Chapter eight = Nutrition and Respiration

8.1 Introduction
 Nutrition = is the process by which living organisms obtain food for consumes , and use
in the body .

 Nutrients = are molecules in the food that all organisms need to make energy , grow
,develop, repair , reproduce and help to regulate metabolism for example
carbohydrates , proteins , fats , mineral salts , and vitamins.

Importance of nutrition

 Importance of food for living organisms:

 Help in growth of living things

 Provide to repair and replace worn out cells

 Help in development of organisms

8.2 Types of nutrition

There are two major types of nutrition.

1= Autotrophic nutrition [ self feeding ]

 Autotrophic nutrition is a process in which organisms prepare their own food from
simple organic materials such as water , carbon dioxide and minerals

 Organisms involved this type of nutrition make their own food from simple inorganic
molecules. Also called holophytic nutrition.

 Example all green plants , algae , and some bacteria.

 Autotrophic nutrition is classified into two types :

 Chemosynthesis.

 Photosynthesis.

 The source of energy for synthesizing food can be either light energy or chemical
energy

A] Chemo synthesis = is a type of nutrition in which some bacteria make their food using
energy from the oxidation in organic material .
The synthesis of food from using chemical energy is known as chemosynthesis

 chemoautotrophs= organisms which synthesis their food by oxidizing in organic

compound
B) Photosynthesis refers to the process by which green plants manufacture complex food
substances using simple compounds like carbon dioxide, water and mineral salt in the
presence of light trapped chlorophyll.
 The synthesis of food using sun light energy is known as photosynthesis

 Photo autotrophs: organisms which make their food from carbon dioxide and water
using sun light as a source of energy ex: green plants

8.3 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis refers to the process by which green plants manufacture complex food
substances using simple compounds like carbon dioxide, water and mineral salt in the presence
of light trapped chlorophyll.

sunlight

Carbon dioxide + water ------------------------- glucose + oxygen

chlorophyll

Importance of photosynthesis

 It provides food for the plants

 It produces food for herbivores, omnivores and indirectly carnivores
 It removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
 It produces oxygen which is used during respiration by living organisms

 Adaptation of leaves for photosynthesis

 1= leaf are broad and flattened surface which offers a large surface area for absorption
of carbon dioxides and trapping of sunlight.

 2= the upper epidermis is thin and transparent and allows easier penetration of light to
the palisade cells which contain chloroplasts.

 3= leaves have abundant vascular tissue that brings in water for photosynthesis and
transport away end products of photosynthesis.

 4= leaves have abundant stomata which are strategically located to improve gaseous
exchange.
  5= leaves have a network of veins. Xylem vessels supply water and minerals while
phloem carry away the products of photosynthesis.

 6= the surface of the leaf is covered by a waxy cuticle that is waterproof, which reduces
water loss.

 7= leaves have guard cells which control the opening and closing of stomata.

Structure and function of chloroplast

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast, when viewed under the electron microscope the internal
membrane of chloroplast extends into lamellae, with disc like sacs called thylakoids. Stacked
together in a column referred to as granum (plural: grana).

The grana are located in a matrix called stroma. The stroma is comparable to the cytoplasm of
the cell. The thylakoid contains the photosynthetic pigment and enzymes that catalyse light
reaction of photosynthesis. The green pigment is called chlorophyll; light reaction takes place
in the thylakoid, while the dark reaction takes place in the stroma
The process of photosynthesis

 Photosynthesis takes place two main stages , each consisting of several enzyme
catalyzed steps.

 The first stage or initial stage is dependent on the presence of light and is called light
reaction stage.

 The second stage is independent of light though it can takes place in the light ] and is
called dark reaction stage. These two stages take place in the chloroplasts.

A= Light reaction

This requires light energy to takes place. Light energy is trapped by chlorophyll
in the chloroplast and converted into chemical energy. The chemical energy is
used to split the water molecules into hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ions. This
process refers to as photolysis. the hydrogen ions formed are attached to other
molecules and used in dark stage to reduce carbon dioxide into sugar
(carbohydrates). The hydroxyl ions from which oxygen is released as by product
or used for aerobic respiration

4H2O light energy 4H+ + 4OH-

4OH- 2H2 + 2O2

 Some of the chemical energy from sunlight is used to combine a molecule called
adenosine di phosphate (ADP) with a phosphate group to form the rich energy
molecule called adenosine tri phosphate (ATP)

ADP + P ATP

Therefore, during the light stage, the two important products formed are hydrogen ion
and ATP molecule which are needed in dark reaction. Note that light reaction occurs in
the thylakoids.

