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Leibniz on the Problem of Evil
Leibniz on the Problem
of Evil
Paul Rateau

1
 1
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Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data

Names: Rateau, Paul, author.
Title: Leibniz on the problem of evil / Paul Rateau.
Other titles: Question du mal chez Leibniz. English
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2019. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018050787 (print) | LCCN 2019011220 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780199996513 (updf) | ISBN 9780199350971 (online content) |
ISBN 9780190054564 (epub) | ISBN 9780199996506 (cloth : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, Freiherr von, 1646-1716. Essais
de th?eodic?ee. | Theodicy. | Good and evil. | Free will and determinism.
Classification: LCC B2590 .Z7 (ebook) | LCC B2590 .Z7 R3813 2019 (print) |
DDC 231/.8—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018050787

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

 CON T E N T S

Acknowledgments  vii
List of Abbreviations   ix

Introduction  1
1. The Existence of Evil   1
2. Evil Considered in Relation to Justice   5
3. A Vocation: To Defend God’s Justice   10
1. Difficulties Concerning the Justification of God in the Years
Prior to 1673  18
1.1. Early Reading and the Relation of Justice to Power   18
1.2. A Just God, Who Is Nevertheless The Author of Sin?   32
2. The Confession of a Philosopher: Divine Justice and the Necessity
of Sin  54
2.1. God as Ground, but Not Author of Evil   54
2.2. Permission of Evil and the Distinction of Two Kinds of
Necessity: A Limited Rehabilitation   66
3. Theoretical Changes After the Confession of a Philosopher: Toward
a New Conception of God, the Possible, and Divine Concurrence
with Evil  88
3.1. A Revised Theology and Metaphysics   89
3.2. The Origin of Evil and God’s Physical Concurrence   108
3.3. God’s Moral Concurrence with Evil and the Relation of
Part to Whole  119
4. The Genesis of Theodicy: Its Scientific and Apologetic Aims   142
4.1. From the Project of “Theodicies” to the Composition of the Essays
of Theodicy: Systematic Necessity and Occasional Cause   143
4.2. Theodicy as Defense: Ignorance of Detail, Presumptions,
and Probabilities  160
5. The Best of All Possible Worlds and Divine Permission of Evil   183
5.1. The Thesis of the Best of All Possible Worlds   184

(v)
 ( vi ) Contents

5.2. The Moral Necessity of the Divine Choice   200

5.3. God’s Moral Concurrence with Evil: The Doctrine of
Permission  216
6. Evil in Being and in the Actions of Creatures: Reality or
Appearance?  241
6.1. God’s Physical Concurrence, the Origin and Nature of Evil   241
6.2. The Inertial Model and Its Application to Creaturely Actions:
From Peccability to Malice   258
6.3. Real Defect or False Appearance: A Dual Conception of
Evil  276
7. Human Freedom and Principles of Action   300
7.1. The Labyrinth of the Free and the Necessary and the Prerequisites
of Freedom   302
7.2. From the Ideal to the Real: The Exercise of Freedom and the
Maxims of Leibnizian Ethics   323
Conclusion  345

Bibliography  351
Index  359
 AC K N O W L E D GM E N T S

I would like to express my deep gratitude to Todd Ryan for his very careful
translation, helpful advice, and comments. This work would not have been
possible without his continuing commitment and friendly support.
I would also like to thank Mark Kulstad who first had the idea for this
project and Samuel Newlands who warmly welcomed and supported it.
Finally, I am grateful to the John Templeton Foundation who generously
granted their financial support.

( vii )
 A B B R EV I AT ION S

ABBREVIATIONS FOR LEIBNIZ’S WORKS

A Leibniz: Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe. Edited by Prussian

