Chapter, (6) ELECTRODYNAMICS (GENERATORS ssid; MOVEMENT OF A CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD: INDUCED EMF AND CURRENT In Grade 11 you learned that when a magnetic field moves close to a conductor (wire), or when the conductor moves through a magnetic field, an altered magnetic field occurs that induces an emf therefore letting a current flow in the ‘conductor. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction. The sketches below shows the relative motion ofa magnet and a conductor and the existence of elecromagnetic induction. ‘Sketch 1: The conductor is moved upwards rapidly into the magnetic field. The middle zero-ammeter to which the conductor is con- nected shows a deviation, which means that an electrical cur- rent is induced (generated) in the conductor. Fleming's right hand-dynamo ruleis used to determine the Fleming’ direction of the induced current. Place the index finger, middle finger and thumb of the right rand at right angies to each other. When the index finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (B, north to south), and the thumb in the direction of the motion (force F) of the conductor, the middle finger shows the direction of the induced current (I from + to -). ‘Sketch 2: The conductor is quickly moved downward into the magnetic field. A current is induced in the conductor again, but in the opposite direction. The conductor stands stil in the magnetic field. The ammeter shows that no current is induced in the conductor. ‘Sketch 4; The conductor is moved paraliel to the magnetic field and the ammeter needle does not deviate thus no current is induced in the conductor. ‘An electrical current will only be induced (generated) if the maanet is held still and the conductor is being moved, or if the conductor is held stil and the magnet is moved. Only relative motion between the die conductor and the magnet is necessary to induce a current - it does not matter which one ‘of the two is moved. ‘As we know an electrical current can only flow when there is a potential difference. Although there is no battery in the crcult, current did flow. The potential difference is caused by the changing magnetic field of the ‘magnet by applying work on the charge in the conductor as the conductor 's forced through the magnetic field and is called the induced emf. An altered magnetic field induces a emf in the conductor and the ‘emf causes an induced current. ‘The magnitude of the induced emf (and thus also the induced) current can be increased as follows: 1, Move the conductor faster. 2. Use stronger magnets to give a stronger magnetic fiekd. 3. Use a longer conductor that can move through the magnetic field, Le. by turning the conductor in to the form of a coll with various windings {and then move the coil through the magnetic field, or move a magnet, through the coi. MAGNETIC FLUX AND FARADAY'S LAW (symbol ©, phi) What is magnetic flux? We already know that a magnet creates a magnetic field in the space around it. Ths field can be illustrated by field lines, known as magnetic field lines or flux lines. Although magnetic fields do not flow, we can portvay how the magnetic field lines flow (move) through a specific surface when a coil or loop is placed in a magnetic flo.Together they form a magnetic flux. Magnetic flux (with symbol () is the amount of magnetic field lines that goes through a determined surface, i. the surface inside the coil. Figure 1 below is a diagrammatic representation of the magnetic flux as the amount of magnetic field linas that goes through a coil with surface A. Left shows a small magnetic flux and right shows a greater magnetic flux that goes through the same surface (coil). The stronger the magnet, the greater the magnetic flux. Figure 2 shows a view of the magnetic field lines directly in the coil (inward) for a small and big magnetic flux through the surface of the coil. Surface parallel to magnetic fied ies Figure 2. view of the magnetic field ines - Figure 1 Bia and small maanetic ux. ‘metly intra the loop (nur) Magnetic fied is illustrated with the symbol B, the unit thereof is the tesla (T) and is also known as the magnetic: ‘lux density. A tesia is the magnetic fux (amount of field lines) per square meter of the surface that it moves through. (17 = 1 Wom) How do we calculate magnetic flux? In Grade 11 we learned that magnetic flux (®) is the product of the magnetic field (B,) and the size of the surface (A) through which the magnetic field lines go. In symbols: Where: ‘magnetic flux in weber (Wb) or tesla-meter (T-m?) ‘magnetic field (or flux density) in tesla (T) surface through which the magnetic field goes in square meter (m?) 8 = angle between the magnetic field B and the normal on the surface A of the coll. Megoete Held oes though 2 Faraday's law in terms of magnetic flux ‘The British scientist Michael Faraday explained the induced emf (measured in volt) in a coil in terms of an amount called magnetic flux. Remember that itis the emf that glves rise to the induced current. Faraday came to the following conclusion that is known as Faraday's Law (for Electromagnetic Induction): induced in 2 coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. Given as an equation: - where Ad =,-@) en At= ty-t) ewe] also is D=BAcos@ where €= induced emf in volt (v) ‘number of windings (loops in wire) in the coll ,-@, = change in magnetic flux trough one winding in weber (Wb) tet, = change in time in seconds (s) rate of change of the magnetic flux + The negative sign means that the induced emf (e) causes a current and magnetic field which opposes the: change in the magnetic flux (). ‘Nis the number windings or loops. Each loop lets the flux linkage with the conductor increase so that the total flux linkage is N times the magnetic field with one loop. The more windings or loops in the coil, the greater the induced current. Changed magnetic flux Lets look at the magnetic flus through a coil and how it changes if the col is being mechanically rotated by 180°. The figures at the top of the next page are a series of diagrams that shows the different positions ofthe coil as i {s being rotated through the magnetic field. The diagrams on the left side show the position of the coil in the magnetic field. The diagrams on the right side shows the corresponding magnetic flux which goes through the surface of the col, a TY AND MAGNETISM 277Ettectve surace of cot is zero 8, ‘served tom et ie) > = RRR RRS 4 ——— : E ney ay ees —_—_ ” RRR R , Magnetic hx @ trough the sue of ce the cor nteases Effective surace of col has increased to. Magnetic fax ® through the sutce of ee . ores ; : 4 Sez Cg ; ESS KKK KKK the col decreases “The crosses (x) represents the amount of magnetic field lines that go through the surface of the coil. The diagrams ‘above shows that the magnetic flux that goes through the surface of the coll changes as the coil is mechanically rotated through the magnetic field. According to Faraday's law the induced emf in the coil will be directly proportional to the rate at which the magnetic flux changes. GENERATORS ‘A generator (or dynamo) is a device that convert mechanical energy to electrical energy. Generators are classified according to the kind of current they deliver. A generator which generates alternating current (AC) is, called an alternating current generator (AC-generator), while a generator which generates direct current (DC) is called a direct current generator (DC-generator). Generators have different sizes, but all work on the same principle - electromagnetic induction. We leamed that an emf is generated when there is relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field. Therefore, by rotating a loop in a magnetic field a practical way is given to generate electricity continuously. ‘A generator in a power station. bold le)THE ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR ‘The basic principle on which an alternating current generator (AC-generator), also known as alternating current alternator, works, is that a coll rotates mechanically in a uniform magnetic field. A uniform magnetic field exists between the opposite poles of two magnets as shown nthe Ague below. The cretion ofthe magnetics from south. AAssingle coil (or anchor abed) is placed in the magnetic field. The end of the coil is attached to two metal rings that are called slip rings. The slip rings rub against two brushes. The brushes are not attached to the sip rings, but make contact with them. The brushes are attached to the external circuit (ight bulb). ‘The main parts of a simple generator that delivers alternating ‘current are illustrated in the