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FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION
In introducing this impressive volume, I believe it most of the pilot, relate this to the flying environment, and
important to begin with a definition of the subject. Aerospace render a decision regarding fitness for flying. Therefore,
medicine is that specialty area of medicine concerned with the Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine must cover a large
the determination and maintenance of the health, safety, and amount of information. Aerospace medicine is of necessity
performance of those who fly in the air or in space. This specialty very dynamic. It must keep pace with the ever-increasing
is necessary because such flight subjects humans, with their technology of both medicine and aviation. Increases in
earth-bound anatomy, physiology and psychology, to the fighter aircraft capabilities have forced a re-evaluation of
hostile environment of air and space. Humans must adapt a physiologic problem once thought to be solved. Current
to or be protected from the changes in total environment social assaults on the necessity of physical standards for
pressure, reduced partial pressures of vital gasses, accelerative those who fly have even forced a re-evaluation of med-
forces of flight, and changes in gravitational forces, to name ical standards. Aircraft are getting larger, and faster, and
just a few of the hazards encountered in flight. more and more people are flying. Such dynamic changes
Historically, the early balloon flights in the late 1700’s indicated the necessity for a current, comprehensive text.
produced reports of physical effects on the humans engaged Dr. DeHart built upon the efforts of his predecessors,
in such ascents, but they were treated as interesting such as General Harry Armstrong, in gathering material
physiological observations. The advent of powered flight for the first edition of Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine.
92 years later by the Wright brothers on December 17, In the second edition, he has assembled the aid of re-
1903 and then human spaceflight by Gagarin on April 12, spected authorities in their individual areas to add new
1961 revealed additional effects and potential obstacles to chapter, update others with recent data and completely
human performance in this new environment. However, rewrite others.
these obstacles were viewed as challenges to be solved by those We must understand our past if we are not to repeat
individuals supporting the explorers of these environments. the errors of the past. The section ‘‘Aerospace Medicine
They learned that the environments of air and space were a in Perspective’’ covers some of this important history very
continuum and that basic physiologic fundamentals applied well. The sections ‘‘Physiology of the Flight Environment,’’
throughout this continuum. It is these environmental and ‘‘Clinical Practice of Aerospace Medicine’’ and ‘‘Operational
vehicular stresses upon those who fly that are of ultimate Aerospace Medicine,’’ have chapters providing fundamentals
concern to the aerospace medicine specialist. with basic references. The section ‘‘Impact of the Aerospace
The specialty area of aerospace medicine is young Industry on Community Health’’ includes a chapter concern-
compared to some other medical specialties. Even though ing transmission of disease by aircraft with current concerns
physicians had supported those who flew from the beginning, about an old and nearly forgotten nemesis, tuberculosis.
the specialty was not recognized until 1953. Though relatively Fundamentals revisited again. New chapters have appropri-
young, aerospace medical research and extensive operational ately been added: ‘‘Thermal Stress,’’ ‘‘International Aviation
experience has been accumulated and well documented. Medicine’’ and ‘‘Management of Human Resources in Air
These dates are in numerous scientific journals, reports, and Transport Operations.’’
books. It is the rare individual today who does not have some
Specialized knowledge in many medical as well as non- contact with the aviation environment in some manner. All
medical areas is required of the practitioner of aerospace physicians should have some basic knowledge of aerospace
medicine. The medical specialties of otolaryngology, oph- medical problems they or their patients might experience,
thalmology, cardiology, neurology, psychiatry/psychology, as well as understand the breadth of knowledge possessed
and pathology are of particular importance. The human by the specialist in aerospace medicine. This text can serve
cannot be separated from the vehicle, therefore certain en- as the basis of this knowledge for the general physician, the
gineering principles are also important. The total support aerospace medicine specialist, the student, or anyone dealing
of those who fly becomes a team effort. The aerospace with the medical support of military, general, or airline
medicine specialist must be able to communicate with other aviation, spaceflight, or the aerospace industry.
specialists. He or she must be able to gather all of this It has been my privilege in 45 years of practice in
information and evaluate its impact on the health status Aerospace Medicine to participate in the Air Force, NASA,
vii
viii FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION
and civilian areas. I congratulate Dr. DeHart and his authors achieving safe flight. This volume makes that knowledge
for their excellent coverage of all these areas. If we adhere available.