Academy, then Berlin-​Brandenburg Academy, and Academy
of Göttingen. Darmstadt, then Leipzig and Berlin, 1923–​.
Cited by series, volume, and page number.
AG Philosophical Essays. Translated by Roger Ariew and Daniel
Garber. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1989.
C Opuscules et fragments inédits de Leibniz. Extraits des
manuscrits de la bibliothèque de Hanovre. Edited by Louis
Couturat. Paris: Alcan, 1903; repr. Hildesheim: Georg
Olms, 1966.
Causa Dei Causa Dei asserta per Justitiam ejus, cum caeteris ejus
Perfectionibus, cunctisque Actionibus conciliatam. Cited by
section number.
CP Confessio Philosophi (The Confession of a Philosopher).
DM Discourse on Metaphysics. Cited by section number.
Dutens G. G. Leibnitii Opera omnia, Nunc primum collecta. In Classes
distributa, praefationibus et indicibus exornata, studio
L. Dutens. 6 vols. Geneva: 1768; repr. Hildesheim: Georg
Olms, 1990.
FC (L) Lettres et Opuscules inédits de Leibniz. Introduction by
Louis-​Alexandre Foucher de Careil. Paris: Ladrange, 1854;
repr. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1975.
FC (NL) Nouvelles lettres et opuscules inédits de Leibniz. Introduction
by Louis-​Alexandre Foucher de Careil. Paris: Durand, 1857;
repr. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1971.
FC (O) Œuvres de Leibniz, publiées pour la première fois d’après
les manuscrits originaux. Notes and introduction by

( ix )
 (x) List of Abbreviations

Louis-​Alexandre Foucher de Careil. 7 vols. Paris: Didot,

1859–​1875; repr. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1969.
GB Briefwechsel zwischen Leibniz und Christian Wolff. Aus den
Handschriften der Königlichen Bibliothek zu Hannover. Edited
by C. I. Gerhardt. Halle: 1860; repr. Hildesheim: Georg
Olms, 1971.
GM Leibnizens mathematische Schriften. Edited by C. I.
Gerhardt. 7 vols. Berlin then Halle: 1849–​1863; repr.
Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1962. Cited by volume and page
number.
GP Die philosophischen Schriften von Leibniz. Edited
by C. I. Gerhardt. 7 vols. Berlin 1875–​1890; repr.
Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1960–​1961. Cited by volume and
page number.
Grua Leibniz. Textes inédits d’après les manuscrits de la Bibliothèque
provinciale de Hanovre, ed. and notes by Gaston Grua.
2 vols. Paris: PUF, 1948.
Guhrauer Leibniz’s Deutsche Schriften. Edited by G. E. Guhrauer.
2 vols. Berlin, 1838–​1840.
Huggard Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Theodicy. Essays on the Goodness
of God, the Freedom of Man and the Origin of Evil. Edited and
with an introduction by Austin Farrer. Translated by E. M.
Huggard. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952.
Klopp Die Werke von Leibniz gemäss seinem handschriftlichen
Nachlasse in der Königlichen Bibliothek zu Hannover. Edited
by O. Klopp. Series I. 11 vols. Hanover, 1864–​1884.
L G. W. Leibniz. Philosophical Papers and Letters. Edited
and translated by Leroy E. Loemker. Dordrecht: Reidel,
1969.
LR The Leibniz-​Des Bosses Correspondence. Edited and
translated by Brandon C. Look and Donald Rutherford.
New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007.
Mollat Mittheilungen aus Leibnizens ungedruckten Schriften. Edited
by Georg Mollat. Kassel, 1887; repr. Leipzig, 1893.
NE New Essays on Human Understanding. Cited by book,
chapter, and section number.
Pk De Summa Rerum: Metaphysical Papers, 1675–​1676. Edited
and translated by G. H. R. Parkinson. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1992.
PNG The Principles of Nature and of Grace, Based on Reason. Cited
by section number.
 List of Abbreviations ( xi )

R The Political Writings of Leibniz. Edited and translated

by Patrick Riley. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1972.
RB New Essays on Human Understanding. Translated
by Peter Remnant and Jonathan Francis Bennett.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
S Monadology and Other Philosophical Essays. Gottfried
Wilhelm von Leibniz. Translated by Paul and Anne
Martin Schrecker. With an Introduction and Notes
by Paul Schrecker. Indianapolis, New York, Kansas
City: Bobbs-​Merrill, 1965.
Sleigh G. W. Leibniz. Confessio Philosophi. Papers Concerning the
Problem of Evil, 1671–​1678. Edited, translated, and with
an introduction by Robert C. Sleigh, Jr. New Haven and
London: Yale University Press, 2005.
SLT The Shorter Leibniz Texts: A Collection of New
Translations. Edited and translated by Lloyd Strickland.
London: Continuum, 2006.
T Theodicy: Essays on the Goodness of God, the Freedom of Man
and the Origin of Evil. Cited by section number.
T ob Observations on the Book Concerning the Origin of Evil
Published Recently in England. Cited by section number.
T pd Preliminary Discourse on the Conformity of Faith with Reason.
Cited by section number.
T ref Reflections on the Work Published by M. Hobbes in English on
Freedom, Necessity and Chance. Cited by section number.
Ts Summary of the Controversy reduced to Formal Arguments.

