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WEB SEMANTICS
 WEB
SEMANTICS
Cutting Edge and Future Directions
in Healthcare

Edited by

SARIKA JAIN
Department of Computer Applications, National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra, Haryana, India

VISHAL JAIN
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University,
Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

VALENTINA EMILIA BALAS

Faculty of Engineering, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad, Romania
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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 Contents

List of contributors ix 4. Semantic interoperability: the future of

Preface xi healthcare
Rashmi Burse, Michela Bertolotto, Dympna O’Sullivan
1. Semantic intelligence - An overview and Gavin McArdle
Sarika Jain
4.1 Introduction 31
1.1 Overview 1 4.2 Semantic web technologies 32
4.3 Syntactic interoperability 37
4.4 Semantic interoperability 40
4.5 Contribution of semantic web
Section I technology to aid healthcare
Representation interoperability 46
4.6 Discussion and future work 49
2. Convology: an ontology 4.7 Conclusion 51
References 51
for conversational agents in
digital health
5. A knowledge graph of medical
Mauro Dragoni, Giuseppe Rizzo and Matteo A. Senese
institutions in Korea
2.1 Introduction 7 Haklae Kim
2.2 Background 9
2.3 The construction of convology 10 5.1 Introduction 55
2.4 Inside convology 12 5.2 Related work 56
2.5 Availability and reusability 16 5.3 Medical institutions in Korea 57
2.6 Convology in action 17 5.4 Knowledge graph of medical institutions 60
2.7 Resource sustainability and maintenance 19 5.5 Conclusion 66
2.8 Conclusions and future work 20 References 67
References 21
6. Resource description framework based
3. Conversion between semantic semantic knowledge graph for clinical
data models: the story so far, and the decision support systems
road ahead Ravi Lourdusamy and Xavierlal J. Mattam
Shripriya Dubey, Archana Patel and Sarika Jain
6.1 Introduction 69
3.1 Introduction 23 6.2 Knowledge representation using RDF 71
3.2 Resource Description Framework as a semantic 6.3 Simple knowledge organization system 75
data model 24 6.4 Semantic knowledge graph 77
3.3 Related work 25 6.5 Semantic knowledge graph for clinical
3.4 Conceptual evaluation 27 decision support systems 81
3.5 Findings 28 6.6 Discussion and future possibilities 83
3.6 Concluding remarks 29 6.7 Conclusion 84
References 30 References 84

v
vi Contents

7. Probabilistic, syntactic, and semantic 10. Health care cube integrator for health
reasoning using MEBN, OWL, and PCFG care databases
in healthcare Shivani A Trivedi, Monika Patel and Sikandar Patel
Shrinivasan Patnaikuni and Sachin R. Gengaje
10.1 Introduction: state-of-the-art health care
7.1 Introduction 87 system 129
7.2 Multientity Bayesian networks 89 10.2 Research methods and literature findings of
7.3 Semantic web and uncertainty 90 research publications 131
7.4 MEBN and ontology web language 91 10.3 HCI conceptual framework and designing
7.5 MEBN and probabilistic context-free framework 136
grammar 92 10.4 Implementation framework and experimental
7.6 Summary 93 setup 140
References 93 10.5 Result analysis, conclusion, and future
enhancement of work 148
Acknowledgment 149
References 149
Section II
Reasoning 11. Smart mental healthcare systems
Sumit Dalal and Sarika Jain

8. The connected electronic health record: 11.1 Introduction 153

a semantic-enabled, flexible, and unified 11.2 Classification of mental healthcare 154
electronic health record 11.3 Challenges of a healthcare environment 155
Salma Sassi and Richard Chbeir 11.4 Benefits of smart mental healthcare 158
11.5 Architecture 159
8.1 Introduction 97 11.6 Conclusion 161
8.2 Motivating scenario: smart health unit 99 References 162
8.3 Literature review 100
8.4 Our connected electronic health record system
approach 105 12. A meaning-aware information
8.5 Implementation 110 search and retrieval framework for
8.6 Experimental results 111 healthcare
8.7 Conclusion and future works 113
V.S. Anoop, Nikhil V. Chandran and S. Asharaf
References 114
12.1 Introduction 165
9. Ontology-supported rule-based 12.2 Related work 167
reasoning for emergency management 12.3 Semantic search and information retrieval in
Sarika Jain, Sonia Mehla and Jan Wagner healthcare 170
12.4 A framework for meaning-aware healthcare
9.1 Introduction 117 information extraction from unstructured
9.2 Literature review 119 text data 170
9.3 System framework 120 12.5 Future research dimensions 174
9.4 Inference of knowledge 122 12.6 Conclusion 174
9.5 Conclusion and future work 127 Key terms and definitions 174
References 127 References 175
 Contents vii
13. Ontology-based intelligent 17. Classification of genetic mutations
decision support systems: using ontologies from clinical documents
A systematic approach and deep learning
Ramesh Saha, Sayani Sen, Jayita Saha, Asmita Nandy, Punam Bedi, Shivani, Neha Gupta,
Suparna Biswas and Chandreyee Chowdhury Priti Jagwani and Veenu Bhasin

13.1 Introduction 177 17.1 Introduction 233

13.2 Enabling technologies to implement decision
support system 178
13.3 Role of ontology in DSS for knowledge
modeling 182
13.4 QoS and QoE parameters in decision
support systems for healthcare 187
13.5 Conclusion 190
References 191
14. Ontology-based decision-making
Mark Douglas de Azevedo Jacyntho and Matheus D. Morais
17.2 Clinical Natural Language Processing 234
17.3 Clinical Natural Language Processing
(Clinical NLP) techniques 235
17.4 Clinical Natural Language Processing and
Semantic Web 242
17.5 Case study: Classification of Genetic
Mutation using Deep Learning and Clinical
Natural Language Processing 245
17.6 Conclusion 249
References 249