to the fundamentals and provide proper aerospace medical
support, the human will continue to be able to adapt to Charles A. Berry, MD, MPH
zero gravity and re-adapt to earth’s gravity with ever longer President, Preventive & Aerospace Medicine Consultants, P.A.
sojourns in space. I believe we will see many of earth’s Past President, Aerospace Medical Association
inhabitants experiencing spaceflight and even one day living Past President, International Academy of Aviation and Space
in far flung space stations and colonies. The fundamentals Medicine
will be the basic knowledge and the stepping stones making Past President, University of Texas Health Science Center in
such progress possible. This knowledge must be used Houston, Texas
by the planners, designers, operators, and participants in Former Director of Life Sciences—NASA
FOREWORD TO FIRST EDITION
This textbook reflects the dynamic and progressive nature moved a number of times and in 1959 finally arrived at
of the specialty of aerospace medicine. The aviation industry its present location at Brooks Air Force Base, San Antonio,
has been explosive in development since the early 1900s, and Texas. The institution is now known as the United States Air
the rapid advances in powered flight in military and civilian Force School of Aerospace Medicine.
aviation have demanded the development of parallel medical Almost from the beginning of aviation medicine as a
systems to serve those who fly. The technologic advances career field, it became apparent that a team effort was
that have occurred and continue to occur make it possible necessary so that an organized, multidisciplinary approach
to move crews, passengers, troops, patients, and cargo far could be best applied to the problems associated with
beyond all earlier expectations of time, size, weight, and flight. Physicians, physiologists, psychologists, veterinarians,
distance. Although aviation has proven to be an important nurses, dentists, and other scientists covering many diverse
and increasingly rapid mode of transportation, it also has skills and interests now contribute much time and effort to
provided new methods of warfare and manned exploration the men and women associated with flying.
beyond our planet. Although much of the emphasis initially was of a
Over the years, as the aviation industry grew, the military nature, the civilian aspects of aviation grew by leaps
stresses associated with flight, such as acceleration, speed, and bounds, and today there is a dedicated, cooperative,
and altitude, became increasingly apparent. Historic events worldwide military-civilian career field. Additional schools
resulting from the progressive expansion of the flight and laboratories are now devoted to the collection of scientific
environment were steadily being catalogued. The necessity data and the dissemination of vital information.
for research to study and explore the physiologic effects Typical of those involved in aviation or aerospace
imposed on man were recognized and vigorously pursued. medicine has been the need and response to share openly
Although research into the effects of unpowered balloon the wealth of information being gathered. The complex and
flights was important, the frequency and magnitude of the diverse data have been discussed by medical scientists of
stresses associated with powered flight increased the urgency many nations at meetings and conferences. Periodicals and
and sophistication of research efforts. textbooks also have been very helpful in documenting and
World War I provided the impetus for concerted disseminating the knowledge that has accumulated. This text
educational and investigative efforts in the field of aviation is a collection of the literary contributions of more than
medicine. Early in that war, human factors problems were 40 authors representing the broad spectrum of aerospace
strongly suspected as being the cause of many aircraft medicine. Each contributor is a recognized expert among the
accidents and deaths. A school to train physicians to care for many who practice within the specialty. These contributors
flyers and a medical research laboratory to consider urgent are continuing a tradition begun over 50 years ago by Dr.
problems were established by the United States Air Service Louis H. Bauer, who laid the first foundation stones with his
at Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, New York in 1917. Initial text Aviation Medicine. Dr. Bauer’s work has been expanded
efforts to reduce the number of accidents and the loss of by the contributions of Dr. Harry Armstrong and, most
human life centered on good health and the application of recently by Dr. Hugh W. Randal. Thus, this text holds to
more rigid physical standards for pilots and other aircrew the tradition of enumerating the basic principles of the
members. The first class of ‘‘flight surgeons’’ graduated in challenging field of aerospace medicine. This book will be
1918. A precipitous decrease in accidents and deaths was the both a practical text for the student and most valuable
direct result of these dedicated efforts. Since that time, flight reference source for the practitioner of aerospace medicine.
