176
Civilian Advocates 180
Legal Education in the Universities 181
Further Reading 183
11 Legal Literature 185

Glanvill and Bracton 185
Formularies 187
Reports of Cases 188
Treatises 197
Further Reading 203
12 Law Making 206

The Common Law 207
Equity and Legal Change 214
Legislation 216
Law Reform Movements 226
Further Reading 235
Contents ix
PA RT T WO
13 Real Property: Feudal Tenure 241

Tenure 241
Tenure and Land Ownership 247
The Lord’s Rights under the Common Law 257
Further Reading 264
Table B. Types of tenure 266
14 Real Property: Uses and Fiscal Feudalism 267

Origins of Uses 267
Effect of Uses on Feudal Law 271
Further Reading 278
15 Real Property: Inheritance and Estates 279

Alienation 280
The Law of Inheritance 285
Provision for Spouses and New Families 288
Reversions and Remainders 294
Further Reading 296
Table C. Estates in land 298
16 Real Property: Family Settlements 299

The Durability of the Fee Tail 299
Remainders and Executory Interests 303
Powers 308
Trusts 309
The Strict Settlement 313
Further Reading 315
17 Other Interests in Land 317

The Term of Years 317
Tenancy at Will 325
Villein Tenure and Copyhold 325
The Trust as an Interest in Land 328
Mortgages 330
Licences 333
Further Reading 335
Table D. Types of property 336
Table E. Modes of conveying real property 337
18 Contract: Covenant and Debt 338

The Action of Covenant 339
The Action of Debt 342
Gaps in the Medieval Law 347
Further Reading 349
x Contents
19 Contract: Assumpsit and Deceit 350

Breach of Covenant as Trespass 350
Assumpsit for Nonfeasance 354
Assumpsit as a Contractual Remedy 358
Assumpsit in Lieu of Debt 363
Further Reading 368
20 Contract: Some Later Developments 369

The Common Indebitatus Counts 369
Parol Contracts and Perjury 370
Elaboration of Contract Law 372
Privity 375
Contractual Terms 378
Further Reading 384
21 Quasi-Contract 386
The Action of Account 386
Actions on the Case 390
Indebitatus Assumpsit 393
A General Principle 400
Further Reading 402
22 Property in Chattels Personal 403

Personal Property, Chattels, and Things 404
Modes of Transfer 408
Termination of Private Property in Chattels 412
Interests in Chattels 414
Early Restitutionary Proceedings 415
Detinue 416
Trespass and Case for Chattels 420
Trover and Conversion 423
Further Reading 426
23 Negligence 427
Trespass Vi et Armis and Negligence 428
Actions on the Case for Negligence 432
The Tort of Negligence 436
Further Reading 450
24 Nuisance 451
Remedies for Nuisance 451
Isolated Occurrences 461
Common or Public Nuisances 462
Further Reading 464
25 Defamation 465
Actions on the Case for Words 467
Attempts to Abate the Flood of Actions 470
The Scope of Defamation 472
Contents xi
Libel 475
Further Reading 477
26 Economic Torts and Interests 479

Monopolies 480
Unfair or Deceptive Competition 487
Domestic Relationships 489
Intimidation and Conspiracy 492
Further Reading 497
27 Persons: Status and Liberty 499

Some Partial Legal Disabilities 499
Villein Status 501
Freedom from Arbitrary Imprisonment 506
Freedom of Thought and Expression 510
Freedom from Slavery 513
Further Reading 515
28 Persons: Marriage and its Consequences 517

The Law of Marriage 517
Unity of Person 522
Bastardy 528
Divorce 529
Further Reading 538
29 Pleas of the Crown: Criminal Procedure 540

Crime and Tort 540
The Initiation of Criminal Proceedings 543
The Trial 547
The Avoidance or Mitigation of Punishment 552
Further Reading 560
30 Pleas of the Crown: The Substantive Criminal Law 562

The Means of Development 562
Criminal Responsibility 564
Degrees of Participation 567
Some Particular Offences 568
Further Reading 578
Appendix I: Specimen Writs 580

Original Writs 580
Judicial Writs 586
Prerogative Writs 588
Writ of Summons (1832) 591
Appendix II: Specimen Entries 592
An Action of Trespass 592
Proceedings at a Gaol Delivery 594
Index 599
Table of Statutes
Note: the best printed text of the statutes from 1236 to 1713 is The Statutes of the Realm (1810–27). For
the 1215 and 1225 versions of Magna Carta see the appendices to J. C. Holt, Magna Carta (3rd edn by
G. Garnett and J. Hudson, 2015).
Henry I’s Coronation Edict (or Charter) 1100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 206, 216, 260, 279, 411
Constitutions of Clarendon 1164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 138, 216
Assize of Clarendon 1166. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252, 545
Assize of Northampton 1176 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 252, 542
Assize of Windsor 1179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 252
Magna Carta 1215. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6, 217
cl. 2 (relief) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
cl. 4–5 (wardship) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
cl. 6 (disparagement of wards) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
cl. 12, 14, 15 (feudal aids) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217, 258, 259
cl. 17 (common pleas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
cl. 18 (assizes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 24, 26
cl. 19 (assizes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
cl. 20 (amercements for trespass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 552
cl. 24 (sheriffs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
cl. 27 (administration of estates) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
cl. 32 (forfeiture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
cl. 34 (praecipe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 255
cl. 36 (mortmain). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
cl. 39 (liberty of the subject). See Magna Carta 1225, c. 29
cl. 41 (merchants). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
2 Hen. III, Magna Carta 1217
c. 7 (widows) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
cc. 12–13 (assizes). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
c. 32 (liberty) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
c. 36 (feudal services) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
c. 40 (mortmain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9 Hen. III, Magna Carta 1225 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39, 217
c. 2 (relief) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
cc. 4–5 (wardship) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
c. 6 (disparagement of wards) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
c. 7 (widows) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289, 290
c. 11 (common pleas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 44–5, 47, 49
c. 12 (assizes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24, 149
c. 14 (amercements for trespass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503, 552
c. 17 (sheriffs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 543
c. 18 (reasonable parts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
c. 22 (forfeiture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
c. 24 (praecipe). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 255
c. 26 (de odio et atia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
c. 29 (liberty of the subject) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 105, 130, 154, 159, 225, 482–3, 502, 506–10, 548
c. 30 (merchants) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
c. 32 (feudal services) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
c. 36 (mortmain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Table of Statutes xiii
20 Hen. III, Provisions of Merton 1236 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218