14.1 Introduction 195

14.2 Issue-Procedure Ontology 198 Section III
14.3 Issue-Procedure Ontology for Medicine 203
14.4 Conclusion 208 Security
References 208
18. Security issues for the Semantic Web
15. A new method for profile Prashant Pranav, Sandip Dutta and Soubhik Chakraborty
identification using ontology-based
18.1 Introduction 253
semantic similarity
18.2 Related work 258
Abdelhadi Daoui, Noreddine Gherabi and Abderrahim Marzouk
18.3 Security standards for the Semantic
Web 259
15.1 Introduction 211
18.4 Different attacks on the Semantic Web 262
15.2 Proposed method 212
18.5 Drawbacks of the existing privacy and
15.3 Conclusion 218
security protocols in W3C social web
References 218
standards 263
16. Semantic similarity based descriptive 18.6 Semantic attackers 264
18.7 Privacy and Semantic Web 264
answer evaluation
18.8 Directions for future security protocols
Mohammad Shaharyar Shaukat, Mohammed Tanzeem,
for the Semantic Web 265
Tameem Ahmad and Nesar Ahmad
18.9 Conclusion 266
16.1 Introduction 221 References 266
16.2 Literature survey 222
16.3 Proposed system 223 Index 269
16.4 Algorithm 227
16.5 Data set 227
16.6 Results 228
16.7 Conclusion and discussion 229
Acknowledgments 230
References 230
 List of contributors

Nesar Ahmad Department of Computer Sumit Dalal National Institute of Technology

Engineering, Zakir Husain College of Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Abdelhadi Daoui Department of Mathematics
Muslim University, Aligarh, India and Computer Science, Hassan 1st
Tameem Ahmad Department of Computer University, FST, Settat, Morocco
Engineering, Zakir Husain College of Matheus D. Morais Coordination of
Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Informatics, Fluminense Federal Institute,
Muslim University, Aligarh, India Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro,
V.S. Anoop Kerala Blockchain Academy, Brazil
Indian Institute of Information Technology Mark Douglas de Azevedo Jacyntho
and Management Kerala (IIITM-K), Coordination of Informatics, Fluminense
Thiruvananthapuram, India Federal Institute, Campos dos Goytacazes,
S. Asharaf Indian Institute of Information Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Technology and Management - Kerala Mauro Dragoni Fondazione Bruno Kessler,
(IIITM-K), Thiruvananthapuram, India Trento, Italy
Punam Bedi Department of Computer Science, Shripriya Dubey Department of Computer
University of Delhi, Delhi, India Applications, National Institute of
Michela Bertolotto School of Computer Science, Technology Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Sandip Dutta Department of Computer
Veenu Bhasin P.G.D.A.V. College, University Science and Engineering, Birla Institute of
of Delhi, Delhi, India Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India
Suparna Biswas Department of Computer Sachin R. Gengaje Department of Computer
Science & Engineering, Maulana Abul Kalam Science and Engineering, Walchand Institute
Azad University of Technology, Kolkata, India of Technology, Solapur, Maharashtra, India
Rashmi Burse School of Computer Science, Noreddine Gherabi Sultan Moulay Slimane
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland University, ENSAK, LASTI Laboratory,
Khouribga, Morocco
Soubhik Chakraborty Department of
Mathematics, Birla Institute of Technology, Neha Gupta Department of Computer Science,
Mesra, Ranchi, India University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Nikhil V. Chandran Data Engineering Lab, Priti Jagwani Aryabhatta College, University
Indian Institute of Information Technology of Delhi, Delhi, India
and Management - Kerala (IIITM-K), Sarika Jain Department of Computer
Thiruvananthapuram, India Applications, National Institute of
Richard Chbeir Univ Pau & Pays Adour, E2S/ Technology Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
UPPA, LIUPPA, EA3000, Anglet, France Haklae Kim Chung-Ang University, Seoul,
Chandreyee Chowdhury Department of South Korea
Computer Science & Engineering, Jadavpur Ravi Lourdusamy Sacred Heart College
University, Kolkata, India (Autonomous), Tirupattur, India