surgeons have been intimately associated with flyers and
their health and safety. As the list of medical responsibilities Howard W. Unger, MD
expanded, the industrial hygiene aspects of the developing Major General, USAF, MC (retired)
industry included ground operations as well as the aerial Past President of the Aerospace Medical Association
mission. The school and laboratory at Hazelhurst Field Former Trustee of the American Board of Preventive Medicine
ix
P R E FA C E
Twenty-five years ago, it was decided to revive the tradition efforts. In the US, the sport pilot certificate may stimulate
of Dr. Armstrong and edit a new textbook for the discipline of the general aviation industry.
aerospace medicine. This fourth edition of Fundamentals of Military aviation continues to be driven by speed, agility,
Aerospace Medicine continues the legacy of Dr. Roy DeHart and survivability. New aircraft with vectored thrust provide
who had the vision to develop this textbook many years ago. variable acceleration environments with new challenges to
We are indebted to his many years of service and volunteer human performance. The need to adapt to the ever increasing
hours for the first three editions, and to his foresight to stressors of flight has forced scientists and aviation system
recruit a new editor for the third edition. Dr. Roy DeHart designers to be ever more innovative in protecting the
trained a new generation of editors, and the field will always combat pilot. Chapters in this edition address not only
be indebted to him for his selfless service. Three new section advances in crew systems protection but issues of human
editors were added for this edition, and the efforts of Dr. factors in flight operational environments. Unmanned Aerial
Robert Johnson, Dr. Jan Stepanek, and Dr. Jennifer Fogarty Vehicles are now commonplace and the unique challenges
were critical to the scope and timeliness of this text. There of these flights are addressed in the chapter of human
are many returning contributors from the third edition, factors.
as well as many new chapters and new contributors. This The goal of the contributors to this edition is unchanged
fourth edition reflects the tremendous pace of change in that from a generation ago when the first edition was prepared
two chapters are devoted to the future at the dawn of the for those physicians providing professional care and advice
commercial space flight industry. to general aviation pilots, for the specialist in aerospace
In the last 25 years, many changes have occurred in medicine supporting the airline industry, the Department
spaceflight and the pace of change has accelerated. The of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space
Space Shuttle first flew in 1981 and its planned retirement Administration, and now the emerging commercial space
is on the horizon for 2010. The Mir Space Station was flight industry. The text is intended for students, residents,
deorbited and replaced by the International Space Station and perhaps many medical practitioners that may become
(ISS) with the active participation by five international more involved with global public health issues as well as
partners including the US, Russia, Japan, Canada, and the medical exams for commercial space flight. The text is not
European Space Agency. Since the third edition, a second intended to be a treatise on every subject introduced but
Space Shuttle accident resulted in the loss of Columbia and rather a general review of the major topics that comprise
her crew of seven; the ISS was sustained using Russian Soyuz the practice of aerospace medicine. The interested reader is
and Progress launches; and the first teacher in space flew provided with suggested readings and references to continue
completing the journey from the Challenger accident. Space learning beyond the scope of this text.
Flight Participants pay to visit the ISS, and commercial space The reader will find many new chapters in this edition
firms emerged after Space Ship One won the Ansari X-Prize. including chapters devoted to toxicology, radiation, dental,
Various firms plan both suborbital and orbital space flights. women’s health, unique aircraft, and commercial space flight.
Aerospace medicine practitioners of tomorrow may conduct Substantial rewrites have been undertaken of many of the
medical exams for many interested passengers. chapters from the third edition making this a substantially
Commercial aviation continues to expand with the first different text from the third edition. The pace of change is
flights of long-range, fuel-efficient aircraft substantially built so great that planning is already underway for techniques to
from composite materials. Large aircraft have flown capable make new information available as soon as possible to the
of carrying 550+ passengers. Both new types of aircraft practitioner.
may enter service in 2008. These new aircraft, and the As has been the case in the three preceding editions,
development of a global economy and travel, increase the proceeds from this text will be distributed to schools
potential for transmitting disease quickly around the Earth. and scholarship programs, nationally and internationally,
New challenges to global public health are recognized by the that educate and train physicians in the field of aerospace
international aviation authorities with sustained planning medicine.
xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As I mentioned in the preface, the current generation of of the value of an academic effort to one’s home organization.