ABBREVIATIONS FOR OTHER PRIMARY SOURCES

Aquinas

ST Summa Theologica. Translated by Fathers of the English

Dominican Province. New York: Benzinger Brothers, 1947.

Bayle

OD Œuvres Diverses de Mr. Pierre Bayle. 4 vols. The

Hague: 1727–​1761; repr. Hildesheim: Georg Olms,
1964–​1982.
 ( xii ) List of Abbreviations

Descartes

AT Œuvres de Descartes. Edited by Charles Adam and

Paul Tannery, 11 vols. (plus a vol. including biography
and supplement). Paris: L. Cerf, 1897–​1913. New
edition: Paris: Vrin/​CNRS, 1964–​1974.
CSM The Philosophical Writings of Descartes. Edited and
translated by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, and
Dugald Murdoch. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1985.
CSMK The Philosophical Writings of Descartes. Volume 3: The
Correspondence. Translated and edited by John
Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dugald Murdoch, and
Anthony Kenny. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1991.

Hobbes

EW The English Works of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury. Edited

by William Molesworth. 11 vols. London: Bohn, Longman,
Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1839–​1845.

Luther

WA D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe [Weimarer

Ausgabe]. 120 vols. Weimar: H. Böhlau and H. Böhlaus
Nachfolger, 1883–​2009.
Leibniz on the Problem of Evil
 Introduction

1. THE EXISTENCE OF EVIL

Let it be said from the outset: for Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–​1716),
evil is not an enigma or an “unparalleled challenge” threatening to put an
end to philosophy and rational theology. Far from posing an unsolvable
theoretical problem,1 evil does not defy rational investigation. Nor does
this examination lead to the denial of the reality of evil in the world—​al-
though Leibniz refuses to exaggerate its extent, with the result that he has
sometimes appeared to commentators as lacking a “dramatic sense of sin”2
and as shrugging off the “tragedy of human existence.”3 On the contrary,
for Leibniz, the fact of evil is undeniable:

[O]‌ne cannot deny that there is in the world physical evil (that is, suffering) and
moral evil (that is, crime) and even that physical evil is not always distributed
here on earth according to the proportion of moral evil, as it seems that justice
demands.4

Evil is not a mere appearance that results from our partial under-
standing of things and vanishes altogether when we regard the universe
from the correct point of view. Although, metaphysically speaking, evil is
merely a privation, it is not a pure nothing, but that which limits perfection
and being and so resists and impedes the good. The forms that evil takes
(flaws, disorders, natural calamities, monsters, errors, ignorance, sin, vice
and pain) are as varied as the good it limits, even if it is reduced at Theodicy
§21 to three fundamental kinds (metaphysical, physical, and moral evil).