ix
x List of contributors
Abderrahim Marzouk Department of
Mathematics and Computer Science,
Hassan 1st University, FST, Settat, Morocco
Xavierlal J. Mattam Sacred Heart College
(Autonomous), Tirupattur, India
Gavin McArdle School of Computer Science,
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Sonia Mehla National Institute of Technology
Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
Asmita Nandy Department of Computer
Science & Engineering, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India
Dympna O’Sullivan School of Computer
Science, Technological University Dublin,
Dublin, Ireland
Archana Patel Institute of Computer Science,
Freie Universität, Berlin, Germany
Monika Patel S.K. Patel Institute of Management
and Computer Studies-MCA, Kadi Sarva
Vishwavidyalaya, India
Sikandar Patel National Forensic Sciences
University, Gandhinagar, India
Shrinivasan Patnaikuni Department of
Computer Science and Engineering,
Walchand Institute of Technology, Solapur,
Maharashtra, India
Prashant Pranav Department of Computer
Science and Engineering, Birla Institute of
Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India
Giuseppe Rizzo LINKS Foundation, Torino,
Italy
Jayita Saha Department of Artificial Intelligence
and Data Science, Koneru Lakshmaiah
Education Foundation Deemed to be
University, Hyderabad, India
Ramesh Saha Department of Information
Technology, Gauhati University, Guwahati,
Assam, India
Salma Sassi VPNC Lab., FSJEGJ, University of
Jendouba, Jendouba, Tunisia
Sayani Sen Department of Computer
Application, Sarojini Naidu College for
Women, Kolkata, India
Matteo A. Senese LINKS Foundation, Torino,
Italy
Mohammad Shaharyar Shaukat Technical
University of Munich, Germany
Shivani Department of Computer Science,
University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Mohammed Tanzeem Adobe, India
Shivani A Trivedi S.K. Patel Institute of
Management and Computer Studies-MCA,
Kadi Sarva Vishwavidyalaya, India
Jan Wagner RheinMain University of Applied
Sciences, Germany
 Preface
Over the last decade, we have witnessed
an increasing use of Web Semantics as a
vital and ever-growing field. It incorporates
various subject areas contributing to the
development of a knowledge-intensive data
web. In parallel to the movement of con-
cept from data to knowledge, we are now
also experiencing the movement of web
from document model to data model where
the main focus is on data compared to the
process. The underlying idea is making the
data machine understandable and process-
able. In light of these trends, conciliation of
Semantic and the Web is of paramount
importance for further progress in the area.
The 17 chapters in this volume, authored
by key scientists in the field are preceded
by an introduction written by one of the
volume editors, making a total of 18 chap-
ters. Chapter 1, Introduction, by Sarika Jain
provides an overview of technological
trends and perspectives in Web Semantics,
defines Semantic Intelligence, and discusses
the technologies encompassing the same in
view of their application within enterprises
as well as in web. In all, 76 chapter propo-
sals were submitted for this volume mak-
ing a 22% acceptance rate. The chapters
have been divided into three sections as
Representation, Reasoning, and Security.
• Representation: The semantics have to be
encoded with data by virtue of
technologies that formally represent
metadata. When semantics are
embedded in data, it offers significant
advantages for reasoning and
interoperability.
xi
• Reasoning: When “Semantic Web” will
finally happen, machine will be able to
talk to machines materializing the so-
called “intelligent agents.” The services
offered will be useful for web as well as
for the management of knowledge
within an organization.
• Security: In this new setting, traditional
security measures will not be
suitable anymore; and the focus will
move to trust and provenance. The
semantic security issues are required to
be addressed by the security
professionals and the semantic
technologists.
This book will help the instructors and
students taking courses of Semantic Web
getting abreast of cutting edge and future
directions of semantic web, hence provid-
ing a synergy between healthcare processes
and semantic web technologies. Many
books are available in this field with two
major problems. Either they are very
advanced and lack providing a sufficiently
detailed explanation of the approaches, or
they are based on a specific theme with
limited scope, hence not providing details
on crosscutting areas applied in the web
semantic. This book covers the research
and practical issues and challenges, and
Semantic Web applications in specific con-
texts (in this case, healthcare). This book
has varied audience and spans industrial
professionals, researchers, and academi-
cians working in the field of Web
Semantics. Researchers and academicians
will find a comprehensive study of the state
xii Preface
of the art and an outlook into research chal-
lenges and future perspectives. The industry
professionals and software developers will
find available tools and technologies to use,
algorithms, pseudocodes, and implementa-
tion solutions. The administrators will find a
comprehensive spectrum of the latest view-
point in different areas of Web Semantics.
Finally, lecturers and students require all of
the above, so they will gain an interesting
insight into the field. They can benefit in
preparing their problem statements and
finding ways to tackle them.
The book is structured into three sections
that group chapters into three otherwise
related disections:
Representation
The first section on Representation com-
prises six chapters that specifically focus on
the problem of choosing a data model for
representing and storage of data for the Web.
Chapter 2, Convology: an ontology for con-
versational agents in digital health by
Dragoni et al. propose an ontology, namely,
Convology, aiming to describe conversational
scenarios with the scope of providing a tool
that, once deployed into a real-world applica-
tion, allows to ease the management and
understanding of the entire dialog workflow
between users, physicians, and systems. The
authors have integrated Convology into a liv-
ing lab concerning the adoption of conversa-
tional agents for supporting the self-
management of patients affected by asthma.
Dubey et al. in Chapter 3, Conversion
between semantic data models: the story so
far, and the road ahead, provide the trends in
converting between various semantic data
models and reviews the state of the art of the
same. In Chapter 4, Semantic interoperability:
the future of healthcare Burse et al. have
beautifully elaborated the syntactic and
semantic interoperability issues in healthcare.
They have reviewed the various healthcare
standards in an attempt to solve the interop-
erability problem at a syntactic level and then
moves on to examine medical ontologies
developed to solve the problem at a semantic
level. The chapter explains the features of
semantic web technology that can be lever-
aged at each level. A literature survey is car-
ried out to gage the current contribution of
semantic web technologies in this area along
with an analysis of how semantic web tech-
nologies can be improved to better suit the
health-informatics domain and solve the
healthcare interoperability challenge. Haklae
Kim in his Chapter 5, A knowledge graph of
medical institutions in Korea, has proposed a
knowledge model for representing medical
institutions and their characteristics based on
related laws. The author also constructs a
knowledge graph that includes all medical
institutions in Korea with an aim to enable
users to identify appropriate hospitals or
other institutions according to their require-
ments. Chapter 6, Resource description
framework based semantic knowledge graph
for clinical decision support systems, by
Lourdusamy and Mattam advocates the use
of Semantic Knowledge Graphs as the repre-
sentation structure for Clinical Decision
Support Systems. Patnaikuni and Gengaje in
Chapter 7, Probabilistic, syntactic, and seman-
tic reasoning using MEBN, OWL, and PCFG
in healthcare, exploit the key concepts and
terminologies used for representing and rea-
soning uncertainties structurally and semanti-
cally with a case study of COVID-19 Corona
Virus. The key technologies are Bayesian net-
works, Multi-Entity Bayesian Networks,
Probabilistic Ontology Web Language, and
probabilistic context-free grammars.
 Preface
Reasoning
At the scale of www, logic-based reason-
ing is not appropriate and poses numerous
challenges. As already stated in different
chapters of Section 1, RDF provides a
machine-processable syntax to the data on
the web. Reasoning on Semantic Web
involves deriving facts and relationships
that are not explicit in the knowledge base.
This section groups 10 contributions based
on reasoning within the knowledge bases.
There is an absence of a reference model
for describing the health data and their
sources and linking these data with their
contexts. Chapter 8, The connected elec-
tronic health record: a semantic-enabled,
flexible, and unified electronic health
record, by Sassi and Chbeir addresses this
problem and introduces a semantic-
enabled, flexible, and unified electronic
health record (EHR) for patient monitoring
and diagnosis with Medical Devices. The
approach exploits semantic web technolo-
gies and the HL7 FHIR standard to provide
semantic connected EHR that will facilitate
data interoperability, integration, informa-
tion search and retrieval, and automatic
inference and adaptation in real-time. Jain
et al. in Chapter 9, Ontology-supported
rule-based reasoning for emergency man-
agement, have proposed an ontology-
supported rule-based reasoning approach
to automate the process of decision support
and recommending actions faster than a
human being and at any time. Chapter 10,
Healthcare-Cube Integrator for Healthcare
Databases by Trivedi et al. proposes the
Healthcare-cube integrator as a knowledge
base that is storing health records collected
from various healthcare databases. They
also propose a processing tool to extract
data from assorted databases. Chapter 11,
xiii
Smart mental healthcare systems, by Dalal
and Jain provides an architecture for a
smart mental healthcare system along with
the challenges and benefits incurred.
Chapter 12, A meaning-aware information
search and retrieval framework for health-
care, by Anoop et al. discusses a frame-
work for building a meaning-aware
information extraction from unstructured
EHRs. The proposed framework uses medi-
cal ontologies, a medical catalog-based ter-
minology extractor and a semantic
reasoner to build the medical knowledge
base that is used for enabling a semantic
information search and retrieval experience
in the healthcare domain. In Chapter 13,
Ontology-based intelligent decision sup-
port systems: a systematic approach, Saha
et al. emphasize several machine learning
algorithms and semantic technologies to
design and implement intelligent decision
support system for effective healthcare
support satisfying quality of service and
quality of experience requirements.
Jacyntho and Morais in Chapter 14,
Ontology-based decision-making, have
described the architecture and strengths of
knowledge-based decision support sys-
tems. They have defined a method for the
creation of ontology-based knowledge
bases and a corresponding fictitious health
care case study but with real-world chal-
lenges. As the data are exploding over the
web, Daoui et al. in Chapter 15, A new
method for profile identification using
ontology-based semantic similarity, aim to
treat and cover a new system in the
domain of tourism in order to offer users
of the system a set of interesting places
and tourist sites according to their prefer-
ences. The authors focus on the design of a
new profile identification method by defin-
ing a semantic correspondence between
xiv Preface
keywords and the concepts of an ontology
using an external resource WordNet.
Compared to the objective type assessment,
the descriptive assessment has been found
to be more uniform and at a higher level of
Bloom’s taxonomy. In Chapter 16, Semantic
similarity-based descriptive answer evalua-
tion, Shaukat et al. have put in efforts to
deal with the problem of automated com-
puter assessment in the descriptive exami-
nation. Lastly in this section, Chapter 17,
Classification of genetic mutations using
ontologies from clinical documents and
deep learning, by Bedi et al. have pre-
sented a framework for classifying cancer-
ous genetic mutation reported in EHRs.
They have utilized clinical NLP, Ontologies
and Deep Learning for the same over
Catalog of Somatic Mutations in Cancer
Mutation data and Kaggle’s cancer-
diagnosis dataset.
Security
Though posed as the future of web, is
semantic web secure? In the semantic web set-
ting, traditional security measures are no
more suitable. This section closes the book by
providing Chapter 18, Security issues for the
semantic web, by Pranav et al. providing the
security issues in the semantic web. This chap-
ter also suggested ways of potentially aligning
the protocols so as to make them more robust
to be used for semantic web services.
As the above summary shows, this book
summarizes the trends and current research
advances in web semantics, emphasizing
the existing tools and techniques, methodol-
ogies, and research solutions.
Sarika Jain (India)
Vishal Jain (India)
Valentina Emilia Balas (Romania)
 C H A P T E R