practitioners of aerospace medicine owe a debt of gratitude So to the contributors and all of their outstanding technical
to Dr. Roy DeHart who had the vision and determination to contributions and volunteer efforts, one last grateful thank-
initiate Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine some twenty- you.
five years ago. I owe Dr. DeHart a heartfelt thank-you for There is a great deal of new material in this textbook
allowing me to become an editor of the third edition, and as rapid developments are now occurring in aerospace.
to learn from him the complex process of assembling a text New opportunities are emerging in suborbital and orbital
from content to contributors. Dr. DeHart not only revived commercial space flight, and there are plans for commercial
this textbook with the first edition, but also insured its flights to the moon. These new developments should produce
future by providing for new editors. His legacy to the field of new practice opportunities for the aerospace medicine
aerospace medicine has many components, but this textbook practitioner, and the future is as bright as perhaps at any time
may be the most significant in perpetuating the field. To Dr. in the history of the field. By the time of the fifth edition, I
Roy DeHart, thank you from the entire aerospace medicine hope we can look back on the successful flight of hundreds if
community. not thousands of space flight participants on suborbital and
For the fourth edition, I too brought new editors to the orbital flights.
textbook. We decided to divide the book into sections of It has been a pleasure to work with the Lippincott
physiology, clinical aerospace medicine, and operations, and Williams & Wilkins staff, and the assistance of Ms. Kerry
I chose a section editor for each. I am indebted to the hard Barrett, Senior Managing Editor, was invaluable to the
work and many hours that these new editors contributed, success of this edition. She was always available for
Dr. Jennifer Fogarty (physiology), Dr. Jan Stepanek (clinical sound advice, by email or phone, and would provide
aerospace medicine), and Dr. Robert Johnson (operations). timely assistance to the editors and contributors. She also
Dr. Bob Johnson also helped with the logistics of the textbook, saw the value of the timing of this fourth edition with
organizing conference calls and notes to authors. Ms. Diane the rapid changes in aerospace including long-range and
Ellison at the University of Texas Medical Branch also helped large commercial aircraft, global public health issues, the
with many of the textbook conference calls, letters, e-mails, expansion of government space programs to include space
and phone calls while preparing the book. This textbook was flight participants, the emergence of an exploration program,
truly a team effort, and they all put forth an outstanding and the rapid development of the commercial space flight
effort and countless hours of time in editing and assembling industry. As Dr. DeHart noted in the third edition, Williams
this text. and Wilkins was the publisher of the original aviation
I want to recognize the contributors who are the authors medicine text, edited by Dr. Harry G. Armstrong, and the
who wrote this volume. Without their technical expertise, tradition most definitely continues.
willingness to volunteer many hours of research, writing and To you the next generation of practitioners, I hope
revisions, this textbook would not exist. As a community of this text gives you the foundation for success in aerospace
aerospace medicine practitioners, we owe a debt of gratitude medicine, and encourages you to become the next generation
to these authors without whom the underlying research, of practitioners, researchers, and teachers essential to the
clinical evaluations, and operational experience would not success of this field. I hope you enjoy the field as much as I
exist to be able to sustain the field. In all aspects of practice, in have, and find the time to pass along your expertise to the
operations, research, clinical medicine, and teaching, there next generation.