B= dark reaction

 The next series of reaction are collectively referred to as dark stage reaction, since
light is not required for they can take place both presence and absence of light.
The reaction is controlled by enzymes. The hydrogen ions formed in light reaction
are combined with carbon dioxide to form simple sugar usually glucose using
energy from ATP. In other word hydrogen is used to reduce carbon dioxide into
carbohydrate (simple sugar). This is referred to as carbon dioxide fixation. The
dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis

A= availability of water

 Water is raw material for the process of photosynthesis. When split water molecules by
sunlight it provides hydrogen ion for reducing carbon dioxide into carbohydrates.
Without water the process of photosynthesis cannot take place. If high in concentration
, more hydrogen ions are produced hence faster rate of photosynthesis.

B= sunlight

 Light provides the energy required for splitting the water molecules to release hydrogen
ions.

C= carbon dioxide

 CO2 is a raw material for the process of photosynthesis. The amount of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere is approximately 0.04%. As the amount of carbon dioxide increases in
the atmosphere, the rate of photosynthesis also increases unti other factors become
limiting.

D= temperature

 Photosynthesis involves a series of reactions some of which are catalyzed by enzymes.

The enzymes act best in a certain temperature range. As the temperature increases the
rate of photosynthesis increases until the optimum temperature is reached around 35
degree.

E= chlorophyll

 Chlorophyll traps the energy from light.

2= heterotrophic nutrition

 heterotrophic nutrition Is a mode of nutrition in which organisms feed on other

organisms or consume complex organic matter from other plants. There are four major
types of heterotrophic nutrition.

A= phagocytic nutrition= is a mode of feeding in which single celled organisms like amoeba and
certain WBC feed on solid food materials.

B= parasitic nutrition= is the type of feeding where one organism , the parasite obtain food
from another one called the host.
C= saprophytic nutrition= is a type of feeding where the organisms feeds on decaying organic
matter.

D= holozoic nutrition= the organisms ingest , digest , absorb , assimilate and egest complex
organic matter. There are three modes of feeding under holozoic nutrition. These are

I] herbivores = animals eat plants

II] Carnivores= organisms feed on other animals

III] Omnivores= organisms feed on both plants and other animals.

8.4 Mammalian teeth

In the mammals, tooth consist of an exposed portion called the crown and a portion that is
firmly anchored in a socket in the jaw bone called the root.

The tooth is also divided into three layers,

1] Enamel = the outer layer which is the white non living part ,is the hardest organic substance
made up of calcium phosphate and carbonate. It provides the cutting and grinding surface.

2] Dentine = the middle layer which is less hard than enamel but alive tissue,

3] pulp cavity = which is soft tissue and contains nerve fibers , blood vessels and connective
tissue.

A fibrous tissue called the periodontal membrane covers the root and holds it firmly to the jaw
bone.

The fleshy tissue that covers the jaw bone and surrounds the teeth is called gum.

Cement= this part attaches the root to the jaw bone.

Types of mammalian teeth

1= incisors

 Are found in front of the mouth cavity. They are usually chisel shaped and are adapted
for cutting food.

2= canines

 Lie next to the incisors and are normally long and pointed. Similar function to incisors.

3= premolars

 Lie behind canines. Have two cusps and one or two roots. And are used for tearing and
grinding food.
4= molars

 Lie behind premolars. Have four or five cusps and two or three roots. And are used for
chewing and grinding food.

Dental formulae

 A dental formula shows the type and number of teeth in each half of the jaw in animals.
The number of teeth in half of the upper jaw is represented above a line [ nominator]
and those on the lower jaw below the line [ denominator].