1
Semantic intelligence: An overview
Sarika Jain
Department of Computer Applications, National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra,
Haryana, India

1.1 Overview

Due to many technological trends like IoT, Cloud Computing, Smart Devices, huge data
is generated daily and at unprecedented rates. Traditional data techniques and platforms
do not prove to be efficient because of issues concerning responsiveness, flexibility, perfor-
mance, scalability, accuracy, and more. To manage these huge datasets and to store the
archives for longer periods, we need granular access to massively evolving datasets.
Addressing this gap has been an important and well-recognized interdisciplinary area of
Computer Science.
A machine will behave intelligently if the underlying representation scheme exhibits
knowledge that can be achieved by representing semantics. Web Semantics strengthen
the description of web resources for exploiting them better and making them more
meaningful for both human and machine. As semantic web is highly interdisciplinary,
it is emerging as a mature field of research that facilitates information integration from
variegated sources. Semantic web converts data to meaningful information and is
therefore a web of meaningful, linked, and integrated data by virtue of metadata.
Current web is composed primarily of unstructured data, such as HTML pages and
search in current web is based on keyword search. These searches are not able to make
out the type of information on the HTML page, that is, it is not possible to extract dif-
ferent pieces of data from different web pages about a concept and then give integrated
information about the concept. The semantic web provides such a facility with lesser
human involvement.
As the web connects documents, in the same manner, semantic web connects pieces of
information. In addition to publishing data on the World Wide Web, the semantic web is
being utilized in enterprises for myriad of use cases. The Artificial Intelligence technolo-
gies, the Machine Intelligence technologies, and the semantic web technologies together
make up the Semantic Intelligence technologies (SITs). SITs have been found as the most