(1)
 (2) Leibniz on the Problem of Evil

Leibniz neither questions nor seeks to minimize either the effects them-
selves or their pervasiveness—​ indeed, prosperity—​ in the world. In
thinking about evil, Leibniz does not ignore experience, even if he refutes
objections against providence based solely on its evidence.
Leibniz is not unaware of the evils and misfortunes of his time. On the
contrary, his philosophical investigation is undertaken from a practical
perspective. As Donald Rutherford has convincingly argued,5 Leibniz’s
Theodicy and metaphysics are indissolubly linked to moral concerns and
are wholly oriented toward the improvement of the human condition
through the exercise of reason. However, his goal is not exclusively moral
in the strict sense of the term, for it is also, more broadly, political and re-
ligious. In keeping with his well-​known motto, Theoria cum praxi (“Theory
with Practice”), Leibniz’s philosophical reflection on evil is accompanied by
a constant and relentless struggle against the concrete forms in which evil
appears in the world. The various undertakings and projects he pursued
during the course of his life—​however various and disparate they may
appear—​were all born of a desire to work for the perfection and happi-
ness of human beings, including at the material level, by relieving their
misery. These efforts included attempts at reunification of the churches
(both among the Protestant churches and with Rome); scientific projects
(an encyclopedia of human knowledge, plans for the foundation of
academies and learned societies); mathematical and technical inventions;
support for the arts and literature; research relating to demographics and
the economy (especially the idea of founding insurance funds and creating
public storehouses permanently stocked with primary goods); proposals
to reform the law and contemporary judicial procedures; and political and
diplomatic missions. All of these projects and undertakings illustrate his
firm conviction that intellectual activity ought not to be separated from ac-
tion and “engagement” in the world in the service of neighbor and society.
The just man must consider everything he does and everything for which
he labors from the perspective of the “general good” and the glory of God.
Leibniz well understood the contemporary situation in Germany, which
had been exhausted by the Thirty Years’ War (1618–​1648). He describes
the suffering of this war, which saw German princes tear each other apart,
and whose effects continued to be felt long after the signing of the Treaty
of Westphalia.6 In various pamphlets and manifestos, Leibniz took excep-
tion to the expansionist politics of France and denounced the disastrous
consequences of the wars instigated by Louis XIV.7 In a letter to Marshal
Villars (May 1704), Leibniz expresses outrage at the terrible repression
of the Protestants of Cevennes carried out by Villars under orders from
Louis XIV and accuses Villars of becoming “the infamous minister of his
 Introduction (3)

[the king’s] fury and the cruel executioner of his innocent compatriots.”8
When reading these pages in which Leibniz vigorously denounces the
injustices committed by France in Europe, and the inhumanity, cruelty,
and barbarism of Marshal Villars, one can almost wonder whether this is
the same man who defends the existence of the best of all possible worlds!
André Robinet has rightly wondered, “What is the meaning of the Theodicy,
if Leibniz was so familiar with the existence of real and concrete evil?”9
Is there a gap between Leibniz the metaphysician and Leibniz the pam-
phleteer and politician? The thesis of the best of all possible worlds does
not imply the perfection of every one of its parts. In no way is this thesis
the result of blindness, ignorance, or indifference to worldly affairs. It
does not amount to a legitimization of the present state of things on the
grounds that they cannot fail to be good, since they belong to the best of all
possible worlds. Nor should it lead to resignation or inaction. On the con-
trary, the task of the just man is to work tirelessly for the good, despite all
obstacles and setbacks, and to make the future better to the utmost of his
ability by altering those things that need reform.
Thus, Leibniz is perfectly aware of the weight of evil in the world and
of its consequences at every level: moral, religious (confessional divisions,
intolerance), social, economic (poverty, famine), and political (war and
its attendant evils). For Leibniz, the sole source of evil is man. For this
reason, “it is only the will that men lack to deliver themselves from an in-
finity of evils.”10 Indeed, the will of some few would often suffice to bring
relief to entire nations. Man is “one of the most powerful creatures and
one of the most capable of causing evil.” The faculty of reason with which
he is endowed makes him capable of causing much evil, for which reason
“one single Caligula, one Nero, has caused more evil than an earthquake.
An evil man takes pleasure in causing suffering and destruction, for which
there are only too many opportunities.”11 Here, forty-​five years prior to the
Lisbon earthquake (1755), is Leibniz’s response to those who would accuse
God of all the disorders of the world: no natural evil can compare to what
human beings do and are capable of doing to one another.
Must we then conclude that Leibniz held a rather dim view of human
beings and that behind his metaphysical “optimism” lies a certain anthro-
pological “pessimism”? Certain texts can give this impression.12 However,
Leibniz generally avoids excessively dramatizing evil and exaggerating
human misery in the manner of Augustine, Luther, or Pascal. For Leibniz,
even if human beings cannot be saved without Christ, it does not follow
that pagan virtue is a false virtue and that of necessity all of their actions
are sinful.13 Leibniz has little regard for those authors who take pleasure
in portraying humans as wicked and contemptible, hypocritical and
 (4) Leibniz on the Problem of Evil

deceitful.14 By emphasizing evil, such accounts only add to it and lead us to

believe that it generally predominates over the good. For Leibniz, it is un-
just to degrade the human condition in this way. It is even sinful to portray
human beings as so evil and contemptible, since it is a failure to recognize
the goodness that God has shown us.15 In fact,

this [moral] evil is not even so great in men as it is declared to be. It is only
people of a malicious disposition or those who have become somewhat misan-
thropic through misfortunes, like Lucian’s Timon, who find wickedness eve-
rywhere, and who poison the best actions by the interpretations they give to
them.16