are many competing demands for time, and less recognition Jeffrey R. Davis
xiii
CONTRIBUTORS
Richard Allnutt, MD, MPH, Stephen A. Bernstein, MD, MPH, Paula A. Corrigan, MD
MS(EE) FAAFP, COL, MC, SFS Branch Chief
Biodynamic Research Corporation Director, US Army Aeromedical Activity Department of Internal Medicine
San Antonio, Texas US Army Aeromedical Consult Service
Enterprise, Alabama USAF School of Aerospace Medicine
Brooks City Base, Texas
Arnold A. Angelici, Jr., MD, MS
Occupational Medicine James W. Brinkley, BS Francis A. Cucinotta, MD
Federal Aviation Administration Former Director Chief Scientist
Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Human Effectiveness Directorate NASA Space Radiation Program
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Air Force Research Laboratory Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio Houston, Texas
Melchor J. Antuñano, MD, MS
Clinical Associate Professor Jeffrey R. Davis, MD, MS
Department of Preventive Medicine and Stephen L. Carpenter, MD Professor, Preventive Medicine
Community Health Medical Officer, and Community Health
University of Texas Medical Branch Aerospace Medical Certification University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston, Texas; Division Galveston, Texas
Director Federal Aviation Administration
Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Roy L. DeHart, MD, MS, MPH
Federal Aviation Administration Professor and Director
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Vanderbilt Center for Occupational
John W. Castellani, MD
and Environmental Medicine
Research Physiologist
Nashville, Tennessee
Michael Bagshaw, MB, FFOM, Thermal and Mountain Medicine
DAvMed USARIEM
J. Robert Dille, MD, MIH
Program Director Aviation Medicine Natick, Massachusetts
Consultant in Aerospace Medicine
School of Biomedical & Health Sciences
Norman, Oklahoma
King’s College London
Guy’s Campus Samuel N. Cheuvront, MD
Research Physiologist David F. Dinges, PhD
London, UK
Thermal and Mountain Medicine Professor and Chief
Division Division of Sleep and Chronobiology,
Denise L. Baisden, MD, MS U.S. Army Research Institute of Department of Psychiatry, and Center
Assistant Regional Flight Surgeon Environmental Medicine for Sleep and Respiratory
Southwest Region Natick, Massachusetts Neurobiology
Federal Aviation Administration University of Pennsylvania School of
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Medicine
Thomas F. Clarke, MD, MPH Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Robert D. Banks, BEng, MD Director General Preventive Medicine
Residency R. Key Dismukes, PhD
Principal Consultant
USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Chief Scientist for AeroSpace Human
Biodynamic Research Corporation
Brooks City Base, Texas Factors
San Antonio, Texas
NASA Ames Research Center
Moffett Field, California
Michael R. Barratt, MD, MS Curtiss B. Cook, MD, FACP
Physician/Astronaut Lieutenant Colonel W. R. Ercoline, MS, PhD
Johnson Space Center Professor of Medicine, Division of Manager, San Antonio Operations
National Aeronautics and Space Endocrinology Life Sciences Group
Administration Mayo Clinic College of Medicine Wyle Laboratories
Houston, Texas Scottsdale, Arizona San Antonio, Texas
xv
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
Nils Erikson, MD, MPH Gary W. Gray, MD, PhD, FRCP (C) Robert Johnson, MD, MPH, MBA
Captain, U.S. Navy, Medical Corps Consultant in Medicine Associate Professor of Medicine
Director, Aerospace Medicine Residency Canadian Forces Environmental Preventive Medicine and Community
Naval Operational Medicine Institute Medical Establishment Health;
Pensacola, Florida Defence Research and Development The University of Texas Medical Branch
Canada Staff Physician
Jennifer A. Fogarty, PhD Toronto, Canada Aviation Medical Center
Adjunct Assistant Professor University of Texas Medical Branch
Preventive Medicine and Community Ferdinand W. Grosveld, MS, PhD University Hospitals
Health Consultant Galveston, Texas
University of Texas Medical Branch Hampton, Virginia
Galveston, Texas;
David R. Jones, MD, MPH
Biomedical Risk Coordinator Richard M. Harding, BSc, Consultant in Aerospace Psychiatry
Space Medicine Division MBBS, PhD Montgomery, Alabama
Johnson Space Center Principal Consultant
National Aeronautics and Space Biodynamic Research Corporation
Administration San Antonio, Texas Robert W. Kenefick, MS, PhD,
Houston, Texas FACSM
John D. Hastings, MD Research Physiologist
Namni Goel, PhD Senior Consultant in Neurology Thermal and Mountain Medicine