Web Semantics
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822468-7.00011-0 1 © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. Semantic intelligence: An overview

important ingredient in building artificially intelligent knowledge-based systems as they

aid machines in integrating and processing resources contextually and intelligently.
This book describes the three major compartments of the study of Web Semantics, namely
representation, reasoning, and security. It also covers the issues related to the successful deploy-
ment of semantic web. This chapter addresses the key knowledge and information needs of the
audience of this book. It provides easily comprehensible information on Web Semantics includ-
ing semantics for data and semantics for services. Further, an effort has been made to cover the
innovative application areas semantic web goes hand in hand with a focus on Health Care.

1.2 Semantic Intelligence

Semantic Intelligence refers to filling the semantic gap between the understanding of
humans and machines by making a machine look at everything in terms of object-oriented
concepts as a human look at it. Semantic Intelligence helps us make sense of the most vital
resource, that is, data; by virtue of making it interpretable and meaningful. The focus is on
information as compared to the process. To whatever application, the data will be put to; it is
to be represented in a manner that is machine-understandable and hence human-usable. All
the important relationships (including who, what, when, where, how, and why) in the
required data from any heterogeneous data source are required to be made explicit.
The primary technology standards of the SITs are RDF (Resource Description
Framework) and SPARQL (SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query Language). RDF is the data
model/format/serialization used to store data. SPARQL is the query language designed to
query, retrieve, and process data stored as RDF across various systems and databases.
Both of these technologies are open-ended making them a natural fit for iterative, flexible,
and adaptable software development in a dynamic environment; hence suitable for a myr-
iad of open-ended problems majorly including unstructured information. It is even benefi-
cial to wrap up the existing relational data stores with the SPARQL end points to integrate
them with any intelligent application. This all is possible because semantic web operates
on the principle of Open World Assumption; wherein all the facts are not anticipated in
the beginning; and in the absence of some fact, it cannot be assumed false.
Semantics is no more than discovering “relationships between things.” These relation-
ships when discovered and represented explicitly help manage the data more efficiently
by making sense of it. In addition to storing and retrieving information, semantic intelli-
gence provides a flexible model by acting as an enabler for machines to infer new facts
and derive new information from existing facts and data. In all such systems with a large
amount of unstructured and unpredictable data, SITs prove to be less cost-intensive and
maintainable. By virtue of being able to interpret all the data, machines are able to perform
sophisticated tasks for the mankind. In today’s world SITs are serving a very broad range
of applications, across multiple domains, within enterprises, and on the web. A full-
fledged industry in its own sense has emerged in the last 20 years when these technologies
were merely drafts. In addition to publishing and consuming data on the web, SITs are
being used in enterprises for various purposes.

Web Semantics
 1.1 Overview 3
1.2.1 Publishing and consuming data on the web
Publishing data on the web involves deciding upon the format and the schema to use.
Best practices exist to publish, disseminate, use, and perform reasoning on high-quality
data over the web. RDF data can be published in different ways including the linked data
(DBPedia), SPARQL endpoint, metadata in HTML (SlideShare, LinkedIn, YouTube,
Facebook), feeds, GRDDL, and more. Semantic interlinked data is being published on the
web in all the domains including e-commerce, social data, and scientific data. People are
consuming this data through search engines and specific applications. Publishing semantic
web data about the web pages, an organization ensures that the search results now also
include related information like reviews, ratings, and pricing for the products. This added
information in search results does not increase ranking of a web page but significantly
increases the number of clicks this web page can get. Here are some popular domains
where data is published and consumed on the semantic web.
• E-commerce: The Schema.org and the GoodRelations vocabulary are global schema for
commerce data on the web. They are industry-neutral, syntax-neutral, and valid across
different stages of value chain.
• Health care and life sciences: HealthCare is a novel application domain of semantic web
that is of prime importance to human civilization as a whole. It has been predicted as
the next big thing in personal health monitoring by the government. Big pharma
companies and various scientific projects have published a significant amount of life
sciences and health care data on the web.
• Media and publishing: The BBC, The FT, SpringerNature, and many other media and
publishing sector companies are benefitting their customers by providing an ecosystem
of connected content to provide more meaningful navigation paths across the web.
• Social data: A social network is a two-way social structure made up of individuals
(persons, products, or anything) and their relationships. The Facebook’s “social graph”
represents connections between people. Social networking data using friend-of-a-friend
as vocabulary make up a significant portion of all data on the web.
• Linked Open Data: A powerful data integration technology is the practical side of
semantic web. DBPedia is a very large-linked dataset making the content of Wikipedia
available to the public as RDF. It incorporates links to various other datasets as
Geonames; thus allowing applications to exploit the extra and more precise knowledge
from other datasets. In this manner, applications can provide a high user experience by
integrating data from multiple linked datasets.
• Government data: For the overall development of the society, the governments around
the world have taken initiatives for publishing nonpersonal data on the web making the
government services transparent to the public.