cc. 6–7 (guardians) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
c. 8 (novel disseisin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
c. 9 (bastardy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
20 Hen. III, ‘Statute’ of Ireland (De coheredibus) 1236 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
42 Hen. III, Provisions of Oxford 1258 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 63
43 Hen. III, Provisions of Westminster 1259. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
52 Hen. III, Statute of Marlborough 1267 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217, 218
c. 5 (infringers of Magna Carta). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
c. 6 (wardship) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264, 273
c. 9 (suit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
c. 16 (primer seisin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
c. 17 (guardians in socage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
c. 23 (waste) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
c. 29 (writs of entry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
3 Edw. I, Statute of Westminster I 1275 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
c. 4 (wreck). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
c. 6 (amercements for trespass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
c. 12 (refusal of trial) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
c. 15 (bail) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
c. 29 (deceit by lawyers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
c. 36 (feudal aids). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6 Edw. I, Statute of Gloucester 1278
c. 1 (damages and costs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
c. 3 (tenancy by the curtesy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
c. 4 (cessavit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
c. 5 (waste) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284, 585
c. 8 (pleas of trespass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 68
c. 9 (homicide). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544, 571
7 Edw. I, Statute of Mortmain (De viris religiosis) 1279. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262–3
10 Edw. I, ‘Statute’ of Rutland 1282 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12 Edw. I, Statute of Rhuddlan (or of Wales) 1284 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37, 339, 340, 342
13 Edw. I, Statute of Westminster II 1285 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
c. 1, De donis conditionalibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217, 292, 293–4, 299–302, 327, 583
c. 2 (replevin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
c. 4 (wreck). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
c. 11 (account). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
c. 12 (conspiracy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
c. 16 (wardship) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
c. 18 (elegit). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
c. 21 (cessavit). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
c. 24 (writs ‘in consimili casu’). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 295
c. 25 (assize of novel disseisin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256, 452, 460
c. 30 (nisi prius) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 88, 96
c. 32 (quale jus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
c. 34 (rape) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553, 573
13 Edw. I, Statute of Winchester 1285 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
c. 2 (robberies) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
13 Edw. I, Statute of Merchants 1285. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
18 Edw. I, Quia emptores terrarum 1290 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218, 259, 263–4, 281
18 Edw. I, Statute of Quo Warranto 1290 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
25 Edw. I, Confirmation of Magna Carta 1297 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
25 Edw. I, Confirmatio Cartarum 1297 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
xiv Table of Statutes
28 Edw. I, Articuli super Cartas 1300

c. 4 (Exchequer). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
c. 5 (court coram rege) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
33 Edw. I, Ordinatio de conspiratoribus 1305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
34 Edw. I, De tallagio non concedendo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9 Edw. II, Articuli cleri 1315. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
Prerogativa Regis (date uncertain)
c. 13 (or 11) (wreck and royal fish) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406, 413
c. 16 (forfeiture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
1 Edw. III, st. ii (1327)
c. 11 (suits for defamation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
c. 12 (fines for alienation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
2 Edw. III, Statute of Northampton 1328
c. 2 (pardon for felony) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
c. 8 (justices). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 177
4 Edw. III, c. 7 (executors, 1330) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
14 Edw. III, st. i, c. 14 (writs of privy seal, 1340). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
14 Edw. III, st. ii, c. 1 (taxation, 1340) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
18 Edw. III, st. ii, c. 2 (justices of peace, 1344) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
18 Edw. III, st. iv (judges’ oath) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
23 Edw. III, Ordinance of Labourers 1349. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
25 Edw. III, st. i, De natis ultra mare 1351. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
25 Edw. III, st. ii, Statute of Labourers 1351 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
25 Edw. III, st. iv (provisors, 1351) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
25 Edw. III, st. v (1351)
c. 2, Treason Act 1351 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568–9
c. 3 (juries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
c. 4 (jurisdiction of council) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 127
c. 11 (feudal aids) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
27 Edw. III, st. i (suing outside the realm, 1353) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
27 Edw. III, st. ii, Statute of the Staple 1353, c. 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
28 Edw. III (1354)
c. 2 (marches of Wales) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
c. 3 (due process) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60, 105
c. 13 (juries de medietate linguae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
31 Edw. III, st. i (1357)
c. 11 (administrators). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
c. 12 (error from the Exchequer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
34 Edw. III (1361)
c. 1, Justices of the Peace Act 1361. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
c. 9 (labourers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
42 Edw. III, c. 3 (due process, 1368) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 105, 126
45 Edw. III, c. 3 (tithes of wood, 1371) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
50 Edw. III, c. 6 (fraudulent feoffments to uses, 1376) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
2 Ric. II, st. i, c. 5 (scandalum magnatum, 1378). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
6 Ric. II, st. i, c. 3 (writs of nuisance, 1382) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
13 Ric. II, st. i, c. 5 (admiralty, 1389) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
13 Ric. II, st. ii, c. 1 (pardons, 1390) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
15 Ric. II (1391)
c. 2, Statute of Forcible Entry 1391 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
c. 5 (uses and mortmain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
16 Ric. II, Statute of Winchester 1392, c. 5 (praemunire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Table of Statutes xv
17 Ric. II, c. 6 (subpoena, 1393). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

1 Hen. IV, c. 8 (assize against patentee, 1399) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
2 Hen. IV
c. 11 (admiralty, 1400) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
c. 15 (de heretico comburendo, 1400) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
4 Hen. IV, c. 23 (judgments at law, 1402) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115, 117
5 Hen. IV, c. 5 (malicious wounding, 1403). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
13 Hen. IV, c. 7 (riot, 1412) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
3 Hen. V. st. ii, c. 6 (clipping coin, 1415) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
18 Hen. VI, c. 29 (juries de medietate linguae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
Royal Marriages Act 1428 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
1 Edw. IV, c. 2 (sheriffs’ tourns, 1461) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Edw. IV, c. 4 (importation of playing cards, 1463) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
8 Edw. IV, c. 2 (liveries, 1468) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
22 Edw. IV, c. 7 (enclosing woods, 1482) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
1 Ric. III (1484)
c. 1 (uses). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215, 271
c. 4 (juries in tourn). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
c. 7 (final concords) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
3 Hen. VII (1487)
c. 1, ‘Pro camera stellata’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
c. 14 (compassing the king’s death) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
4 Hen. VII (1490)
c. 4 (proclamation of exigent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
c. 12 (justices of peace) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
c. 17 (wardships and uses). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 274
c. 24 (final concords). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
7 Hen. VII, c. 2 (protections, 1493). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11 Hen. VII (1495)
c. 1 (adherence to de facto king). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
c. 8 (usury) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
c. 17 (birding with nets). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
12 Hen. VII, c. 7 (petty treason, 1496) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
19 Hen. VII (1504)
c. 9 (mesne process) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
c. 15 (wardships and uses). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
c. 28 (attainders) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4 Hen. VIII, c. 2 (benefit of clergy, 1512) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556, 572
5 Hen. VIII, c. 2 (clothiers’ marks, 1513) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
21 Hen. VIII (1529)
c. 7 (embezzlement by a servant). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
c. 11 (restitution of stolen goods) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
c. 15 (falsification of recoveries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
22 Hen. VIII (1530)
c. 9 (murder by poisoning). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
c. 14 (abjuration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
23 Hen. VIII (1532)
c. 1 (benefit of clergy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556, 572, 573, 574
c. 5 (commissions of sewers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162, 225
c. 6 (recognizances). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
c. 11 (escape) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
c. 15 (costs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49, 73
xvi Table of Statutes
24 Hen. VIII, c. 12, Restraint of Appeals 1532 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