Figure alongside. ‘+ Nand S are the poles of the field magnets which deliver a constant magnetic field from N to S. ‘+ abed is one convolution in a right angled coil of isolated copper wire and also represents the anchor of the circuit, ‘+ Sy and Sz are a pair of slip rings which both consist of a copper bend around en isolating cylinder. Note that each point of the coil staysconnected to its own slip rings, regardless of the direction in which the coil turns. ‘+ By and B, are carbon or copper blocks known as brushes, to divert the induced current. The main parts of a AC-generator. + Ais an isolated axis that enables the coll and the slip rings to revolve as a single unt + The handle is only there to show that kinetic energy must be provided to the coil by rotating it mecharically. Light: bulb G, represents the electrical appliance in which the generated current is used. When the coil rotates mechanically, the slip rings move with the coil. The carbon brushes remains stationary and. press against each slp ring. With the brushes attached to the external circuit (light bulb) the col is connected via the. slip rings to the external circuit (light bulb). The purpose of the slip rings is to ensure that the current in the external Circuit is the same as the circuit in the coil The coll is now mechanically rotated through the magnetic field, as shown in the figure above. If the coll rotates ‘mechanically through the magnetic field, the magnetic flux that goes through the surface of the coil changes. According to Faraday's law the emf () will be induced in the coil which will in turn induce @ current (I) in the coil. ‘The working of the AC-aenerator Lets look at the induced emf and the corresponding induced current in the col as the coil rotates through one complete revolution. For the sake of the explanation we begin withthe rectangular coll abed in the vertical positon and turn it to the right (clockwise), Stage 1 ‘With the rotating col in the vertical position, the sides ab and ed are parallel to the 2 ‘magneticfield the magnetic field andthe normal of the col are also parallel to each other). ol ‘+ No magnetic field lines are cut by the long sides ab and ed and there is no change in magnetic flux through the coil ‘The rate of change in magnetic fux (AP) in the coil is zero, + According to Faraday's law no emf is induced inthe coll and therefore no induced cur- rent in the col. Stage 2 + While the col rotates (rom the vertical position to the horizontal postion) the sides of the coil move into the magnetic field and then moves through the maximum amount ‘of magnetic field lines per second. (The angle between the normal ofthe coil and the ‘magnetic field changes.) + The rate of change in magnetic flux is highest when the coll rotates to the horizontal position. + Due to the changed magnetic field a emf is induced inthe col ‘= According to Faraday's law the induced emf will induce a current in the coil which is Nhe 3. @ maximum value when the coil moves through the horizontal position. ‘Stage 2 J) . Stage 3 a) Stage 4 2) ‘+ According to Fleming's right hand dynamo rule the force acts on positive charges from b toa and trom d to cin the col, Stage 3 ‘+ As the coil moves vertically again the sides begin to move out of the magnetic field and the magnetic field lines per second decrease. * The rate of change in magnetic flux decreases which causes the induced emf and thus also the current in the coll to decrease, until itis zero again when the coll moves through the vertical position. (At the vertical position the magnetic field and the normal of the coll are proportional to each other.) ase he EiStage 4 + When the coli rotated further, the sides ofthe coll begins to move back into the ‘magnetic field and cut through the maximum amount of field lines again. There is a change in magnetic flux again so that an emf and thus an electrical ‘current is induced in the coil, but in the opposite direction of Step 2. ‘= According to the Fleming's right hand dynamo rule the force is on positive charges from ato b and from ¢ to d in the coil * The electrical current in the coil is now from a to b and from c tod. Because one part of the coil or anchor is always connected to the same slip ring and brush, we find that the brush is sometimes positive and sometimes negative. In other words the AC-generator (alternator) generates alternating current (AC). Stage a ‘Note that the direction of the induced current is reversed each time the coil goes through the vertical position. The induced current reaches its maximum value when the coil goes through the horizontal. Figure A below shows a side view of the coil (along the rotation-axis) when it rotates from a vertical position (Stadium 1) to the horizontal position (Stadium 2). Figure B shows the side view of the coil when it rotates from ‘the horizontal position (Stadium 2) to a vertical position (Stadium 3). A cross(x) indicates the induced current in the direction away from you into the page. A dot (#) indicates the induced current in the direction towards you from the page. Figure A The coil rotates from the vertical position Figure 8. The coil rotates from the horizontal to the horizontal position. Soation Yotha work! poaton. ) y il Mi Mi rR When the coil rotates from a vertical position to a When then coll rotates from a horizontal to a verti- horizontal position, lt moves into the magnetic field cal position, it moves out of the magneti> field and ‘and increases the change in magnetic flux. decreases the change in magnetic fux. The AC-cycle ‘When the coil rotates from a AC-generator in a magnetic field an emf is induced that constantly alternates over the points of the call. The changed emf again induces an alternating current in the coil. The alternating current moves to the external circuit with the help of the brushes. One complete change in the direction of the current during one revolution of the coil (or anchor) in the generator, is called an alternating current cycle. A graph of the induced ‘current versus the position of the coil is shown in the following figure in the form of a sine wave. ail pogtion eS = = Bow i oe et tee ‘A graph of the induced current versus the position ofthe coil for one revolution of the col.‘When we sketch a graph of the induced emf versus the position of the coil the form is also in the shape of a sine wave, as shown below. cai position se = pat = me cra? aaa ase ‘Acraphof induced ent versus the poston of the col for one revolution ofthe coll Uses of AC generators ‘Alternating current generators are mainly used for the generating of electricity. Examples of this are: ‘+ Generating of electricity at a power plant. ‘These generators make use of an electromagnet. A small direct current supply to the coil is needed for the working Of the electromagnet. Rotation of the electromagnet then delivers the alternating current. ‘An alternating current generator Generators that generate electricity to generate electricity. + Provision of electricity to tools on construction sites and to itinerant amusement parks. ‘+ Hospitals, communication systems, drain pumps and other essential services are equipped with generetors in case of power outages. An important precaution with these generators are the quality of the electricity that is supplied, ‘especially if itis connected to an electronic apparatus, ‘= Portable generators are also taken to accident scenes by emergency vehicles. DIRECT CURRENT GENERATOR ‘The figure here shows a direct current generator (DC-generator). A direct current generator is designed to deliver direct current to the external circuit. In a direct current generator the slip rings are replaced with a split-ring commutator. A commutator is a metal ring that is divided into two halves. There is a gap between the two halves as be seen in the figure. The coil, whichis in the magnetic field, is connected to two halves of the split-ring commutator. Two fixed ‘catbon brushes, that are connected to the connecting wires, make Contact with the spring commutator. When the coll is mechanical rotated in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux through the coil ‘changes, that induces an emf and thus @ current in the coil. The split- ring commutator will ensure that the current that goes in the brushes. A simple DS generator with « and the external circuit always goes in the same direction, split ring commutator. ‘The magnitude of the emf and current will however always change with time, as explained for the AC-generator. An alternating current is induced in the coil. Yet the split-ring commutator ensures that the direction of the current