1.2.2 Semantic Intelligence technologies applied within enterprises

Enterprise information systems comprise complex, distributed, heterogeneous, and
voluminous data sources. Enterprises are leveraging SITs to achieve interoperability and
implement solutions and applications. All documents are required to be semantically
tagged with the associated metadata.

Web Semantics
4 1. Semantic intelligence: An overview

• Information classification: The knowledge bases as are used by the giants Facebook,
Google, and Amazon today are said to shape up and classify data and information in
the same manner as the human brain does. Along with data, a knowledge base also
contains expert knowledge in the form of rules transforming this data and information
into knowledge. Various organizations represent their information by combining the
expressivity of ontologies with the inference support.
• Content management and situation awareness: The organizations reuse the available
taxonomic structures to leverage their expressiveness to enable more scalable
approaches to achieve interoperability of content.
• Efficient data integration and knowledge discovery: The data is scaling up in size
giving rise to heterogeneous datasets as data silos. The semantic data integration allows
the data silos to be represented, stored, and accessed using the same data model; hence
all speaking the same universal language, that is, SITs. The value of data explodes
when it is linked with other data providing more flexibility compared to the traditional
data integration approaches.

1.3 About the book

This book contains the latest cutting-edge advances and future directions in the field of
Web Semantics, addressing both original algorithm development and new applications of
semantic web. It presents a comprehensive up-to-date research employing semantic web
and its health care applications, providing a critical analysis of the relative merit, and
potential pitfalls of the technique as well as its future outlook.
This book focuses on a core area of growing interest, which is not specifically or com-
prehensively covered by other books. This book describes the three major compartments
of the study of Web Semantics, namely Representation, Reasoning, and security. It covers
the issues related to the successful deployment of semantic web. Further, an effort has
been made to cover the innovative application areas semantic web goes hand in hand with
focus on HealthCare by providing a separate section in every chapter for the case study of
health care, if not explicitly mentioned. The book will help the instructors and students
taking courses of semantic web getting abreast of cutting edge and future directions of
semantic web, hence providing a synergy between health care processes and semantic
web technologies.

Web Semantics
 C H A P T E R

2
Convology: an ontology for
conversational agents in digital
health
Mauro Dragoni1, Giuseppe Rizzo2 and Matteo A. Senese2
1
Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Trento, Italy 2LINKS Foundation, Torino, Italy

2.1 Introduction

The conversation paradigm has been implemented for the realization of conversational
agents overwhelmingly in the last years. Natural and seamless interactions with auto-
mated systems introduce a shift from using well-designed and sometimes complicated
interfaces made of buttons and paged procedures to textual or vocal dialogs. Asking ques-
tions naturally has many advantages with respect to traditional app interactions. The main
one is that the user does not need to know how the specific application works, everyone
knows how to communicate, and in this case, the system is coming toward the user
to make the interaction more natural. This paradigm has been integrated into mobile
applications for supporting users from different perspectives and into more well-known
systems built by big tech players like Google Assistant and Amazon Alexa. These kinds of
systems dramatically reduce the users’ effort for asking and communicating information
to systems that, by applying natural language understanding (NLU) algorithms, are able
to decode which are the actual users’ intentions and to reply properly. However, by per-
forming a deeper analysis of these systems, we can observe a strong limitation of their
usage into complex scenarios. The interactions among users and bots are often limited to a
single-turn communication where one of the actor sends an information request (e.g., a
question like “How is the weather today in London?” or a command like “Play the We
Are The Champions song”) and the other actor provides an answer containing the
required information or performs the requested action (e.g., “Today the weather in
London is cloudy.” or the execution of the requested song).

Web Semantics
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822468-7.00004-3 7 © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
8 2. Convology: an ontology for conversational agents in digital health

While this is true for most of the current conversational agents, the one made by
Google seems to be more aware of the possibility of multiturn conversation. In fact, in
some particular situations, it is capable of carry a context between one user question
and the following ones. An example could be asking “Who is the current US president?”
and then “Where he lives?;” in this particular case, the agent resolves the “he” pronoun
carrying the context of the previous step. Anyway this behavior is not general and is
exploited only in some common situations and for a limited amount of steps. An
evidence of this is the limit of the DialogFlow platform (a rapid prototyping platform for
creating conversational agents based on the Google Assistant intelligence) to maintain
context from one step to another (the maximum number of context it can carry is 5).
While this mechanism could appear among sentences belonging to the same conversa-
tion, it is not true among different conversations, what we noticed is that each conversa-
tion is for sure independent from the previous ones. Hence, the agent does not own a
story of the entire dialog. Additionally, the assistant does not seem to be conscious
about the actual status of the conversation; this marks the impossibility for it to be
an effective tool to achieve a complex goal (differently from single interactions like
“turning on the light”).
This situation strongly limits the capability of these systems of being employed into more
complex scenarios where it is necessary to address the following challenges: (1) to manage
long conversations possibly having a high number of interactions, (2) to keep track of users’
status in order to send proper requests or feedback based on the whole context, (3) to exploit
background knowledge in order to have at any time all information about the domain in
which the conversational agent has been deployed, and (4) to plan dialogs able to dynami-
cally evolve based on the information that have been already acquired and on the long-term
goals associated with users. To address these challenges it is necessary to sustain NLU strat-
egies with knowledge-based solutions able to reason over the information provided by users
in order to understand her status at any time and to interact with her properly.
Conversational agents integrating this knowledge-based paradigm go one step beyond
state-of-the-art systems that limit their interactions with users to a single-turn mode.
In this chapter, we present Convology (CONVersational ontOLOGY), a top-level
ontology aiming to model the conversation scenario for supporting the development of
conversational knowledge-based systems. Convology defines concepts enabling the
description of dialog flows, users’ information, dialogs and users events, and the real-time
statuses of both dialogs and users. Hence, systems integrating Convology are able to man-
age multiturn conversations. We present the TBox, and we show how it can be instantiated
into a real-world scenario.
The chapter is structured as follows. In Section 2.2, we discuss the main types of
conversation tools by highlighting how none of them is equipped with facilities for man-
aging multiturn conversations. Then, in Sections 2.3 and 2.4, we present the methodology
used for creating Convology and we explain the meaning of the concepts defined.
Section 2.5 shows how to get and to reuse the ontology, whereas Section 2.6 presents an
application integrating Convology together with examples of future projects that will inte-
grate it. Section 2.7 discusses the sustainability and maintenance aspects, and, finally,
Section 2.8 concludes the chapter.