The disposition to “make an evil of everything” is fundamentally harmful

to society and serves to teach human beings to be wicked.17 Furthermore,
Leibniz is wary of those who speak of the evils and faults of humans
“without the slightest intention of taking effective measures to remedy
them,” and who prefer instead to waste their time “in impotent wishes and
useless complaints.”18
Evil exists. However, our tendency is to exaggerate it. This explains the
success of those who would portray human nature as depraved and the
world as full of evil. In reality, human beings pay greater attention to evil
than to good and, as a consequence, are more inclined to believe that on
balance the evil of the universe outweighs the good both in quantity and
intensity. Like health, the good often goes unrecognized. It is less notice-
able and frequently passes unobserved, whereas evil is exaggerated.

It is only want of attention that diminishes our good, and this attention must be
given to us through some admixture of evils. If we were usually sick and seldom
in good health, we should be wonderfully sensible of that great good and we
should be less sensible of our evils. But is it not better, notwithstanding, that
health should be usual and sickness the exception?19

Thus, our sense that evils are greater and more numerous than goods does
not prove that they really are so. On the contrary, it shows that they are
not, since we notice only what is rare and pay no attention to the ordinary
and habitual: “evil arouses our attention rather than good: but this same
reason proves that evil is more rare.”20
Paradoxically, the tendency to exaggerate evil can be found among
theologians as well as skeptics and atheists—​although for exactly opposite
reasons. Evil serves as an argument for apologists as well as critics. In the
case of the former, the omnipresence of evil in the world shows the need
 Introduction (5)

for a redeemer, the Christ. In the case of the latter, it calls into question
either the existence of God or his unity and consequently his power (ac-
cording to the Manichean hypothesis popularized by Pierre Bayle) or his
justice. Leibniz seems to adopt a more measured approach. He does not
dismiss the experience of evil; however, he treats it with caution in light of
our natural tendency to exaggerate it. For Leibniz, evil cannot serve as the
basis for a serious objection to the existence of God or to monotheism. On
the other hand, it unquestionably poses a problem with regard to justice,
which is an attribute traditionally ascribed to God. It is for this reason that
a doctrine of God’s justice, that is, a théo-​dicée in the literal sense of the
term, is necessary.21 It is within the framework of this doctrine that the
theoretical difficulties raised by the existence of evil can be resolved.

2. EVIL CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO JUSTICE

The manner in which Leibniz approaches the problem of evil is original in

that it is explicitly connected with the theme of justice.22 The first question
raised by evil is not “Why does it exist?” or the traditional “Where does it
come from?” (Unde malum?), but rather “Who is responsible for it?” The
issue is, in the first instance, moral and juridical because it is the ques-
tion of imputation that is at stake. Obviously, the metaphysical aspects and
implications of the problem are not overlooked, but they are considered
only subsequently, when the inquiry turns to the origin of evil and its es-
sence. Why does Leibniz adopt this juridical approach? As is well known,
Leibniz was a jurist. In the preface of the Theodicy, he takes on the role of
a lawyer who pleads the cause of God.23 As we shall see, Leibniz appeals in
the defensive wing of the Theodicy to the rules of controversy that he set
out in the Preliminary Discourse24 and that are clearly inspired by judicial
debates.
However, I believe that Leibniz adopts a juridical point of view for a more
fundamental reason: he considers injustice to be the true evil. Injustice is
all that violates the law (natural or positive): injustice committed (sin) as
well as injustice suffered (undeserved physical pain and moral grief). For
Leibniz, evil is not a scandal in and of itself. It becomes shocking when it
seems to be unjustly distributed, when pain befalls one who did not de-
serve it, when sin is not followed by any punishment and even proves prof-
itable to the sinner. The existence of suffering, misfortune, calamity, and
the fact that there are wicked people in the world would not be so prob-
lematic if this suffering as well as these misfortunes and calamities only
happened to the wicked. In this case, evil would be easily justified, since it
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