25 Hen. VIII (1533)
c. 6 (buggery) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
c. 14 (heresy trials) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
c. 19, Submission of the Clergy 1533. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
c. 21, Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
27 Hen. VIII (1536)
c. 10, Statute of Uses 1536 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211, 220, 274–7, 290, 305–7, 323, 324
c. 12 (clothiers’ marks, 1536) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
c. 16, Statute of Enrolments 1536 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276–7, 324
c. 26, Laws in Wales Act 1536 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
31 Hen. VIII (1539)
c. 1 (partition). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
c. 6 (monks) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
c. 8 (proclamations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
32 Hen. VIII (1540)
c. 1, Statute of Wills 1540 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272, 276, 305–6
c. 12 (sanctuary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
c. 16 (aliens) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
c. 30, Statute of Jeofails 1540 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
c. 38, Marriage Act 1540 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
c. 45 (Court of Wards). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
33 Hen. VIII (1541)
c. 26 (Sir John Shelton’s will) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
c. 39 (Court of Surveyors). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
34 & 35 Hen. VIII (1542)
c. 5 (explanation of the Statute of Wills) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
c. 26 (Wales and the Marches) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
35 Hen. VIII, c. 6 (tales de circumstantibus, 1543) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1 Edw. VI, c. 12 (criminal law, 1547) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555, 569, 574
2 & 3 Edw. VI (1549)
c. 8 (lessees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
c. 13 (tithes). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
2 & 3 Ph. & Mar., c. 7, Sale of Horses Act 1555. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
1 Eliz. I, c. 1 (royal supremacy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141, 511
27 Eliz. I, c. 8 (Exchequer Chamber, 1585) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54, 147
43 Eliz. I, c. 6 (costs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
1 Jac. I, c. 8, Statute of Stabbing 1603. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
21 Jac. I (1624)
c. 3, Statute of Monopolies 1624 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483, 485
c. 6 (benefit of clergy for women) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
c. 16, Statute of Limitations 1624 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322, 437
c. 28 (sanctuary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
3 Car. I, c. 1, Petition of Right 1628 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
16 Car. I (1641)
c. 10, Star Chamber Abolition Act 1641 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 509
c. 11 (ecclesiastical courts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
c. 14, Ship-Money Act 1641 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227, 509
Blasphemy Act 1648. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
12 Car. II, c. 24, Military Tenures Abolition Act 1660 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
13 Car. II, c. 12 (ecclesiastical courts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
13 Car. II, st. ii, c. 2 (mesne process, 1661) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Table of Statutes xvii
22 & 23 Car. II (1670)

c. 1, Coventry’s Act 1670 (wounding) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
c. 9, Duties on Law Proceedings Act 1670. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
c. 10, Statute of Distribution 1670. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
29 Car. II, c. 3, Statute of Frauds 1677
s. 4 (contracts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
s. 7 (declaration of trust). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
s. 10 (trusts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
s. 12 (tenancy pur auter vie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
s. 17 (sale of goods) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
31 Car. II, c. 2, Habeas Corpus Act 1679. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157, 509
1 Will. & Mar., st. i, c. 27 (Council in the Marches, 1689). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1 Will. & Mar., st. ii, Bill of Rights 1689 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
3 Will. & Mar., c. 9 (benefit of clergy for women, 1691) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
4 Will. & Mar., c. 18 (malicious informations, 1692) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
6 & 7 Will. & Mar., c. 6 (marriages, 1694) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
7 & 8 Will. III, c. 35 (marriages, 1695) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
8 & 9 Will. III, c. 11, Administration of Justice Act 1696 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347, 437
9 [& 10] Will. III (1698)
c. 15 (arbitration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
c. 35, Blasphemy Act 1698. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .512
12 & 13 Will. III, c. 2, Act of Settlement 1700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
1 Ann., st. ii, c. 9 (defence witnesses, 1702) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
3 & 4 Ann., c. 8 (or 9), Promissory Notes Act 1704 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
4 & 5 Ann., c. 3, Administration of Justice Act 1705
s. 4 (several pleas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
s. 9 (attornment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
ss. 12–13 (penalties) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
[5 &] 6 Ann. (1707)
c. 9 (benefit of clergy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
c. 11, Union with Scotland Act 1707 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
c. 58 (or 31), Act preventing Mischiefs from Fire 1707. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
8 Ann., c. 19, Copyright Act 1710 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
4 Geo. I, c. 11, Transportation Act 1718. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
6 Geo. I, c. 5 (error from Ireland, 1719) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Geo. II, c. 26 (Latin and court-hand, 1731) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11 Geo. II, c. 19 (parol leases, 1738) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
26 Geo. II, c. 33, Lord Hardwicke’s Marriage Act 1753 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518, 521
12 Geo. III, c. 20 (refusal to plead, 1772) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
19 Geo. III, c. 74 (criminal punishments, 1779) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557, 558
32 Geo. III, c. 60, Fox’s Libel Act 1792 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .512
39 Geo. III (1799)
c. 81, Combination Act 1799 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
c. 85 (embezzlement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
39 & 40 Geo. III, c. 106, Combination Act 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
41 Geo. III, c. 107 (copyright, 1801). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
47 Geo. III, c. 36 (abolition of slave trade, 1807). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
56 Geo. III, c. 100, Habeas Corpus Amendment Act 1816 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
59 Geo. III, c. 46 (appeal of murder, 1819) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
4 Geo. IV (1823)
c. 76, Marriage Act 1823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
c. 83, Factors Act 1823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
xviii Table of Statutes
7 & 8 Geo. IV, c. 28, Criminal Law Act 1827 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549, 557
9 Geo. IV, c. 31 (petty treason, 1828). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
11 Geo. IV & 1 Will. IV (1830)
c. 68, Carriers Act 1830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
c. 70, Law Terms Act 1830. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
2 & 3 Will. IV (1832)
c. 39, Uniformity of Process Act 1832 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 75, 591
c. 92, Privy Council Appeals Act 1832 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3 & 4 Will. IV (1833)
c. 15, Bulwer Lytton’s Act 1833. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
c. 27, Real Property Limitation Act 1833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75, 322
c. 41, Judicial Committee Act 1833. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
c. 73, Slavery Abolition Act 1833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
c. 105, Dower Act 1833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
c. 106, Inheritance Act 1833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5 & 6 Will. IV (1835)
c. 54, Lord Lyndhurst’s Act 1835. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
c. 65, Lecture Copyright Act 1835 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
c. 76, Municipal Corporations Act 1835 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
6 & 7 Will. IV (1836)
c. 32, Building Societies Act 1836. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
c. 85, Marriage Act 1836 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
c. 114, Trial for Felony Act 1836 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
7 Will. IV & 1 Vict., c. 86 (burglary, 1837) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
1 & 2 Vict., c. 62, Judgments Act 1838. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4 & 5 Vict., c. 21, Conveyance by Release Act 1841 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6 & 7 Vict. (1843)
c. 85, Evidence Act 1843 (Lord Denman’s Act). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
c. 96, Lord Campbell’s Libel Act 1843 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
8 & 9 Vict. (1845)
c. 106, Real Property Act 1845 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
c. 112, Satisfied Terms Act 1845. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
9 & 10 Vict. (1846)
c. 54 (bar of Common Pleas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
c. 93, Fatal Accidents Act 1846 (Lord Campbell’s Act) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445–6, 490
11 & 12 Vict. (1848)
c. 42, Indictable Offences Act 1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
c. 43, Summary Jurisdiction Act 1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233, 552
c. 78 (crown cases reserved) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
14 & 15 Vict., c. 99, Evidence Act 1851 (Lord Brougham’s Act) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
15 & 16 Vict. (1852)
c. 76, Common Law Procedure Act 1852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75, 148, 322, 591
c. 83, Patent Law Amendment Act 1852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
17 & 18 Vict. (1854)
c. 31, Railway and Canal Traffic Act 1854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
c. 125, Common Law Procedure Act 1854. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
18 & 19 Vict., c. 41, Ecclesiastical Courts Act 1855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
19 & 20 Vict., c. 120, Settled Estates Act 1856. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
20 & 21 Vict. (1857)
c. 43, Summary Jurisdiction Act 1857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
c. 54 (fraud by trustee or bailee). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
c. 77, Court of Probate Act 1857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
c. 85, Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 536
Table of Statutes xix
21 & 22 Vict., c. 106, Government of India Act 1858. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