I. Representation
 2.2 Background 9

2.2 Background
Conversational agents, in their larger definition, are software agents with which it is
possible to carry a conversation. Researchers discussed largely on structuring the terminol-
ogy around conversational agents. In this chapter, we decide to adhere to Franklin and
Graesser (1997) that segments conversational agents according to both learned and
indexed content and approaches for understanding and establishing a dialog. The evolu-
tion of conversational agents proposed three different software types: generic chit-chat
(i.e., tools for maintaining a general conversation with the user), goal-oriented tools that
usually rely on a large amount of prebuilt answers (i.e., tools that provide language inter-
faces for digging into a specific domain), and the recently investigated knowledge-based
agents that aim to reason over a semantic representation of a dataset to extend the intent
classification capabilities of goal-oriented agents.
The first chit-chat tool, named ELIZA (Weizenbaum, 1966), was built in 1966. It was cre-
ated mainly to demonstrate the superficiality of communications and the illusion to be
understood by a system that is simply applying a set of pattern-matching rules and a substi-
tution methodology. ELIZA simulates a psychotherapist and, thanks to the trick of present-
ing again to the interlocutor some contents that have been previously mentioned, it keeps
the conversation without having an understanding of what really is said. At the time when
ELIZA came out, some people even attributed human-like feelings to the agent. A lot of
other computer programs have been inspired by ELIZA and AIML—markup language for
artificial intelligence—has been created to express the rules that drive the conversation. So
far, this was an attempt to encode knowledge for handling a full conversation in a set of
predefined linguistic rules.
Domain-specific tools were designed to allow an individual to search conversationally
into a restricted domain, for instance simulating the interaction with a customer service of
a given company. A further generalization of this typology was introduced by knowledge-
based tools able to index a generic (wider) knowledge base and provides answers pertain-
ing a given topic. These two are the largest utilized types of conversational agents
(Ramesh et al., 2017). The understanding of the interactions is usually performed using
machine learning, in fact recent approaches have abandoned handcrafted rules utilized in
ELIZA toward an automatic learning from a dialog corpus. In other words, the under-
standing task is related to turning natural language sentences into something that can be
understood by a machine: its output is translated into an intent and a set of entities. The
response generation can be fully governed by handcrafted rules (e.g., if a set of conditions
apply, say that) or decide the template response from a finite set using statistical
approaches [using some distance measures like TF-IDF, Word2Vec, Skip-Thoughts (Kiros
et al., 2015)]. In this chapter, we focus on the understanding part of the conversation.
While machine learning offers statistical support to infer the relationship between sen-
tences and classes, one pillar of these approaches is the knowledge about the classes of
these requests. In fact, popular devices such as Amazon Echo and Google Home require,
whether configured, to list the intents of the discussion. However, those devices hardly
cope with a full dialog, multiturn, as the intents are either considered in isolation or con-
textualized within strict boundaries. Previous research attempts investigated the

I. Representation
10 2. Convology: an ontology for conversational agents in digital health

multiturn aspect with neural networks (Mensio et al., 2018). The conversation was fully
understood statistically, that is, through statistical inference of intents sequentially, with-
out a proper reasoning about the topics and actors of the conversation. Other research
attempts exploited the concept of ontology for modeling a dialog stating that a semantic
ontology for dialog needs to provide the following: first, a theory of events/situations;
second, a theory of abstract entities, including an explication of what propositions and
questions are; and third, an account of Grounding/Clarification (Ginzburg, 2012). An
ontology is thus utilized to also order questions maximizing coherence (Milward, 2004).
Despite the research findings on this theme and the trajectory that shows a neat interac-
tion between statistical inference approaches and ontologies for modeling the entire dia-
log (Flycht-Eriksson and Jönsson, 2003), there is a lack of a shared ontology. In this
chapter, we aim to fill this gap by presenting Convology.

2.3 The construction of convology

The development of Convology followed the need of providing a metamodel able

not only to provide a representation of the conversational domain but also to support
the development of smart applications enabling the access to knowledge bases
through a conversational paradigm. Such applications aim to reduce users’ effort
in obtaining required information. For this reason, the proposed ontology has
been modeled by taking into account how it can be extended for being integrated into
real-world applications.
The process for building Convology followed the METHONTOLOGY (Fernández-
López et al., 1997) methodology. This approach is composed by seven stages:
Specification, Knowledge Acquisition, Conceptualization, Integration, Implementation,
Evaluation, and Documentation. For brevity, we report only the first five steps since
they are the most relevant ones concerning the design and development of the ontol-
ogy. The overall process involved four knowledge engineers and two domain experts
from the Trentino Healthcare Department. More precisely, three knowledge engineers
and one domain experts participated to the ontology modeling stages (hereafter, the
modeling team). While, the remaining knowledge engineer and domain expert were in
charge of evaluating the ontology (hereafter, the evaluators). The role of the domain
experts was to supervise the psychological perspective of the ontology concerning the
definition of proper concepts and relationships supporting the definition of empathetic
dialogs.
The choice of METHONTOLOGY was driven by the necessity of adopting a life-cycle
split in well-defined steps. The development of Convology requires the involvement of
the experts in situ. Thus the adoption of a methodology having a clear definition of the
tasks to perform was preferred. Other methodologies, like DILIGENT (Pinto et al., 2004)
and NeOn (Suárez-Figueroa, 2012), were considered before starting the construction of
the Convology ontology. However, the characteristics of such methodologies, like the
emphasis on the decentralized engineering, did not fit our scenario well.