in. the extemal circuit is always the same. ase he 281Working of the DC-generator ‘The working of the DC-generator is as follows: Stage 1 ‘When the coil is mechanically rotated, the spltring commutator moves with the coil. The carbon brushes stay at rest. As the coll is mechanically rotated (clockwise to the horizontal position) each half of the spli-ring commutator makes contact with a brush and rubs against the brush. The induced current that flows in the coil is in the direction bed (according to Fleming's right hand dynamo rule). The direction of the current is from A to B in the external circuit. Stage 2 When the coil moves through the vertical position there is no induced current in the Coll, The openings of the spliting commutator are now across the brushes and the ‘commutator looses contact with the brushes. There is also no current in the external circuit Stage 3 ‘The coil is horzontal again. Each half of the splitring commutator is again in contact with a brush and rubs against the brush. The induced current has now changed its direction and flows in the opposite direction deba through the coll (according to Fleming's right hand dynamo rule). The direction of the current is still from A to B in the external crcult. Stage 4 When the coil once again moves through the vertical position there is no induced current in the coil, The openings of the split ring commutator is again over the brushes and the commutator loses contact with the brushes. There is no current in the external circuit. ‘This process in Stadium 1 to 4 repeats itself as long as the coll is being mechanically rotated. Note that the current in the external circuit of a DC-generator: + Never changes direction. * Differs in magnitude as the coll turns. As the col rotates it changes the rate of the change In magneuc flux through the coll, which induces a changed emf in the coll which again induces current in the coll. Ina DC-generator - an alternating current is induced in the coil. ~ a direct current is generated in the external circuit. Stage 4 ‘Thus, when the slip rings of a AC-current generator are replaced with a split ring commutator, direct current (DC) ‘can be generated instead of alternatina current (AC) and we have a DC-aenerator. Each carbon brush makes contact every half cycle with the other segment of the split ring commutator and although the current in the coil changes direction each 180 °, the current in the external circuit, always flows in the same direction and DC is delivered. ‘The following graph shows how the induced current changes in the external circuit with the position of the coil of a direct current generator. Induced current Jeded A.graph of induced current in the external circuit versus the position of the coil of a DC-generator. ray]The following graph shows how the induced emf in the external circuit changes with the position of the coil of a direct current generator. ‘A graph of induced emf versus the position of the coil for one revolution of the coil Uses of DC generators Many DC-generators are propelled by AC-motors. These combinations are called motor-generators. It is one way to change a alternating current to @ direct current. ‘The main uses of DC-generators are: + Factories that do electroplating or produces aluminium, chlorine and other substances with the help of electrolysis, need large quantities of direct current. + Battery chargers. * Bicycle dynamo: A dynamo is attached to a bicycle to provide the electricity for the headlight. A small wheel on the shaft of the dynamo is pressed up against the wheel which then turns the anchor. The magnet that is fixed to the anchor, moves in the area of a coll. When the magnet rotates the changed magnetic flux cuts through the windings of the coil. Bue to the changes in the magnetic fury linkage a current i indiced in the col ——+ . = “vik A bicycle dynamo + Dynamo flash light. By turning the handle a magnet rotates inside the flash light through a coil. Or by shaking the flashlight a magnet moves through a coil. As the magnet rotates through the coil, or moves, the changed: ‘magnetic flux cuts through the windings of the coil and an electrical current is induced that causes the globe in. the flash light to shine. ‘The following table sums up the difference between AC and DC generators: Exercise 1 GENERATORS 1. A straight wire AB is connected to a sensitive ammeter. The wire is then placed between the poles of strong magnets. 1.1. When the wire AB is moved vertically downwards, in which direction (AB or BA) does the current flow through the wire? a9 ITY AND MAGNETISM1.2 Explain your answer in Question 1.1 1.3. What happens to the direction of the induced current in the wire when the wire is moved vertically up wards? 1.4 Is there an induced current in wire AB when it is moved parallel to the magnetic field? Explain. 2. The following figure shows a typical AC generator. 2.1. Nannie every part of ani AC generator und give the function of wa 2.2 Name the basic principle that occurs in an electrical generator. 2.3 Assume that the coil turns anti-clockwise. Give the direction of the induced current in the coil 2.4 Name the eneray conversion that occurs in an electrical generator. 2.5 Which rule can be used to determine the direction of the induced current? The following diagrams show the coil of the AC-generator (also called an alternator) which rotates anti-clock wise between two magnets. @) £1 69 69 09 69 2.6 For each ofthe following positions of the coil, say whether the induced current in the coll is zero ora maximum, land give the direction of the current. Also in each case gwve a reason for your answer. At (b) to @ % rotation : 284AAt(c) after a % rotation: At (d)after a %rotation : At(e) after a 1 full revolution : 2.7 Sketch a graph of emf versus position of the coil for one full rotation, where the coil originally begins in the horizontal position. 2.8 Sketch a graph of an induced current versus position of the coll for one full rotation, where the osil originally begins in the horizontal position. 2.9 Name three methods to increase the induced emt in an electrical generator. Expiain why each factor increases the induced emt. a9 ITY AND MAGNETISM ES3, John builds a simple AC generator as shown in the figure for his Physical Science proj- ect. The propeller that is attached to the rectangular coils turned until the coil tums at a constant speed in the magnetic field, The bulb shines when the coil tums. 3.4. Name the parts A and B and give the function of each, 3.2 Explain briefly how an electrical current is produced through this generator. 39. Give the position of the coil when the current through the coil 3.3.1 isata maximum: 3.3.2 is ata minimum: 34 Ifa current of 0,4 A flows through the bulb and the resistance of the filament of the bulb is 8 Q, calculate: 3.4.1. the emf output of the generator. 3.4.2. die power output of the generator. 3.5 Comment on the following statements: Learner 1 : [he magnitude of the emt output is at 8 maximum when the plane of the coll is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Learner 2 : The magnitude of the output em! is lower when the coil lates at a faster speed. rity4, The figure shows a simple AC-generator. 4.1. Name the law relating to the induced emf and the rate of change of mag- netic flux in the coil. 4.2. Name the rule that ean be used to determine the dircotion of the inducod current in the coil. 4.3 The coil rotates clock wise. What is the direction of the induced current in the coil when itis in the position shown in the figure? Write only ABCD or DCBA. 4.4 Ittakes the coil 0,2 sto rotate through 90°, The maximum induced emf is 45 V. Sketch a graph of induced emf versus lime while the generator is working for 0,08 ms. Begin wit the position as given in the figure above att=0s. 5. The diagram below shows the working principle of an alternating current (AC) ‘generator. The coil (ABCD) is tumed clock wise as indicated by the arrow. ‘The following diagrams shows different positions (P, Q, R and S) of the coil while it tums inside the magnetic field. The position of the coil is shown in sequence. Position P and R are vertical and position Q and S are horizontal. eile Ed6.1 Whats the direction of the current in the stretch AB of the coil in position Q? Is it from A to B or from B to A? 6.2 In which two positions is the generated emf in the coil at a maximum. Give a reason for your answer. The following data is obtained while the col rotated inside the magnetic field. A sensor is used to gather the neces- sary data to measure the current every 0,2 s for a period of 2,4 s. 44 20 | 22 24 time(s) | 0,0 | 02 | 04 | 06 | 08 | 4.0 | 12 current (A) | 0,0 | 1,5 3.0 0.0 15 [30 26 6.3 Complete the above table by adding the missing values. 