23 & 24 Vict., c. 144, Matrimonial Causes Act 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
24 & 25 Vict., c. 97, Malicious Damage Act 1861. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
24 & 25 Vict., c. 100, Offences against the Person Act 1861 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233, 573
25 & 26 Vict. (1862)
c. 68, Copyright Act 1862 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
c. 88, Merchandise Marks Act 1862 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
28 & 29 Vict., c. 99 (county courts, 1865) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
30 & 31 Vict., c. 35, Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
32 & 33 Vict. (1869)
c. 46, Administration of Estates Act 1869 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
c. 110, Debtors Act 1869. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
33 & 34 Vict. (1870)
c. 14, Naturalization Act 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
c. 93, Married Women’s Property Act 1870. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
36 & 37 Vict., c. 66, Judicature Act 1873. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58–9, 75, 123, 148, 152, 173
38 & 39 Vict. (1875)
c. 77, Judicature Act 1875 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
c. 86, Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
c. 91, Trade Marks Registration Act 1875. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
39 & 40 Vict., c. 59, Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152–3
40 & 41 Vict., c. 18, Settled Estates Act 1877. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
43 & 44 Vict., c. 42, Employers’ Liability Act 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
44 & 45 Vict., c. 60, Newspaper Libel and Registration Act 1881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
45 & 46 Vict. (1882)
c. 38, Settled Land Act 1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
c. 51, Bills of Exchange Act 1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
c. 75, Married Women’s Property Act 1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
46 & 47 Vict. (1883)
c. 38, Trial of Lunatics Act 1883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
c. 57, Patents, Designs and Trademarks Act 1883. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
51 & 52 Vict. (1888)
c. 41, Local Government Act 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160, 226
c. 64, Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
53 & 54 Vict. (1890)
c. 39, Partnership Act 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
c. 44, Sir Robert Finlay’s Act 1890 (judicature) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
c. 69, Settled Land Act 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
54 & 55 Vict., c. 51, Slander of Women Act 1891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
56 & 57 Vict. (1893)
c. 63, Married Women’s Property Act 1893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
c. 71, Sale of Goods Act 1893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234, 372, 380, 382
60 & 61 Vict. (1897)
c. 65, Land Transfer Act 1897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
c. 87, Workmen’s Compensation Act 1897 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
61 & 62 Vict., c. 36, Criminal Evidence Act 1898 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
6 Edw. VII (1906)
c. 47, Trade Disputes Act 1906 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496–7
c. 58, Workmen’s Compensation Act 1906 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
7 Edw. VII, c. 47, Deceased Wife’s Sister’s Marriage Act 1907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
1 & 2 Geo. V, c. 13, Parliament Act 1911. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
9 & 10 Geo. V, c. 71, Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183, 500
10 & 11 Geo. V, c. 55, Emergency Powers Act 1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .513
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
become
Consciousness direction extension
organic mechanical
symbol, number,
portrait, notion.
↓ ↓
History Nature
World-image Rhythm, form. Tension,
law.
Physiognomic Systematic.
.
Facts Truths
Seeking thus to obtain a clear idea of the unifying principle out of
which each of these two worlds is conceived, we find that
mathematically-controlled cognition relates always (and the purer it
is, the more directly) to a continuous present. The picture of nature
dealt with by the physicist is that which is deployed before his senses
at the given moment. It is one of the tacit, but none the less firm,
presuppositions of nature-research that “Nature” (die Natur) is the
same for every consciousness and for all times. An experiment is
decisive for good and all; time being, not precisely denied, but
eliminated from the field of investigation. Real history rests on an
equally certain sense of the contrary; what it presupposes as its
origin is a nearly indescribable sensitive faculty within, which is
continuously labile under continuous impressions, and is incapable
therefore of possessing what may be called a centre of time.[83] (We
shall consider later what the physicist means by “time.”) The picture
of history—be it the history of mankind, of the world of organisms, of
the earth or of the stellar systems—is a memory-picture. “Memory,”
in this connexion, is conceived as a higher state (certainly not proper
to every consciousness and vouchsafed to many in only a low
degree), a perfectly definite kind of imagining power, which enables
experience to traverse each particular moment sub specie æternitatis
as one point in an integral made up of all the past and all the future,
and it forms the necessary basis of all looking-backward, all self-
knowledge and all self-confession. In this sense, Classical man has
no memory and therefore no history, either in or around himself. “No
man can judge history but one who has himself experienced history,”
says Goethe. In the Classical world-consciousness all Past was
absorbed in the instant Present. Compare the entirely historical
heads of the Nürnberg Cathedral sculptures, of Dürer, of Rembrandt,
with those of Hellenistic sculpture, for instance the famous
Sophocles statue. The former tell the whole history of a soul,
whereas the latter rigidly confines itself to expressing the traits of a
momentary being, and tells nothing of how this being is the issue of a
course of life—if indeed we can speak of “course of life” at all in
connexion with a purely Classical man, who is always complete and
never becoming.
VI
And now it is possible to discover the ultimate elements of the
historical form-world.
Countless shapes that emerge and vanish, pile up and melt again,
a thousand-hued glittering tumult, it seems, of perfectly wilful chance
—such is the picture of world-history when first it deploys before our
inner eye. But through this seeming anarchy, the keener glance can
detect those pure forms which underlie all human becoming,
penetrate their cloud-mantle, and bring them unwillingly to unveil.
But of the whole picture of world-becoming, of that cumulus of
grand planes that the Faust-eye[84] sees piled one beyond another—
the becoming of the heavens, of the earth’s crust, of life, of man—we
shall deal here only with that very small morphological unit that we
are accustomed to call “world-history,” that history which Goethe
ended by despising, the history of higher mankind during 6000 years
or so, without going into the deep problem of the inward homogeneity
of all these aspects. What gives this fleeting form-world meaning and
substance, and what has hitherto lain buried deep under a mass of
tangible “facts” and “dates” that has hardly yet been bored through, is
the phenomenon of the Great Cultures. Only after these prime forms
shall have been seen and felt and worked out in respect of their
physiognomic meaning will it be possible to say that the essence and
inner form of human History as opposed to the essence of Nature
are understood—or rather, that we understand them. Only after this
inlook and this outlook will a serious philosophy of history become
feasible. Only then will it be possible to see each fact in the historical
picture—each idea, art, war, personality, epoch—according to its
symbolic content, and to regard history not as a mere sum of past
things without intrinsic order or inner necessity, but as an organism of
rigorous structure and significant articulation, an organism that does
not suddenly dissolve into a formless and ambiguous future when it
reaches the accidental present of the observer.
Cultures are organisms, and world-history is their collective
biography. Morphologically, the immense history of the Chinese or of
the Classical Culture is the exact equivalent of the petty history of the
individual man, or of the animal, or the tree, or the flower. For the
Faustian vision, this is not a postulate but an experience; if we want
to learn to recognize inward forms that constantly and everywhere
repeat themselves, the comparative morphology[85] of plants and
animals has long ago given us the methods. In the destinies of the
several Cultures that follow upon one another, grow up with one
another, touch, overshadow, and suppress one another, is
compressed the whole content of human history. And if we set free
their shapes, till now hidden all too deep under the surface of a trite
“history of human progress,” and let them march past us in the spirit,
it cannot but be that we shall succeed in distinguishing, amidst all
that is special or unessential, the primitive culture-form, the Culture
that underlies as ideal all the individual Cultures.
I distinguish the idea of a Culture, which is the sum total of its inner
possibilities, from its sensible phenomenon or appearance upon the
canvas of history as a fulfilled actuality. It is the relation of the soul to
the living body, to its expression in the light-world perceptible to our
eyes. This history of a Culture is the progressive actualizing of its
possible, and the fulfilment is equivalent to the end. In this way the
Apollinian soul, which some of us can perhaps understand and share
in, is related to its unfolding in the realm of actuality, to the “Classical”
or “antique” as we call it, of which the tangible and understandable
relics are investigated by the archæologist, the philologist, the
æsthetic and the historian.
Culture is the prime phenomenon of all past and future world-
history. The deep, and scarcely appreciated, idea of Goethe, which
he discovered in his “living nature” and always made the basis of his
morphological researches, we shall here apply—in its most precise
sense—to all the formations of man’s history, whether fully matured,
cut off in the prime, half opened or stifled in the seed. It is the method
of living into (erfühlen) the object, as opposed to dissecting it. “The
highest to which man can attain, is wonder; and if the prime
phenomenon makes him wonder, let him be content; nothing higher
can it give him, and nothing further should he seek for behind it; here
is the limit.” The prime phenomenon is that in which the idea of
becoming is presented net. To the spiritual eye of Goethe the idea of
the prime plant was clearly visible in the form of every individual plant
that happened to come up, or even that could possibly come up. In
his investigation of the “os intermaxillare” his starting-point was the
prime phenomenon of the vertebrate type; and in other fields it was
geological stratification, or the leaf as the prime form of the plant-
organism, or the metamorphosis of the plants as the prime form of all
organic becoming. “The same law will apply to everything else that
lives,” he wrote, in announcing his discovery to Herder. It was a look
into the heart of things that Leibniz would have understood, but the
century of Darwin is as remote from such a vision as it is possible to
be.
At present, however, we look in vain for any treatment of history
that is entirely free from the methods of Darwinism—that is, of
systematic natural science based on causality. A physiognomic that
is precise, clear and sure of itself and its limits has never yet arisen,
and it can only arise through the discoveries of method that we have
yet to make. Herein lies the great problem set for the 20th Century to
solve—to explore carefully the inner structure of the organic units
through and in which world-history fulfils itself, to separate the
morphologically necessary from the accidental, and, by seizing the
purport of events, to ascertain the languages in which they speak.
VII
A boundless mass of human Being, flowing in a stream without