Assistant Professor Federation Aviation Administration Division
Division of Sleep and Chronobiology, Tulsa, Oklahoma United States Army Research Institute
Department of Psychiatry, and Center of Environmental Medicine
for Sleep and Respiratory Natick, Massachusetts
Steven M. Hetrick, MD, MPH
Neurobiology
Director, Occupational Medicine
University of Pennsylvania School of
Program James A. King, MD, COL, USAF,
Medicine
Department of Graduate Education MC, FS
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Chief, Emergency Medical Department
San Antonio, Texas Wilford Hall USAF Medical Center
Jerry R. Goodman, MS
San Antonio, Texas
Manager, Acoustics Office and Lead ISS
Acoustics Jeffrey Hudson, PhD
Johnson Space Center Biomedical Scientist for General
Dynamics
Richard A. Knittig, MD, MPH
National Aeronautics and Space Aerospace Medicine Consultant
Administration Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Naval Aerospace Medical Institute
Houston, Texas Pensacola, Florida
Douglas J. Ivan, MD
Monica B. Gorbandt, MD Chief Aerospace Ophthalmology
Consultant, U.S. Army School of Branch, William B. Kruyer, MD
Aviation Medicine USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Chief Cardiologist
Medical Boards/Aviation Medicine Brooks Air Force Base, Texas Aeromedical Consultation Service
Fox Army Health Center USAF School of Aerospace Medicine
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama John T. James, PhD Brooks City-Base, Texas
Chief Toxicologist
David P. Gradwell, PhD, MB, ChB Habitability and Environmental Factors
James Perry Locke, MD, MS
Whittingham Professor of Aviation Division
Flight Surgeon
Medicine Johnson Space Center
Flight Medicine
Faculty of Occupational Medicine National Aeronautics and Space
Johnson Space Center
Royal College of Physicians Administration
National Aeronautics and Space
St.AndrewsPlace Houston, Texas
Administration
London, UK; Houston, Texas
Consultant Adviser in Aviation Richard T. Jennings, MD, MS
Medicine (RAF) Associate Professor and Director
Aviation Medicine Wing Aerospace Medicine Residency Cheryl Lowry, MD, MPH LT COL,
RAF Centre of Aviation Medicine University of Texas Medical Branch USAF, MC, FS
Henlow, Bedfordshire, United Kingdom Galveston, Texas Misawa Air Force Base, Japan
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
James R. Phelan, MD
Stanley R. Mohler, MD, MA Assistant Clinical Professor Warren S. Silberman, DO
Professor Emeritus Preventive Medicine and Community Manager, Aeromedical Certification
Aerospace Medicine Health Division
Boonshoft School of Medicine University of Texas Medical Branch Federal Aviation Administration
Wright State University Galveston Texas Civil Aeromedical Institute
Dayton, Ohio
Shean E. Phelps, MD, MPH, Suzanne D. Smith, PhD
William M. Morlang, II, DDS FAAFP Senior Research Engineer
Associate Professor Chief, Injury Biomechanics Branch Human Effectiveness Directorate
Department of Oral and Maxillofacial US Army Aeromedical Research Biosciences and Protection Division
Pathology Laboratory United States Air Force
School of Dental Medicine Ort Rucker, Alabama Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Tufts University
Boston, Massachusetts; Jeb S. Pickard, MD, FCCP
Consultant in Forensic Dentistry Staff Pulmonologist John A. Smyrski III, MD, MPH,
Armed Forces Medical Examiner Aeromedical Consultation Service MBA
Armed Forces Insitute of Pathology USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Lieutenant Colonel
Washington, DC Brooks City-Base, Texas Medical Corps, Senior Flight Surgeon
Aerospace Medicine and Family
Duane L. Pierson, PhD Medicine;
David M. Musson, MD, PhD Microbiologist Staff Physician
Assistant Professor Habitability and Environmental Factors Division Surgeon
Department of Anesthesia Academic Division US Army: 25th Infantry Division,
Director, Center for Clinical Simula- Johnson Space Center Schofield Barracks, Hawaii and
tion McMaster National Aeronautics and Space Tripler Army Medical
University Administration Center
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Houston, Texas Honolulu, Hawaii
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
Foreword iii
Foreword to 3rd Edition v
Foreword to 2nd Edition vii
Foreword to 1st Edition ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Contributors xv
Abbreviations xxiii
HISTORY
xix
xx CONTENTS
CLINICAL
OPERATIONS
CHAPTER 21 Occupational and Environmental Medical Support to the Aviation Industry 453
ROY L. DEHART AND STEVEN M. HETRICK
THE FUTURE
Index 711
A B B R E V I AT I O N S
xxiii
xxiv A B B R E V I AT I O N S