6.4 Use the data in the table and sketch the graph of the current in the coil versus time for the gene-ator. Indicate clearly where position P, Q, R and S are on the graph. 65 Is this current alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC)? How do you know this? ‘6.6 Sketch graphs to compare with your graph in 6.4 to show what will happen if: 66.1 stronger magnets are used (number it S). 66.2 the coil is rotated at twice the prior speed than before (number it 7). rity7. Name three uses of an AC-generator. 8. Name three uses of a DC-generator. 9. The following figure shows the coil of the DC-generator rotating clockwise between two magnets. e) 911 Describe how a DC-generator works. Use no more than four short sentences, 9.2 With which component does a DC-generator differ from an AC-generator. What is the function of this compo- nent in a DC-generator? 9.3 When do the carbon brushes change from the one segment to the other segment of the component mentioned in Question 9.27 a9 ITY AND MAGNETISM 289)9.4 Sketch a graph of the current in the external circuit versus the position of the coil for a DC-generator for ‘one full revolution of the coil, as shown in the figure on the previous page. The coil begins to rotate in the horizontal position. 10. AC-generators difler from DC-generators regarding their construction and p. {ype of current that is delivered. The simplified sketch hore present a DC- generator. Q 10.1 Which component (P or Q) makes it possible for this generator to deliver De? 10.2 Which structural changes must be made on this generator to change it to a AC-generator? 10.3 Alternating current (AC) is generated at power plants. 10.3.1. Explain in your own words what alternating current is. 10.3.2 Why is it beneficial to work with alternating current? 10.4 Explain shortly why Eskom prefers AC over DC for the long distance transmission of electricity, 10.5 The diagram below shows a dynamo that is altached to the wheel af a bicycle. When riding the bicycle, the wheel rotates a magnet near the coil = Rotation — Coit —Magnet ‘Soynamo Explain how the current is induced in the coil. 290ELECTRICAL MOTORS THE MOTOR EFFECT We learned in the chapter about generators that the mechanical rotation of a coil through a magnetic feld induces an electrical current in the coil. We are now going to investigate the opposite effect namely the force on a current Carrying conductor which is placed in a magnetic field. It is known as the motor effect. You will use the motor effect. to explain how electrical motors work. In Figure 1 a conductor XY is connected to a DC-source, for example a battery. Charge moves through the conductor. Note that the direction of the current is shown from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the battery. It is known as Conventional current. Conventional current is the rate of the flow of the positive charge from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. In Figure 2 the current carrying conductor, XY, is placed between two opposite magnetic poles, The current carrying conductor 's now in the magnetic fled of the two magnets. When current I moves in this direction through the conductor Y as shown, the moving charges will experience a magnetic force that moves the Figure 1 Direct current Conductor to the right flow in the conductor. ‘The force on the conductor will be zero when the direction of the current is parallel to the magnetic field. The direction of the force on the conductor in the magnetic field can be determined by using Fleming's left hand motor rule. force (F) Bs “hagnetic field (8) current 1) Fleming's lft hand motor rule Place the index finger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand perpendicular to each other. When your index finger points in the direction ‘of the magnet field (B) and your middle finger in the direction of the ‘conventional current (from + fo), your thumb will indicate the direction | igure a evrentcarying of the force (F) conductoring magnetic et * TORQUE OF A CURRENT CARRYING RECTANGULAR COIL We have seen that a current carrying conductor experiences force when itis placed in a magnetic field. Let us now observe a copper wire that is bent into a rectangular coil (single winding) abed and is placed between two dissimilar ‘magnetic poles (in a magnetic field) as shown in Figure 1 below. The tips of the coil are then attached to the poles of a battery so that an electrical current can flow through the coil - Figure 2 A frontal view of the coil. The current in the side ab from the rectangular coil is into the page (2). The current in the side ed of the coil is out of Figure 1 A current carrying coll (single winding) in {the pages). The current in ab experioncos a force F the magnetic field between two magnetic poles. that Is Just as big but opposite to the force (-F) that faethe col rotate wien is placed in te magnetic When a current flows in the col, the coll rotates (turns) because magnetic forces work on the two vertical sides (ab and cd). Side ab of the coil experiences an upward magnetic force (F) while side cd experiences a downward ‘magnetic force (-F). These two forces have the same magnitude, but an application of Fleming's left hand motor ‘rule shows that they are in opposite directions. The forces that work in on sides ab and ed causes torque (rotation- effect) in the same direction that causes the coil to rotate clockwise. ase 291"Torque is a physical quantity that measures the rotating ability of a force around an axis. The combination of two {forces forms a couple. A couple consist of two equal and opposite forces that cause torque. Note that there are no forces on the pieces ad and be when the loop is not horizontal, because currents in these lengths are paral! with the direction of the magnetic field. When the loop tilts, the forces on these parts cancel each ‘other out and do not contribute to the rotation of the coll, thus we ignore it. 4 field direction tion bs oe ab “t Gu od Maximum torque (rotation-effect if the ‘oil is parallel to the field. y No torque (rotation-effect) if the coil is ‘perpendicular tothe field, |As soon as the loop rotated clockwise through 90°, so that ab lies above and ed below, the two sides ab and ed. now lie in @ neutral position, vertically across and perpendicular (90°) to the magnetic field. With the agplication of Fleming’s left hand motor rule it is found that the forces acting on ab and ed is outward, thus to the top on |ab and to the bottom on ed and there is no torque (rotating-effect) on the loop in this position. ‘The loop will rotate further through 180° because the momentum of the loop will cause it rotate a further 90° ‘clockwise. The loop is now in the position that is shown in the figure above on the right. Because ed is sil attached to the positive point of the battery, the force still works downwards on it. Likewise the force on the length ab still ‘work upwards. The loop will now rotate in the opposite direction, thus anti clockwise. ‘The effect of a force on a current carrying conductor (or loop) in a magnetic field is known as the motor effect [and is used effectively in the building of an electrical motor that converts electrical energy to mechanical ‘energy. We will now look at the construction and operation of a simple direct current electrical motor. ‘THE DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR ‘The essential parts of a direct current electrical motor (DC-motor) are shown in the figure below, ‘+N and S are the field magnets which provide a fixed magnetic field. Permanent magnets or electro~ ‘magnets can be used as field magnets. + 8 suggests one loop of a rectangular isolated wire that is called the anchor (anchor coil. ‘+ Kis a split-ring commutator that consists of two conducting halves that do not have contact with each other. If the coil turns, the split-ing commu- tator also turns and serves as a current converter after each half revolution of the col *# By and Bz are sliding contacts or brushes of car- bon or compressed copper mesh to maintain elec- trical contact between the battery and the rotating commutator. The brushes are fixed, while the com- mutator rotates. The carbon brushes slips freely steple stectiieet m0 ona over the halves of the spliting commutator when Ane the commutator rotates with the col Working of the direct current motor ‘The working of the DC-motor is as follows: Stage 1 ‘Current flows from the battery and enters through the right hand brush (A), then ‘through the half ring of the spit-ring commutator, through the coil exting the col through the half ring and brush (B) on the left side. When a current flows through the ‘coll (in the direction deba), the coll undergoes an upward force on ab on the let side, ‘and a downward force on éd on the right side, according to Fleming's left hand motor 2 rule. These two forces cause a torque (rotating effect) on the coil. (Torque is a physical tI]. #~ ‘quantity that measures the rotating abilty of a force around an axis. The combination Stage 1 292 Bilal)Of the two forces form a couple. A couple consist of two equal and opposite forces that ‘cause a torque). 