banks; up-stream, a dark past wherein our time-sense loses all
powers of definition and restless or uneasy fancy conjures up
geological periods to hide away an eternally-unsolvable riddle; down-
stream, a future even so dark and timeless—such is the groundwork
of the Faustian picture of human history.
Over the expanse of the water passes the endless uniform wave-
train of the generations. Here and there bright shafts of light broaden
out, everywhere dancing flashes confuse and disturb the clear mirror,
changing, sparkling, vanishing. These are what we call the clans,
tribes, peoples, races which unify a series of generations within this
or that limited area of the historical surface. As widely as these differ
in creative power, so widely do the images that they create vary in
duration and plasticity, and when the creative power dies out, the
physiognomic, linguistic and spiritual identification-marks vanish also
and the phenomenon subsides again into the ruck of the
generations. Aryans, Mongols, Germans, Kelts, Parthians, Franks,
Carthaginians, Berbers, Bantus are names by which we specify
some very heterogeneous images of this order.
But over this surface, too, the great Cultures[86] accomplish their
majestic wave-cycles. They appear suddenly, swell in splendid lines,
flatten again and vanish, and the face of the waters is once more a
sleeping waste.
A Culture is born in the moment when a great soul awakens out of
the proto-spirituality (dem urseelenhaften Zustande) of ever-childish
humanity, and detaches itself, a form from the formless, a bounded
and mortal thing from the boundless and enduring. It blooms on the
soil of an exactly-definable landscape, to which plant-wise it remains
bound. It dies when this soul has actualized the full sum of its
possibilities in the shape of peoples, languages, dogmas, arts,
states, sciences, and reverts into the proto-soul. But its living
existence, that sequence of great epochs which define and display
the stages of fulfilment, is an inner passionate struggle to maintain
the Idea against the powers of Chaos without and the unconscious
muttering deep-down within. It is not only the artist who struggles
against the resistance of the material and the stifling of the idea
within him. Every Culture stands in a deeply-symbolical, almost in a
mystical, relation to the Extended, the space, in which and through
which it strives to actualize itself. The aim once attained—the idea,
the entire content of inner possibilities, fulfilled and made externally
actual—the Culture suddenly hardens, it mortifies, its blood
congeals, its force breaks down, and it becomes Civilization, the
thing which we feel and understand in the words Egypticism,
Byzantinism, Mandarinism. As such they may, like a worn-out giant
of the primeval forest, thrust their decaying branches towards the sky
for hundreds or thousands of years, as we see in China, in India, in
the Islamic world. It was thus that the Classical Civilization rose
gigantic, in the Imperial age, with a false semblance of youth and
strength and fullness, and robbed the young Arabian Culture of the
East of light and air.[87]
This—the inward and outward fulfilment, the finality, that awaits
every living Culture—is the purport of all the historic “declines,”
amongst them that decline of the Classical which we know so well
and fully, and another decline, entirely comparable to it in course and
duration, which will occupy the first centuries of the coming
millennium but is heralded already and sensible in and around us to-
day—the decline of the West.[88] Every Culture passes through the
age-phases of the individual man. Each has its childhood, youth,
manhood and old age. It is a young and trembling soul, heavy with
misgivings, that reveals itself in the morning of Romanesque and
Gothic. It fills the Faustian landscape from the Provence of the
troubadours to the Hildesheim cathedral of Bishop Bernward.[89] The
spring wind blows over it. “In the works of the old-German
architecture,” says Goethe, “one sees the blossoming of an
extraordinary state. Anyone immediately confronted with such a
blossoming can do no more than wonder; but one who can see into
the secret inner life of the plant and its rain of forces, who can
observe how the bud expands, little by little, sees the thing with quite
other eyes and knows what he is seeing.” Childhood speaks to us
also—and in the same tones—out of early-Homeric Doric, out of
early-Christian (which is really early-Arabian) art and out of the works
of the Old Kingdom in Egypt that began with the Fourth Dynasty.
There a mythic world-consciousness is fighting like a harassed
debtor against all the dark and daemonic in itself and in Nature, while
slowly ripening itself for the pure, day-bright expression of the
existence that it will at last achieve and know. The more nearly a
Culture approaches the noon culmination of its being, the more virile,
austere, controlled, intense the form-language it has secured for
itself, the more assured its sense of its own power, the clearer its
lineaments. In the spring all this had still been dim and confused,
tentative, filled with childish yearning and fears—witness the
ornament of Romanesque-Gothic church porches of Saxony[90] and
southern France, the early-Christian catacombs, the Dipylon[91]
vases. But there is now the full consciousness of ripened creative
power that we see in the time of the early Middle Kingdom of Egypt,
in the Athens of the Pisistratidæ, in the age of Justinian, in that of the
Counter-Reformation, and we find every individual trait of expression
deliberate, strict, measured, marvellous in its ease and self-
confidence. And we find, too, that everywhere, at moments, the
coming fulfilment suggested itself; in such moments were created the
head of Amenemhet III (the so-called “Hyksos Sphinx” of Tanis), the
domes of Hagia Sophia, the paintings of Titian. Still later, tender to
the point of fragility, fragrant with the sweetness of late October days,
come the Cnidian Aphrodite and the Hall of the Maidens in the
Erechtheum, the arabesques on Saracen horseshoe-arches, the
Zwinger of Dresden, Watteau, Mozart. At last, in the grey dawn of
Civilization, the fire in the Soul dies down. The dwindling powers rise
to one more, half-successful, effort of creation, and produce the
Classicism that is common to all dying Cultures. The soul thinks once
again, and in Romanticism looks back piteously to its childhood; then
finally, weary, reluctant, cold, it loses its desire to be, and, as in
Imperial Rome, wishes itself out of the overlong daylight and back in
the darkness of protomysticism, in the womb of the mother, in the
grave. The spell of a “second religiousness”[92] comes upon it, and
Late-Classical man turns to the practice of the cults of Mithras, of
Isis, of the Sun—those very cults into which a soul just born in the
