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John Vince
Foundation
Mathematics
for Computer
Science
A Visual Approach
Third Edition
Foundation Mathematics for Computer Science
John Vince
Foundation Mathematics
for Computer Science
A Visual Approach
Third Edition
John Vince
Bournemouth University
Poole, UK
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to my wife and best
friend, Heidi.
Preface
Computer science is a very large subject, and graduates pursue a wide variety of
careers, including programming, systems design, cryptography, website design, real-
time systems, computer animation, computer games, data visualisation, etc. Conse-
quently, it is impossible to write a mathematics book that caters to all of these career
paths. Nevertheless, I have attempted to describe a range of mathematical topics that
I believe are relevant, and have helped me during my own career in computer science.
The book’s subtitle ‘A Visual Approach’ reflects the importance I place on coloured
illustrations and function graphs, of which there are over 210 and 90 tables. Many
chapters contain a variety of worked examples.
This third edition remains an introductory text, and is aimed at students studying
for an undergraduate degree in computer science. There are now nineteen chap-
ters on numbers, counting, algebra, logic, combinatorics, probability, modular arith-
metic, trigonometry, coordinate systems, determinants, vectors, complex numbers,
matrices, geometric matrix transforms, differentiation, integration, area and volume,
which should provide readers with a solid foundation, upon which more advanced
topics of mathematics can be studied.
I have referenced the key people behind the various mathematical discoveries
covered, which I hope adds a human dimension to the subject. I have found it very
interesting and entertaining to discover how some mathematicians ridiculed their
fellow peers, when they could not comprehend the significance of a new invention.
There is no way I could have written this book without the assistance of the Internet
and my books previously published by Springer Verlag. In particular, I would like to
acknowledge Wikipedia and Richard Elwes’ excellent book Maths 1001. I prepared
this book on an Apple iMac, using LaT eX 2e, Pages and the Grapher package,
and would recommend this combination to anyone considering writing a book on
mathematics. I do hope you enjoy reading this book, and that you are tempted to
study mathematics to a deeper level.
vii
Contents
1 Visual Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Visual Brains Versus Analytic Brains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Learning Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 What Makes Mathematics Difficult? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Does Mathematics Exist Outside Our Brains? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Symbols and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Sets of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Negative Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5.1 The Arithmetic of Positive and Negative
Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6 Observations and Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6.1 Commutative Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6.2 Associative Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6.3 Distributive Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7 Types of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.1 Natural Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.2 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.3 Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.4 Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.5 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.6 Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.7 Imaginary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.8 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.9 Quaternions and Octonions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
ix
x Contents
5 Logic ......................................................... 73
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3.1 Logical Connectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4 Logical Premises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4.1 Material Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4.2 Implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.3 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4.4 Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4.5 Inclusive Disjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.6 Exclusive Disjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4.7 Idempotence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4.8 Commutativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4.9 Associativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.4.10 Distributivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4.11 de Morgan’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.12 Simplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.13 Excluded Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.4.14 Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.15 Double Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.16 Implication and Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.17 Exportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4.18 Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4.19 Reductio Ad Absurdum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.4.20 Modus Ponens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.4.21 Proof by Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.5.1 Empty Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.5.2 Membership and Cardinality of a Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.5.3 Subsets, Supersets and the Universal Set . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5.4 Set Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5.5 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.5.6 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.5.7 Relative Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.5.8 Absolute Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5.9 Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.6 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.6.1 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.6.2 Set Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.6.3 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.6.4 Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Contents xiii
6 Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.3 Permutations of Multisets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.4 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.5 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.5.1 Eight-Permutations of a Multiset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.5.2 Eight-Permutations of a Multiset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.5.3 Number of Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5.4 Number of Five-Card Hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5.5 Hand Shakes with 100 People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5.6 Permutations of MISSISSIPPI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.2 Definition and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.2.1 Independent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.2.2 Dependent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.2.3 Mutually Exclusive Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.2.4 Inclusive Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2.5 Probability Using Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.3 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3.1 Product of Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3.2 Book Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.3 Winning a Lottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.4 Rolling Two Dice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.5 Two Dice Sum to 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.6 Two Dice Sum to 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3.7 Dealing a Red Ace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3.8 Selecting Four Aces in Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3.9 Selecting Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3.10 Selecting Four Balls from a Bag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.11 Forming Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.12 Dealing Five Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8 Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.2 Informal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.3 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.4 Congruence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.5 Negative Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.6 Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.6.1 Sums of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.6.2 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.6.3 Multiplying by a Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.6.4 Congruent Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
xiv Contents