2 Se came aca w ra 9 dain el ck Der position the openings between the half rings of the split-ring commutator is across the brushes and the commutator looses contact with the brushes so that no current flow Se cant tas nerensud hand coms ere eae Stage 3 ‘The commutator makes contact with the brushes again and current flows through the coil again but in the opposite direction (in the direction abed). It results in the torque still being in the same direction. The side ab now undergoes a downward force and side ed an upward force. Stage 4 ‘The coil keeps on turning until a vertical position is reached and again breaks contact with the current. The momentum of the coil lets the coil rotate past this position again until the commutator makes contact with the brushes and the coll rotates to its original position in Stage 1. This process in Stage 1 to 4 repeats itself as long as the current flows. AA direct current motor does not only consist of a single wire loop, but a wire coll with many windings as the anchor. Only one wire loop will rotate jerkly and unevenly. Uniform movement is obtained by a coil with many windings. The coll (anchor) converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (rotation-energy). The coil rotation-axis (or spindle) is usually attached to other parts of the system, with Use of gears or pulleys. This axis (or spindle) can, for example, propel the wheels of a motor car. The rotation-effect (and magnetic force) on the coil can be increased by: + increasing the current. The current can for example be increased by increasing the emf of the DC-power source cor by using more batteries, or by lowering the coil’ resistance i.e. by using a thicker wie.) + increasing the number windings on the coll. Each coll will undergo the same force. More windings let the total force increase, which then increases the total force on aach side of the anchor. + increasing the strength of the magnetic field. Instead of using permanent magnets, electromagnets can be used. + wind the coil around an iron core. + use different coils wound at slighty different angles on the anchor. Electrical motors in everyday life In practice motors turn smoothly and at high speed. The coil in motors consist of a soft iron core, surrounded by loops. Such a coil then forms the anchor. Most anchors have many coils, that are placed at different angles. Each Cail in the anchor has its own commutator. Thus a greater turing effect is obtained, that allows the motor to run smoothly. Anchor with commutator. softron core su Electrical gril with AC-moter. rounded by the cos ‘Some motors, like the electrical drill, can also use AC (alternating current) because they contain electromagnets, rather than permanent magnets. As the current flows through the coll, the magnetic field changes direction with jit. Thus the motor can keep on rotating in the same direction. Electrical force is provided in the form of AC to our houses. All electrical motors in our household appliances must thus work with AC. The design of a specific electrical motor depends on the task It must execute. Sometimes the motor must rotate quickly, for exampe a dentist's dri ‘sometimes it must rotate slowly, for example a watch; and sometimes it must rotate in stages, for example the motor in a printer which feeds the paper line after line. [DC-motors are also used in appliances like CD-players, computers, motor cars, fans, laser printers, photocopiers, hair dryers, washing machines, etc. Advantages and disadvantages of direct current motors The biggest advantage of a DC-motor is speed control. The speed at which the motor rotates is directly proportional to the potential difference. These motors can change the magnitude of the torque rapidly. This makes them suitable for Pa 293)use in trans. |A disadvantage of DC-motors is that DC current is first needed from AC current before a DC-motor will function of, 'eg. a plug. Regular maintenance of brushes is also necessary which make DC-motors @ more expensive option than |AC-motors. ‘THE ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTOR ‘An AC motor uses alternating current as a source and does not need a spit ring commutator. The current in the coll ‘will change direction at the frequency of the alternating current and thus achieve ongoing rotation. How does an AC-motor work? ‘The adjacent figure shows the basic components of an ‘AG-motor. The coil in a magnetic field is attached to two slip rings that rotate with a coil. Each slip ring makes con- ‘tact with only one side of the coil. A carbon brush that is ‘connected to the connecting wires from the AC-source, slides continuously over the same slip ring. As the alter- rating current changes direction each haif cycle, the di- rection of the current changes in the coil and ongoing rotation is accomplished. Uses, advantages and disadvantages of AC- motors |AC-motors are used for appliances which need a great ‘amount of power. Examples are heavy industrial machin- ‘An ekemating current motor ‘ery and machinery which lifts or pushes heavy loads. ‘AC: motors are cheaper than DC-motors and can function directly from eg. a plug. Rotation speed changes with the frequency of the alternating current and can not easily be changed, asin the case of a DC-motors. The biggest disadvantage of AC-motors is that a much greater current is needed. Sparks and heat at contacts allows loss of energy and shortens the motors lifetime. BUILD YOUR OWN ELECTRIC MOTOR What you need . +2 pieces of 2 cm x 6 cm thin aluminium or [coated oe ‘copper strips + 1,5 meter enamel coated copper wire +2 lengths of thin isolated copper wire +1 wooden block, 6 om x 15 m +a small piece of sandpaper 71,5 VAAbattery ‘rubber band ‘thumb nail ‘ring magnet (from an old speaker) Procedure + Build a simple electric motor as shown in the figure above. ‘The following figure shows various different ways to build a simple electric motor.Exercise 2 ELECTRIC MOTORS 1, The Figure shows a metal bar XY that is connected to a battery. The bar is placed » between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. 4.4 What will happen to the bar when the switch is closed? 2, 4.2 Explain your answer in Question 1.1. How will the bar move when: 1.3 the current through the bar is increased? 1.4 the poles of the battery are switched around? 2. A metal bar PQ is held horizontally in position by two Newton scales. The bar is placed in the magnetic field of an U-shaped magnet as shown in the figure beside. ‘When the switch is closed, the readings on the Newton scales decrease. 2.1 Explain briefly the reason for the decrease in scale readings. Newton- meter scale 2.2 Determine the polarity of the poles Aand 8 of the magnet. ‘What will the effect be of the readings on the Newion scales if 2.3 the polarity of the battery is switched around? 2.4 the polarity of the magnets are switched around? ‘The battery is now replaced with an AC-power source with a frequency of 2 Hz. 2.5. Describe the motion of the bar when the switch is closed. eile EEthe two magnetic poles so that the wire is perpendicular to the magnetic field, with a length of ‘5m in the magnetic field. When no current flows through the wire the reading on the scale is 153,54 g and when a current of 2 flows through the wire, the reading on the scale is 183,84 g 3.1 Explain why the reading on the scale increases when a current flows through the wire. L_J 3. The U-shaped magnet is placed on top of an electronic scale. A metal wire is placed between | 3.2 Determine the direction of the current's flow. 3.3 The force exerted on the wire, is given through the formula: F = BIJ, where: B = magnetic field-strength (in 1), T= current (in A) and = length of wire in magnetic field (in m). Use the formula and determine the magnetic field strength of the magnet. 3.4 What will happen to the reading on the scale when the direction of the current through the wire is reversed? 