East has been pouring a new wine of dreams and fears and
loneliness.
VIII
The term “habit” (Habitus) is used of a plant to signify the special
way, proper to itself, in which it manifests itself, i.e., the character,
course and duration of its appearance in the light-world where we
can see it. By its habit each kind is distinguished, in respect of each
part and each phase of its existence, from all examples of other
species. We may apply this useful notion of “habit” in our
physiognomic of the grand organisms and speak of the habit of the
Indian, Egyptian or Classical Culture, history or spirituality. Some
vague inkling of it has always, for that matter, underlain the notion of
style, and we shall not be forcing but merely clearing and deepening
that word if we speak of the religious, intellectual, political, social or
economic style[93] of a Culture. This “habit” of existence in space,
which covers in the case of the individual man action and thought
and conduct and disposition, embraces in the case or the existence
of whole Cultures the totality of life-expressions of the higher order.
The choice of particular branches of art (e.g., the round and fresco
by the Hellenes, counterpoint and oil-painting by the West) and the
out-and-out rejection of others (e.g., of plastic by the Arabs);
inclination to the esoteric (India) or the popular (Greece and Rome);
preference for oratory (Classical) or for writing (China, the West) as
the form of spiritual communication, are all style-manifestations, and
so also are the various types of costume, of administration, of
transport, of social courtesies. All great personalities of the Classical
world form a self-contained group, whose spiritual habit is definitely
different from that of all great men of the Arabian or the Western
groups. Compare even Goethe and Raphael with Classical men, and
Heraclitus, Sophocles, Plato, Alcibiades, Themistocles, Horace and
Tiberius rank themselves together instantly as members of one
family. Every Classical Cosmopolis—from Hiero’s Syracuse to
Imperial Rome the embodiment and sense-picture of one and the
same life-feeling—differs radically in lay-out and street-plan, in the
language of its public and private architecture, in the type of its
squares, alleys, courts, façades, in its colour, noises, street-life and
night-life, from the group of Indian or that of Arabian or that of
Western world-cities. Baghdad and Cairo could be felt in Granada
long after the conquest; even Philip II’s Madrid had all the
physiognomic hall-marks of modern London and Paris. There is a
high symbolism in every dissimilarity of this sort. Contrast the
Western tendency to straight-lined perspectives and street-
alignments (such as the grand tract of the Champs-Elysées from the
Louvre, or the Piazza before St. Peter’s) with the almost deliberate
complexity and narrowness of the Via Sacra, the Forum Romanum
and the Acropolis, whose parts are arranged without symmetry and
with no perspective. Even the town-planning—whether darkly as in
the Gothic or consciously as in the ages of Alexander and Napoleon
—reflects the same principle as the mathematic—in the one case the
Leibnizian mathematic of infinite space, in the other the Euclidean
mathematic of separate bodies.[94] But to the “habit” of a group
belong, further, its definite life-duration and its definite tempo of
development. Both of these are properties which we must not fail to
take into account in a historical theory of structure. The rhythm (Takt)
of Classical existence was different from that of Egyptian or Arabian;
and we can fairly speak of the andante of Greece and Rome and the
allegro con brio of the Faustian spirit.
The notion of life-duration as applied to a man, a butterfly, an oak,
a blade of grass, comprises a specific time-value, which is quite
independent of all the accidents of the individual case. Ten years are
a slice of life which is approximately equivalent for all men, and the
metamorphosis of insects is associated with a number of days
exactly known and predictable in individual cases. For the Romans
the notions of pueritia, adolescentia, iuventus, virilitas, senectus
possessed an almost mathematically precise meaning. Without
doubt the biology of the future will—in opposition to Darwinism and to
the exclusion in principle of causal fitness-motives for the origins of
species—take these pre-ordained life durations as the starting-point
for a new enunciation of its problem.[95] The duration of a generation
—whatever may be its nature—is a fact of almost mystical
significance.
Now, such relations are valid also, and to an extent never hitherto
imagined, for all the higher Cultures. Every Culture, every
adolescence and maturing and decay of a Culture, every one of its
intrinsically necessary stages and periods, has a definite duration,
always the same, always recurring with the emphasis of a symbol. In
the present work we cannot attempt to open up this world of most
mysterious connexions, but the facts that will emerge again and
again as we go on will tell us of themselves how much lies hidden
here. What is the meaning of that striking fifty-year period, the rhythm
of the political, intellectual and artistic “becoming” of all Cultures?[96]
Of the 300-year period of the Baroque, of the Ionic, of the great
mathematics, of Attic sculpture, of mosaic painting, of counterpoint,
of Galileian mechanics? What does the ideal life of one millennium
for each Culture mean in comparison with the individual man’s
"three-score years and ten"? As the plant’s being is brought to
expression in form, dress and carriage by leaves, blossoms, twigs
and fruit, so also is the being of a Culture manifested by its religious,
intellectual, political and economic formations. Just as, say, Goethe’s
individuality discourses of itself in such widely-different forms as the
Faust, the Farbenlehre, the Reineke Fuchs, Tasso, Werther, the
journey to Italy and the Friederike love, the Westöstliche Diwan and
the Römische Elegien; so the individuality of the Classical world
displays itself in the Persian wars, the Attic drama, the City-State, the
Dionysia and not less in the Tyrannis, the Ionic column, the geometry
of Euclid, the Roman legion, and the gladiatorial contests and
“panem et circenses” of the Imperial age.
In this sense, too, every individual being that has any sort of
importance recapitulates,[97] of intrinsic necessity, all the epochs of
the Culture to which it belongs. In each one of us, at that decisive
moment when he begins to know that he is an ego, the inner life
wakens just where and just how that of the Culture wakened long
ago. Each of us men of the West, in his child’s day-dreams and
child’s play, lives again its Gothic—the cathedrals, the castles, the
hero-sagas, the crusader’s “Dieu le veult,” the soul’s oath of young