 Fore example. Dental formula of an adult human is

𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
2[ I 𝟐 C 𝟏 P 𝟐 M 𝟑] = 32

 The dental formula of dogs

𝟑 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐
2[ I 𝟑 C 𝟏 P 𝟒 M 𝟑 ] = 42

 The dental formula of ruminants[ sheep , goat , cattle ]

𝟎 𝟎 𝟑 𝟑
2[ I 𝟑 C𝟏 P 𝟑 M 𝟑 = 32
8.5Digestion of ruminants and rodents
 These are animals whose stomach is divided into four chambers, namely , [rumen ,
reticulum , omasum , and abomasum ].

 Have a unique bacteria to digest tough cellulose found in the plant in their diet.

 In the rumen , microorganisms break down cellulose to glucose. The glucose is

fermented by the microorganisms to simple fatty acids. These are absorbed through the
rumen wall and carried by the blood stream to other tissue where they are used for
respiration.

 Ruminants chew and ingest plant matter and then swallow it. The plant matter is
separated into liquids and solids in the rumen. The liquid drain into the reticulum. Solids
in the rumen are then regurgitated into the mouth to be chewed and further broken
down. Liquid pass from the reticulum into the omasum , where sugars , fatty acids and
other nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream

 After the omasum, food pass into the abomasum , which is much like monogastric
animals , and from there moves into the small intestine where it is digested.

FOOD FOLLOW IN RUMAN

Digestion in man
Digestion of man differs from the above ruminants because they never regurgitate . human
stomach never accommodates micro organisms that digest cellulose for the herbivores because
there is hydrochloric acid in the stomach
8.7respiration
 Respiration = is the process by which energy is released from the food. It takes place in
all living cells and involves series of complex enzyme catalyzed reactions.

 Energy released during respiration is used to drive various biological activities such as

A= Transport of materials B= movements

C=Transmission of nerve impulses D= breathing

E=Beating of heart F=growth and reproduction

Types of respiration

A= aerobic respiration [ oxygen involved ]

 This involves the breakdown of organic substance [ glucose ] in the cells in the presence
of oxygen. The process is summarized as follow.

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ---------------------------- 6 CO2 + 6H2O + 2830 kj per mole

 Aerobic respiration occurs in two phases , glycolysis and krebs cycle.

B= anaerobic respiration

 This involves partially breakdown of organic substance [ glucose ] in the absence of

oxygen. The product of anaerobic respiration differ according to whether the process is
occurring in plants or in animals. The process produce alcohol in plants and lactic acid in
animals.

 Organisms that respire anaerobically are called anaerobes.

 There are two types of anaerobes

I] obligate= complete anaerobes. Are those organisms that can only respire anaerobically.

II] facultative= partial anaerobes. Can respire both aerobically and anaerobically. An example of
yeast.

 Anaerobic respiration in plants.

enzymes

C6H12O6 ----------------------------------- 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + 210 KJ

  Anaerobic respiration in plants is referred to as fermentation.

 Anaerobic respiration in animals.

enzymes

C6H12O6---------------------------------------- 2C3H6O3 + 150 KJ

Glucose Lactic acid

8.8Glycolysis
The word glycolysis [ from greek word , glycos= sugar and lysis= dissolution or splitting ].

 It is the first stage of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

 It takes place with or without oxygen in the cytoplasm [ cytosol ].

 During the process that glucose which has six carbon atoms is broken down to two
molecules of pyruvic acid which have three carbon atoms each is summarized as
follows.

 C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2P----------------------------------- 2C3H6O3 + 2ATP

8.9Kreb cycle
 Also known as citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle.

 It takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.

8.10Respiratory quotient
 Refers to the volumetric relationships between oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide
production.

 this is determined mainly by the type of food being oxidized.

Respiratory quotient= volume of CO2 produced

Volume of O2 consumed

8.11Mitochondrial structure and function

 Mitochondria are rod shaped structures that are enclosed within two membranes. The
outer and inner membrane. The membranes are made up of phospholipids and
proteins.

 The outer membrane is smooth while the inner has folding called cristae. These
increases the surface area for attachment of enzymes.

 The interior is filled a gel like matrix.

 The mitochondria are the power house of the cell. They contain the enzyme involved in
aerobic respiration.

 The matrix contains the enzyme involved in the krebs cycle.

Economic importance of anaerobic respiration

 Manufacture of alcoholic drinks

 Manufacture of spirits

 Leavening of breed

 Manufacture of milk products

 Manufacture of organic acids like citric , oxalic acids.