4. The following Figure shows a sketch of a rectangular wire coil that is mounted on an axis and is plaoed between the two magnetic poles. magnetic pole magnetic pole 4.1. Complete the sketch by indicating what is needed so that the coil will keep on turning when an electric current moves through it. 4.2 Explain how the parts which are added in the sketch makes it possible that the coll will undergo steady mo- tion. 296'. The following Figure shows a simple direct current motor. 5.1 Draw an arrow on the Figure to indicate the direction in which the part FG of the coil will move. 5.2 Draw a second arrow on the Figure to indicate the direction of the mag- netic field. 5.3 Why does the direct current motor’s anchor have a coil with many wind- ings, rather than only one winding as shown in the Figure? 5.4 Explain why the sides DE and FG of the coil, when they are in position, as shown in the Figure, will experience a force 5.5 Explain why there is no force on sides FE and DG. The momentum of a force (turning-effect of a source) or torque (x) exerted on the coil sven by the formula: x = NIABsin@ where N = number of windings of coil, I= current, A = area of the coil, ‘magnetic field strength and @ = angle between the magnetic field B and the normal on the surface Aof the col 5.6 Study the formula and name 5 ways that maximum torque can be exerted on the col. 6. The diagram shows a direct current motor built by a student. Name THREE faults that the student made in the building of the electric motor. ‘call of copper wire « ~ {60 windings) “needle Wo A SO copper brushes which NYY touch the commutator ci)7. Peculiar smelis and sparks are given off when an electric motor, eg. such as in an electric dil, is in operation Explain why. 8. The Figure shows a simple electrical motor. 8.4. Name the parts of the motor that are indicated with (1) and (2) in the Figure. Oo} @) 8.2 What isthe function of each of the parts named (1) and (2) in any electrical motor? 8.3 Name two differences between the electrical motor shown in the Figure and the kind of motor that we get in 1ustrial appliances. 8. The figure shows two electrical machines marked Appliance 1 and Appliance 2 Appliance 2 9.1 Whatic Appliance 1? 8.2 What energy-conversion takes place in Appliance 1? Appliance 1 9.3 What is Appliance 2? 9.4 What energy-conversion takes place in Appliance 2? 9.5. Name one use, one advantage and one disadvantage in Appliance 2. 298( ALTERNATING CURRENT WHY WE USE ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) Electric energy must be transported over long distances with the help of cables from power plants where electri- ‘cal energy is generated to cities and towns. Work rate (power) is calculated with the expression P = VI. To deliver: ‘enough electric energy, one of two things can be done: either by making V large, or by making I large. When a large. ‘current (I) is sent through a cable that is hundreds of kilometers long, large quantities of electrical energy are lost. In Grade 11 you learned that the power which is converted in the cable to heat, is given through: Peatie = IR. Engineers ‘must thus keep the current less and increase the electric (V) voltage. The voltage that is generated by generators, is ‘approximately 10 KV. Itis stil low. The voltage must thus be increased and transformers are used for this. As you will remember from Grade 11, transformers can only be used with alternating current. A step-up transformer at power plants increases the electrical voltage (amount of volts) and is sent by means of the Eskom National Network with high vottage cables to sub stations. At the sub stations there are step-down transformers that decrease the electrical voltage and then it is delivered to the consumer (factories, schools, houses,etc.). In South-Africa the anchor coils of generators in power stations rotate 50 times per second so that ‘50 cycles alternating current per second can be delivered. The number of cycles per second is called the frequency of the AC and is given in hertz. Thus the frequency of 50 cycles per second = 50 Hz (50 5-1). The symbol for an alternating current source (AC-source) which is used in circuits, is shown here, Eskom must thus see that the generators in power plants rotate at ‘n constant nor or an speed to deliver a constant frequency, and thus an emf with a constant maximum. aan CHANGE OF VOLTAGE (POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE) IN AN AC-CIRCUIT The graph shows the change in potential difference (voltage, V) that is produced between the terminas of an AC- generator versus time (t). ‘Transverse section of rotation of coil in magnetic field my f 2=v feo 135° 180° 225" a7?! 6 a ak (m4) (me) (GmA) (Bt) (T/A) reat Number of degrees (or radians) that the coil rotate. Graph of the potential difference (generated emt or voltage) produced through an AC-generator versus time: Each point on the graph shows the immediate voltage (potential difference) gener- ‘ted in the coil at a determined angle. The voltage ranges sinusoidal. The immediate potential difference in a time period that is generated through the coil at a determined angle can be. given through the following equation: where: V = immediate potential difference (voltage or induced emf) in V (volt) Vimaxs = maximum valuc of the potential difference (maximum induced cmf)(eg. at 90° ond 270°){also known as peak value or peak potential difference) in V (volt). 2n = the angle of one complete revolution (rotation) in radians (other value for angle measurement in stead of degrees) the frequency at which the coil rotates in Hz (hertz) t= the time that the coil rotates in s (seconds). 2nf together is known as angle velocity (in m-s-1) of the coll and is indicated by the symbol w. ‘The equation V= Vngsin2nft can therefore aso be writen as: EVs} egetFrom the graph on the previous page of V versus t itis obvious that the coil went through one full evolution. A full alternating current cycle is generated. The value of voltage or current at a certain point depends on the position ‘of the collin the magnetic field. For example, 0° is the opposite sides of the coll paral to the magnetic field and ‘no voltage (emf is induced. At 90° both sides are perpendicular to the magnetic field lines and cuts the maximum ‘number of magnetic field lines, therefore a voltage (emf) is induced. Suppose it takes the coil one second to make ‘one full revolution. That means that one alternating current cycle took place in one second. Ifthe coil conpletes five revolutions in one second, five alternating current cycles are completed. The amount of alternating current cycles ‘are completed per second, are called frequency (F) of the coll and is measured in Hz (hertz). The time it takes to complete one cycle, is called the period (T) of the cycle. Ifthe cycle takes one second, the period thereof is 1 second. When five cycles are completed in one second, the period of the cycle is one fifth of a second, that is 0,2 5. ‘The relation between the frequency (A) and the period (T) is therefor: T = tif or f= WT. Because the voltage (potential difference or induced emt) fluctuates synodical between positive and negative values ‘aS a function of time, the induced alternating current voltage (potential difference) is described through the quantity Vivaxy Vis 21d Vayg in the graph below. The maximum value Vinax that the coil induces i also called the amplitude of voltage. Vinx | maximum value v, (peak value or amplitude) Vers = a - lue Sa rms-value Vana = (2) * Vinax {~~ average value The relation between: Vinax Vrms 40 Vavg ‘When a potential difference (voltage) is connected to a resistor, a current flows regardless of whether its alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) and heat is generated in the resistor. The rate at which the heat is generated 1s different for direct current voltage and alternating current voltage. If an experiment where to be done it would be found that alternating current voltage would not cause the same heat in the resistor at each point on its cycle. When alternating current voltage is compared with direct current voltage to determine what would causes the same heating effect, the value of the alternating current voltage which causes the same heating effect than direct current voltage, is 7/-(= 0,7071) of the maximum alternating current voltage value. (It is not necessary to know the proof of this in Grade 12.) This value (answer) is called the effective voltage or the root mean square value (rms) for voltage, which is used to calculate the actual alternating current voltage. It is elso this value thet © multi meter shows when alternating current voltage is measured. ms for voltage = --x peak value