Parzival. Every young Greek had his Homeric age and his Marathon.
In Goethe’s Werther, the image of a tropic youth that every Faustian
(but no Classical) man knows, the springtime of Petrarch and the
Minnesänger reappears. When Goethe blocked out the Urfaust,[98] he
was Parzival; when he finished Faust I, he was Hamlet, and only with
Faust II did he become the world-man of the 19th Century whom
Byron could understand. Even the senility of the Classical—the faddy
and unfruitful centuries of very late Hellenism, the second-childhood
of a weary and blasé intelligence—can be studied in more than one
of its grand old men. Thus, much of Euripides’ Bacchæ anticipates
the life-outlook, and much of Plato’s Timæus the religious syncretism
of the Imperial age; and Goethe’s Faust II and Wagner’s Parsifal
disclose to us in advance the shape that our spirituality will assume
in our next (in point of creative power our last) centuries.
Biology employs the term homology of organs to signify
morphological equivalence in contradistinction to the term analogy
which relates to functional equivalence. This important, and in the
sequel most fruitful, notion was conceived by Goethe (who was led
thereby to the discovery of the “os intermaxillare” in man) and put
into strict scientific shape by Owen;[99] this notion also we shall
incorporate in our historical method.
It is known that for every part of the bone-structure of the human
head an exactly corresponding part is found in all vertebrated
animals right down to the fish, and that the pectoral fins of fish and
the feet, wings and hands of terrestrial vertebrates are homologous
organs, even though they have lost every trace of similarity. The
lungs of terrestrial, and the swim-bladders of aquatic animals are
homologous, while lungs and gills on the other hand are analogous—
that is, similar in point of use.[100] And the trained and deepened
morphological insight that is required to establish such distinctions is
an utterly different thing from the present method of historical
research, with its shallow comparisons of Christ and Buddha,
Archimedes and Galileo, Cæsar and Wallenstein, parcelled Germany
and parcelled Greece. More and more clearly as we go on, we shall
realize what immense views will offer themselves to the historical eye
as soon as the rigorous morphological method has been understood
and cultivated. To name but a few examples, homologous forms are:
Classical sculpture and West European orchestration, the Fourth
Dynasty pyramids and the Gothic cathedrals, Indian Buddhism and
Roman Stoicism (Buddhism and Christianity are not even
analogous); the periods of “the Contending States” in China, the
Hyksos in Egypt and the Punic Wars; the age of Pericles and the age
of the Ommayads; the epochs of the Rigveda, of Plotinus and of
Dante. The Dionysiac movement is homologous with the
Renaissance, analogous to the Reformation. For us, "Wagner is the
résumé of modernity," as Nietzsche rightly saw; and the equivalent
that logically must exist in the Classical modernity we find in
Pergamene art. (Some preliminary notion of the fruitfulness of this
way of regarding history, may be gathered from studying the tables
included in this volume.)
The application of the “homology” principle to historical
phenomena brings with it an entirely new connotation for the word
“contemporary.” I designate as contemporary two historical facts that
occur in exactly the same—relative—positions in their respective
Cultures, and therefore possess exactly equivalent importance. It has
already been shown how the development of the Classical and that
of the Western mathematic proceeded in complete congruence, and
we might have ventured to describe Pythagoras as the contemporary
of Descartes, Archytas of Laplace, Archimedes of Gauss. The Ionic
and the Baroque, again, ran their course contemporaneously.
Polygnotus pairs in time with Rembrandt, Polycletus with Bach. The
Reformation, Puritanism and, above all, the turn to Civilization
appear simultaneously in all Cultures; in the Classical this last epoch
bears the names of Philip and Alexander, in our West those of the
Revolution and Napoleon. Contemporary, too, are the building of
Alexandria, of Baghdad, and of Washington; Classical coinage and
our double-entry book-keeping; the first Tyrannis and the Fronde;
Augustus and Shih-huang-ti;[101] Hannibal and the World War.
I hope to show that without exception all great creations and forms
in religion, art, politics, social life, economy and science appear, fulfil
themselves and die down contemporaneously in all the Cultures; that
the inner structure of one corresponds strictly with that of all the
others; that there is not a single phenomenon of deep physiognomic
importance in the record of one for which we could not find a
counterpart in the record of every other; and that this counterpart is
to be found under a characteristic form and in a perfectly definite
chronological position. At the same time, if we are to grasp such
homologies of facts, we shall need to have a far deeper insight and a
far more critical attitude towards the visible foreground of things than
historians have hitherto been wont to display; who amongst them, for
instance, would have allowed himself to dream that the counterpart
of Protestantism was to be found in the Dionysiac movement, and
that English Puritanism was for the West what Islam was for the
Arabian world?
Seen from this angle, history offers possibilities far beyond the
ambitions of all previous research, which has contented itself in the
main with arranging the facts of the past so far as these were known
(and that according to a one-line scheme)—the possibilities, namely,
of
Overpassing the present as a research-limit, and
predetermining the spiritual form, duration, rhythm, meaning and
product of the still unaccomplished stages of our western history;
and
Reconstructing long-vanished and unknown epochs, even
whole Cultures of the past, by means of morphological
connexions, in much the same way as modern palæontology
deduces far-reaching and trustworthy conclusions as to skeletal
structure and species from a single unearthed skull-fragment.
It is possible, given the physiognomic rhythm, to recover from
scattered details of ornament, building, script, or from odd political,
economic and religious data, the organic characters of whole
centuries of history, and from known elements on the scale of art-
expression, to find corresponding elements on the scale of political
forms, or from that of mathematical forms to read that of economic.
This is a truly Goethian method—rooted in fact in Goethe’s
conception of the prime phenomenon—which is already to a limited
extent current in comparative zoology, but can be extended, to a
degree hitherto undreamed of, over the whole field of history.
CHAPTER IV
THE PROBLEM OF WORLD-HISTORY