of the voltage or in symbols Vine. = -Vinax 0 that Viet Sa ‘The average value of the alternating current voltage half-cycle is obtained when the alternating current voltage- ‘graph is levelled off until a constant value is obtained over the period of a half cycle. The average value of the alternating current voltage is then equal to the average value of the direct current voltage at 2 (= 2/0,637) times the maximum alternating current voltage (AC) value, thus Vavg = 2/7 * Vinax- ‘The rms-value of a AC-appliance is 220 V. What is the maximum voltage? Answer Max _| Ves ‘2v_[220 Vv. (%= 220 /2=311VBampA2) In South Africa the city councils provide us with our household alternating current voltage at 230 V (rms) and 50 Hz, Use the information and calculate: (1) The maximum value of the household voltage. (2) The average value of the household voltage. [Enriching question to understand the graph.) (3) The period that it takes to complete one relevant cycle. (4) Sketch a graph of voltage vs time and write all relevant information. Answer (1) @) [Weeg [Vex 2 [325.27V Ore 7s [50Hz tet ‘BOHZ 02 s (20 ms) CHANGE OF CURRENT IN AN AC-CIRCUIT The current in an alternating (AC) circuit osclates with the potential difference. The direction of the current changes each time the polarity of the generator changes. Electrons in an AC-dynamo accelerates in one direction, reach a maximum speed, decrease speed and come to a halt, after which the speed increases in the oppesite direction. The result Is an increase. Transverse section of rotation of coil in magnetic field oo ee ee 138 180° 22! 270° 3 ca mee (ea Geo | Ne inetd io ei Cock el Graph of the current produced through a AC-generator versus time for an AC-circuit. Each point on the graph shows the immediate current in the coil generated at a determined angle. The current ranges sinusoidal. The current fluctuates sinusoidal (as a sine wave) between positive and negative values as a function of time, as shown in the graph above.“The instantaneous current generated by the coll at a given time t at a certain angle can be given through the fol- lowing equation: Where: I= instantaneous current in A (amps) Impax = Maximum value of the current (peak value) (eg. at 90° and 270°) in A (amps). 2 = the angle of one full revolution (rotation) in radials (different value for angle measurement instead of degrees). {f= the frequency at which the coil rotates in Hz (hertz) tt = the time that the coil rotates in s (seconds). ‘2nf together is known as the angular velocty (in m.s-1) of the coll and is indicated by the symbol «a. ‘The equation I = Imaxsin2rft can therefore be written as: Gy) Heat is generated when current flows irrespective of whether its alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). The rate at which heat is generated differs between direct current and alternating current. If an experiment should be carried out it would be found that the direct current will deliver the same heat energy at a lower current than in the case of alternating current. This phenomenon is due to the fact that direct current maintains a maximum value while alternating current only thas a maximum value at the peak of the sine wave. __ maximum value (peak value or amplitude) rms-value (-- average value The relation between: Imax, Teme 2”¢ Tayg ‘The effective value of alternating current (AC) isthe value that corresponds with a direct current (DC) that has the ‘same heating effect on e.g. a resistor with the same value. This effective value of alternating current (answer) is called the root mean square value (rms) for current, and is used to calculate the actual current. It is also the value that 2 muti meter shows when alternating current is measured _rms for current = 7-x peak of the current or in symbols ema= 7 Ira so that Tae ‘The average value ofthe alternating current fora half cycle is obtained when the alternating current graph is leveled ‘until a constant value is acquired over the period of a half cycle. The average value of the alternating current (AC) is equal to the average value of the direct current (DC) at 2/7. (= 2/0,637) times the maximum alternating current (AC), Hay = 27 * Toa ELECTRICAL POWER ‘The most important function of an electrical current is the transfer of energy from the source, e.g. the generator to the electrical appliance, e.g. a radio or CD player. The electrical power associated with a direct current (DC) is the rate at which energy is transferred, and can be calculated by the following three formulas: ) V = potential difference (voltage) in volt (V) T= current in amp (A) R= resistance in ohm (2)In the case of an alternating current (AC) the current and voltage (potential difference, V) is not constant, but with time fluctuates continuously, as summarized in the following two graphs: ‘The question is: What values should be used respectively for the voltage (potential difference, V) and current (1)? ‘What about the average value of voltage and current of one cycle? The average value of each of the voltage. (potential difference) and current is zero and no usable power is delivered. Because each positive half cycle cancels ‘each negative half cycle. Consequently we tum to power. In a AC current the power fluctuates between zero and a maximum value, as ilystrated in the graph below, power time current (1) voltage (V) Change in voltage (Vj, current (I) and powor across three 2yelea through a resistor Mowers ahways positive. ‘The average power will thus not be zero. Power versus time graph for a AC eurcult. Because voltage (V) and current (1) are sinusoidal, the corresponding power graph is a sine squared craph. Note that when V and I are both negative, the power is positive - power is always positive (a scalar quantity) although it stil varies with time. Because power varies with time, it is useful to consider the average power in an AC-circult. From the graph above it can be seen that the average power values are not zero. On the contrary, the average power Paverage is half of the maximum or peak value of the power. Payerage = 14 * peak value of the power = Y4Pmax = EVnan Vmod [Remember in mth: Y= x we atrency Kow tt Vis 7 re tt hn Nae sothat from Pavwage = (Vmax Mi Inas) follows that Paverago = Vimslrms ‘The ms values of voltage and current are those values of a direct voltage and direct current that will deliver the. same average power in a resistor as the alternating current voltage and alternating current. a9 ITY AND MAGNETISM ETE)‘When values for voltage and current are specified in AC circuits, they are rms values, and the power values are an average power, so that: Pre * Vim Pre = Peme R Veeme Pima = average value of the power in watts (W) rms-potential difference (voltage) in volts (V) Ima = fms-current in amperes (A) R'™ = resistance in ohm (2) Verne P, lexarnplel@) Consider the following graph of current versus time. 4 A © Current (A) za Use the graph to determine the following: (1) The frequency of the alternating current. (2) Tmax (maximum current) (3) Irn (root of the average square value). (4) The power of a resistor of § Q that is connected to the source of the current. Answer Tr] | 2) tnae= 4A (trom graph) | 8) TT tae] |“) [Poe | toms | 2A 4A 2W |2,83A] 50 teh a Poms * Fa a me = (2.83 75.0) Se: =40W = 0,05 Hz USE OF RMS VALUES ‘The mains supply in South Africa is a 220 V supply. This value is the rms value. The maximum potential difference (peak voltage, Vax) however, varies between +311V and “311 V. The peak value of the current depends on the resistance in the electrical circuit. The potential difference in an AC circuit fluctuates at a frequency of 50 Hz between -311 V and 4311 V. ‘The rms values of current- and potential difference enables US to USe Vavg = IrmaR and the power equation Prms = Vimelrms- The rms values is the effective alternating current and potential difference that will respectively have the same Values as the constant direct current and potential difference with the same heating effect as the alternating current. The rms values thus have the same effect as the equivalent DC values. For example, a lamp that is ‘connected to a 6 V AC source will burn with the same brightness if it is connected to a 6 V DC source. ADVANTAGES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT ‘ternating current has several advantages over direct current: (0 1815 easier and cheaper to generate alternating current. Bulaing a UC generator that supplies @ constant current in one direction, requires adjustments to an AC generator, especially on the slip rings to prevent the current direction changing around every 180°. (2)The main advantage of the alternating current is that the voltage can be changed by using transformers. This means that voltage can be increased at power plants to a high voltage so that electrical energy can be transported at low current (P= VI) along power lines. The loss of energy (W = I7Rt) due to the heating effect i much lower if the current is less. At the sub stations of residential areas the voltage is lowered again for the use in buildings, street lights, etc.Itis therefore advantageous to use alternating current at power plants because: ~ The electrical voltages can be changed by transformers. ~ Electrical energy can be conducted over long distances at low current, thus limiting energy loss. (3) Important components, such as capacitors and inductors, that are used in electronics, require alternating current to perform specific functions. Exercise 3 ALTERNATING CURRENT 4.The national electricity grid is used to transfer electrical eneray from the power plant to homes and industries all ‘over the country. This energy i transmitted through charges, namely electrons that flow through conducting wires. ‘An electrical currents thus the flow of charge. We find two types of electrical currents, namely direct current and (OC) alternating current (AC). 41.1 What isthe essential difference between direct current (Dc) and alternating current (AC)? Direct current (DC) ‘Atemating current (AC): 1.2 Draw two potential difference versus time graphs to illustrate the difference between a direct current and an alternating current. 1.3 Draw two current versus time graphs to illustrate the difference between a direct current and an alternating current. 1.4 Why is it much more beneficial to transfer electrical energy from power stations to the end user by using al- temnating current rather than direct current? ITY AND MAGNETISM 305)2. The alternating current frequency that the emf works at in our homes is 50 Hz. 2.1 What is meant by a frequency of 50 Hz? 2.2 Why i it important that the frequency staye constant if alternating current ie used for houechold power ‘supply? 2.3 Calculate the time (period) of an alternating current cycle. 2.4 Taking into account that the current is zero twice during each cycle, why do the lights in our homes not go off. during these times. ‘3. The induced emt (voltage or potential difference) as well as the current reaches two peak values during each cycle, namely a peak voltage (Vmax) and @ peak current (Imax). When a person is electrocuted by @ household alternating current of 50 Hz, you are actually receiving 100 shocks per second, namely one shock during each peak valve. Explain the concepts peak voltage and peak current. Peakvoltage Peak current, 4. The main supply in South Africa is referred to as a 230 V supply, although the peak voltage (maximum value, Vax) Fanges between +325 V and -325 V. The peak value of the current depends on the resistance that is in the electrical circuit. 306 bold le)4.1 Draw a two cycle voltage sine wave and show in each cycle, the peak value and the effective velue thereof. 4.2 Write an expression for the instantaneous voltage in terms of the frequency of the source and the time. 4.3. What meaning do you link to the following phrase: “effective value of the alternating current voltage”? 4.4 Show how the value of 230 V, which is about 70% of the peak value, can be determined and is known as the effective value of the AC voltage [also called the root mean square value (rms)} 4.5. Why can peak value (Vmax) also be a negative value? 5. The sine wave below, represents the variation of current (I) with time (t) for a generator that is used by a man for the lights in his house. The current varies between maximum and minimum. Inthe diagram: 1g the peak curent es = effective current average ™ average value of the current 5.1 Write the expression for the instantaneous current in terms of the frequency of the source and time. 5.2 What meaning do you link to the following phrase: "effective value of the alternating current’? 5.3 Write down a formula that indicates the relation between the maximum current (Ig) and the effeciive current (rms). ITY AND MAGNETISM 3075.4 The frequency of the AC generated by ESKOM is 50 Hz. A substation supplies 240 V (RMS) to a house. Calculate the peak voltage at the wall plug 5.5 Why are the RMS values handy to use in circuits? 6, The form of the wave is a graphic representation Of the change in voltage (V) versus time (1) for an alternating current source. 6.1 Calculate the frequency at which the alternat- ing current is delivered. 3 > 6.2 Calculate the effective value (rms) of the volt- 6.3 Calculate the power that is released through the age. source iit delivers a SA-rms-current 7. When a certain AC source is connected to an electrical bulb, the lamp burns with the same brightness as when it is connected to a 24 V battory. 7.4, What is the rms source of the AC supply? 7.2 Whats the peak voltage of the AC scurce, ‘The average power transferred to the lamp, is 36 W. Calculate: 7.3 the rms current delivered by the AC source. 7.4 the peak current delivered by the AC source. 308Calculate the resistance of the lamp by making use of 7.5. rms values of current and voltage. 7.6 the peak values of current and voltage. 8. Ageyser is marked: 2 000 W, 230 V, 50 Hz. 8.1 What information does the 50 Hz give? 8.2 What is the maximum voltage that the geyser 8.3 Calculate the resistance of the geyser. can handle? 8.3 Calculate the current through the geyser. 8.4, Sketch the voltage versus time graph for a half cycle and show Vins and Vinge 0N the graph. 9. The household electricity supply in New Zealand is 240 V at 50 Hz. 9.4 Calculate the time (period) of one alternating 9.2 Find the peak voltage of the household electric. ‘current cycie of the household electricity sup- ty supply. ply. 913 Calculate the magnitude of the current that flows through a 100 W light bulb that is connected to the power ‘supply. 410. When you observe a loud speaker up close you may see the abbreviation PMPO's writen on it. Itstands {or Peak Music Power Output. In an attempt to make the loud speaker seems much more powerful than what it really 's, the peak power output Is provided In stead of the correct rms vaiue that is lower. dealer who sells loud speakers advertises a special on CD players. He claims that itis @ 500 W PMO. ‘What isthe actual power of the CD player? ELE)11. The next wave form is a graphic representation of the change in voltage (V) versus time (), for a alternating cur- rent generator. Voltage (V) 11.1. Explain why itis more advantageous to use alternating current at power stations, 11.2 Calculate the average power that is generated by a generator if it supplies a 13. Arms current. 412. The diagram below illustrates how electricity is generated at a power pant, and transferred to a sutstation. ‘top-up transformer for ‘Transmission lines long distance transmission ‘subiaton 42.1 Does the power station use an AC or DC generator? 12.2 The average power delivered at the power station, is 4,45 *10° W. Calculate the rms current in the trans- ‘mission lines if the power is transferred at a maximum voltage of 30 000 V. 12.3. Give a reason why electricity must be transferred at high voltage and low current. 12.4 ESKOM recently had problems supplying electricity to South Africa. Name two factors that can cause the Shortage of electricity supply. 12.9 Give one ulsadvantaye and one advantage of each of the following alters weays lu generale electricity 12.5.1. Hydraulic power 12.5.2 Solar Power:12.53 Wind power. 13. An electric kettle uses 12 A-rms when itis connected to an alternating current with a peak value 325 V. 13.1 Calculate the average power (in watt) that is delivered to the kettle. 13.2 Calculate the peak value of the power (in watt) that is delivered to the kettle 19.3 Draw on the same axis graphs of voltage, current and power vs. time for the kettle. Cleary indicate with labels which curve represents each and indicate the value of the peak voltage, peak current and peak power. (Assume that the voltage and current are in phase, i.e. the current and voltage increase and decrease at the same time. In other words when the emf is at a maximum, the current will also be at a maximum), 13.4 To determine the average power in an AC current we rather make use of the rms current and rms voltage and not the average current and voltage. Explain. 14. An electric kettle has the power of 1 800 W and is designed to work at 240 V AC and 50 Hz. 44.4. Sketch a graph of current versus time forthe Keltle. 14.1.2 Caloulate the values of Tre 294 Imax ‘SHOW Trine A. Tmax 89 ITY AND MAGNETISM