II
THE IDEA OF DESTINY AND THE PRINCIPLE

OF CAUSALITY
CHAPTER IV
THE PROBLEM OF WORLD-HISTORY

II
THE IDEA OF DESTINY AND THE PRINCIPLE OF
CAUSALITY
I
Following out this train of thought to the end, we come into the
presence of an opposition in which we perceive the key—the only
key—wherewith to approach, and (so far as the word has any
meaning at all) to solve, one of the oldest and gravest of man’s
riddles. This is the opposition of the Destiny Idea and the Causality
Principle—an opposition which, it is safe to say, has never hitherto
been recognized for what it is, the necessary foundation of world-
building.
Anyone who understands at all what is meant by saying that the
soul is the idea of an existence, will also divine a near relationship
between it and the sure sense of a destiny and must regard Life itself
(our name for the form in which the actualizing of the possible is
accomplished) as directed, irrevocable in every line, fate-laden.
Primitive man feels this dimly and anxiously, while for the man of a
higher Culture it is definite enough to become his vision of the world
—though this vision is communicable only through religion and art,
never through notions and proofs.
Every higher language possesses a number of words such as
luck, doom, conjuncture, vocation, about which there is, as it were, a
veil. No hypothesis, no science, can ever get into touch with that
which we feel when we let ourselves sink into the meaning and
sound of these words. They are symbols, not notions. In them is the
centre of gravity of that world-picture that I have called the World-as-
history as opposed to the World-as-nature. The Destiny-idea
demands life-experience and not scientific experience, the power of
seeing and not that of calculating, depth and not intellect. There is an
organic logic, an instinctive, dream-sure logic of all existence as
opposed to the logic of the inorganic, the logic of understanding and
of things understood—a logic of direction as against a logic of
extension—and no systematist, no Aristotle or Kant, has known how
to deal with it. They are on their own ground when they tell us about
“judgment,” “perception,” “awareness,” and “recollection,” but as to
what is in the words “hope,” “happiness,” “despair,” “repentance,”
“devotion,” and “consolation” they are silent. He who expects here, in
the domain of the living, to find reasons and consequences, or
imagines that an inward certainty as to the meaning of life is the
same thing as “Fatalism” or “Predestination,” simply knows nothing
of the matters in question, confusing experience lived with
experience acquired or acquirable. Causality is the reasonable, the
law-bound, the describable, the badge of our whole waking and
reasoning existence. But destiny is the word for an inner certainty
that is not describable. We bring out that which is in the causal by
means of a physical or an epistemological system, through numbers,
by reasoned classification; but the idea of destiny can be imparted
only by the artist working through media like portraiture, tragedy and
music. The one requires us to distinguish and in distinguishing to
dissect and destroy, whereas the other is creative through and
through, and thus destiny is related to life and causality to death.
In the Destiny-idea the soul reveals its world-longing, its desire to
rise into the light, to accomplish and actualize its vocation. To no
man is it entirely alien, and not before one has become the
unanchored “late” man of the megalopolis is original vision quite
overpowered by matter-of-fact feeling and mechanizing thought.
Even then, in some intense hour, the lost vision comes back to one
with terrible clearness, shattering in a moment all the causality of the
world’s surface. For the world as a system of causal connexions is
not only a “late” but also a highly rarefied conception and only the
energetic intellects of high Cultures are capable of possessing it—or
perhaps we should say, devising it—with conviction. The notion of
causality is coterminous with the notion of law: the only laws that are,
are causal laws. But just as there lies in the causal, according to
Kant, a necessity of the thinking consciousness and the basic form
of its relation to the essence of things, so also, designated by the
words destiny, dispensation, vocation, there is a something that is an
inevitable necessity of life. Real history is heavy with fate but free of
laws. One can divine the future (there is, indeed, a certain insight
that can penetrate its secrets deeply) but one cannot reckon it. The
physiognomic flair which enables one to read a whole life in a face or
to sum up whole peoples from the picture of an epoch—and to do so
without deliberate effort or “system”—is utterly remote from all
“cause and effect.”
He who comprehends the light-world that is before his eyes not
physiognomically but systematically, and makes it intellectually his
own by the methods of causal experience, must necessarily in the
end come to believe that every living thing can be understood by
reference to cause and effect—that there is no secret and no inner
directedness. He, on the other hand, who as Goethe did—and for
that matter as everyone does in nine out of ten of his waking
moments—lets the impressions of the world about him work merely
upon his senses, absorbs these impressions as a whole, feels the
become in its becoming. The stiff mask of causality is lifted by mere
ceasing to think. Suddenly, Time is no more a riddle, a notion, a
“form” or “dimension” but becomes an inner certainty, destiny itself;
and in its directedness, its irreversibility, its livingness, is disclosed
the very meaning of the historical world-picture. Destiny and
Causality are related as Time and Space.
In the two possible world-forms then—History and Nature, the
physiognomy of all becoming and the system of all things become—
destiny or causality prevails. Between them there is all the difference
between a feeling of life and a method of knowledge. Each of them is
the starting-point of a complete and self-contained, but not of a
unique world. Yet, after all, just as the become is founded upon a
becoming, so the knowledge of cause and effect is founded upon the
sure feeling of a destiny. Causality is—so to say—destiny become,
destiny made inorganic and modelled in reason-forms. Destiny itself
(passed over in silence by Kant and every other builder of rational
world-systems because with their armoury of abstractions they could
not touch life) stands beyond and outside all comprehended Nature.
Nevertheless, being itself the original, it alone gives the stiff dead
principle of cause-and-effect the opportunity to figure in the later
scenes of a culture-drama, alive and historical, as the incarnation of
a tyrannical thinking. The existence of the Classical soul is the
condition for the appearance of Democritus’s method, the existence
of the Faustian soul for that of Newton’s. We may well imagine that
either of these Cultures might have failed to produce a natural
science of its own, but we cannot imagine the systems without their
cultural foundations.
Here again we see how becoming and the become, direction and
extension, include one another and are subordinated each to the
other, according as we are in the historical or in the “natural” focus. If
history is that kind of world-order in which all the become is fitted to
the becoming, then the products of scientific work must inter alia be
so handled; and, in fact, for the historical eye there is only a history
of physics. It was Destiny that the discoveries of oxygen, Neptune,
gravitation and spectrum analysis happened as and when they did. It
was Destiny that the phlogiston theory, the undulatory theory of light,
the kinetic theory of gases could arise at all, seeing that they were
elucidations of results and, as such, highly personal to their
respective authors, and that other theories (“correct” or “erroneous”)
might equally well have been developed instead. And it is again
Destiny and the result of strong personality when one theory
vanishes and another becomes the lodestar of the physicist’s world.
Even the born physicist speaks of the “fate” of a problem or the
“history” of a discovery.
Conversely, if “Nature” is that constitution of things in which the
becoming should logically be incorporated in the thing-become, and
living direction in rigid extension, history may best be treated as a
chapter of epistemology; and so indeed Kant would have treated it if
he had remembered to include it at all in his system of knowledge.
Significantly enough, he did not; for him as for every born
systematist Nature is The World, and when he discusses time
without noticing that it has direction and is irreversible, we see that
he is dealing with the Nature-world and has no inkling of the
possibility of another, the history-world. Perhaps, for Kant, this other
world was actually impossible.
Now, Causality has nothing whatever to do with Time. To the world
of to-day, made up of Kantians who know not how Kantian they are,
this must seem an outrageous paradox. And yet every formula of

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Preface to the Fifth Edition

vi Preface to the Fifth Edition

Preface to the Fifth Edition v

2 The Common Law of England 15

3 The Superior Courts of Common Law 44

5 The Jury and Pleading 78

6 The Court of Chancery and Equity 105

7 The Conciliar Courts 126

8 The Ecclesiastical Courts 135

9 Judicial Review of Decisions 145

10 The Legal Profession 165

11 Legal Literature 185

12 Law Making 206

13 Real Property: Feudal Tenure 241

14 Real Property: Uses and Fiscal Feudalism 267

15 Real Property: Inheritance and Estates 279

16 Real Property: Family Settlements 299

17 Other Interests in Land 317

18 Contract: Covenant and Debt 338

19 Contract: Assumpsit and Deceit 350

20 Contract: Some Later Developments 369

22 Property in Chattels Personal 403

26 Economic Torts and Interests 479

27 Persons: Status and Liberty 499

28 Persons: Marriage and its Consequences 517

29 Pleas of the Crown: Criminal Procedure 540

30 Pleas of the Crown: The Substantive Criminal Law 562

Appendix I: Specimen Writs 580

Table of Statutes xiii

20 Hen. III, Provisions of Merton 1236 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218

xiv Table of Statutes

28 Edw. I, Articuli super Cartas 1300

17 Ric. II, c. 6 (subpoena, 1393). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

xvi Table of Statutes

24 Hen. VIII, c. 12, Restraint of Appeals 1532 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Table of Statutes xvii

22 & 23 Car. II (1670)

xviii Table of Statutes

Table of Statutes xix

21 & 22 Vict., c. 106, Government of India Act 1858. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

A boundless mass of human Being, flowing in a stream without

THE PROBLEM OF WORLD-HISTORY

THE IDEA OF DESTINY AND THE PRINCIPLE

THE PROBLEM OF WORLD-HISTORY

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