I. Representation
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Expedition to
discover the sources of the White Nile, in the
years 1840, 1841, Vol. 2 (of 2)
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Expedition to discover the sources of the White Nile, in the

years 1840, 1841, Vol. 2 (of 2)

Author: Ferdinand Werne

Translator: Charles William O'Reilly

Release date: April 25, 2024 [eBook #73466]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Richard Bentley, 1849

Credits: Galo Flordelis (This file was produced from images

generously made available by The Internet
Archive/University of Pretoria)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPEDITION

TO DISCOVER THE SOURCES OF THE WHITE NILE, IN THE
YEARS 1840, 1841, VOL. 2 (OF 2) ***
 For Werne’s Expedition to the Source of the White Nile.

Hillmandel & Walton Lithographers.

Richard Bentley New Burlington Street, 1849.
(Large-size)
 EXPEDITION
TO DISCOVER THE SOURCES OF

T H E W H I T E N I L E,
IN THE YEARS

1840, 1841.

BY F E RDINAND WE RN E.

From the German,

BY CHARLES WILLIAM O’REILLY.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VO L . II.

L O ND O N:
RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET,
Publisher in Ordinary to Her Majesty.

1849.
 CONTENTS
OF

T HE SECO ND VO L UME.

CHAPTER I.
PAGE
SLEEPING TOKULS OR BARNS. — CRUELTY AND
LICENTIOUSNESS OF THE TURKS. — ARNAUD AND SELIM
CAPITAN’S FEAR OF THE NATIVES. — NEGROES SHOT BY THE
TURKS. — CONDUCT OF THE NATIVES. — RED MEN. — ARNAUD’S
MADNESS. — FEAR OF THE NEGROES AT FIRE-ARMS. — VISIT OF
A CHIEF AND HIS SON. — TOBACCO AND SHEEP. — MOUNT
KORÈK. — NATION OF BARI. — VISIT OF THE BROTHER AND SON-
IN-LAW OF THE KING. — CHAIN OF MOUNTAINS. 1

CHAPTER II.
RECEPTION OF ENVOYS FROM KING LÀKONO. — DESCRIPTION
OF THEM. — RELIGION OF THE BARIS: THEIR ARMS AND
ORNAMENTS. — PANIC CREATED AMONG THE NATIVES AT THE
EXPLOSION OF CANNON. — LIVELY SCENE ON SHORE. —
COLOURED WOMEN. — ARRIVAL OF KING LÀKONO AND SUITE. —
HIS INTERVIEW WITH THE COMMANDERS: HIS DRESS. — THE
NATIONAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF BARI. — PRESENTS TO
KING LÀKONO, AND HIS DEPARTURE. 26

CHAPTER III.
MIMOSAS AND TAMARIND-TREES. — DIFFERENT SPECIES. — 50
DURRA AND CREEPING BEANS. — RELIGION OF THE ETHIOPIANS.
— SECOND VISIT OF LÀKONO. — THE CROWN-PRINCE TSHOBÈ. —
PARTICULARS OF THE COUNTRIES OF BARI AND BERRI. —
DESCRIPTION OF LÀKONO’S FAVOURITE SULTANA. — MOUNTAINS
IN THE VICINITY OF BARI: THEIR FORM AND DISTANCE. — ISLAND
OF TSHÀNKER. — REMARKS ON LÀKONO’S LEGISLATION AND
CONDUCT. — THE NJAM-NJAM, OR CANNIBALS. — CUSTOMS AND
ARMS OF THE NATIVES. — THE TROPICAL RAINS.

CHAPTER IV.
KING LÀKONO’S PRIDE. — BEER KNOWN TO THE ANCIENT
EGYPTIANS. — BAR OF ROCKS. — WAR-DANCE OF THE NATIVES.
— DETERMINATION OF THE TURKS TO RETURN, AND
DISAPPOINTMENT OF THE AUTHOR. — COMMENCEMENT OF THE
RETURN VOYAGE. — REPUBLICANS IN THE KINGDOM OF BARI. —
VISIT OF THE FRENCHMEN TO MOUNT KORÈK. — REASON OF THE
AUTHOR’S AVERSION TO ARNAUD. — CONDUCT OF VAISSIÈRE,
AND SCENE IN HIS DIVAN. — CULTIVATION OF COTTON AT BARI. —
APATHY OF FEÏZULLA-CAPITAN AND THE CREW. — SUPERIORITY
OF MAN TO WOMAN IN A NATIVE STATE. — WATCH-HOUSES. 76

CHAPTER V.
RIVER BUFFALOES. — COMICAL APPEARANCE OF THE NATIVES.
— WILLOWS. — SPECIES OF STRAND-SNIPES. — MODESTY OF
THE WOMEN, AND THEIR APRONS. — THE LIÈNNS. — ORNAMENTS
OF THIS TRIBE: THEIR TOKULS. — THE SERIBA OR ENCLOSURE
TO THE HUTS. — ENORMOUS ELEPHANT’S TOOTH. — LUXURIANCE
OF THE SOIL. — THE COUNTRY OF BAMBER. — DESCRIPTION OF
THE NATIVES. — MANNER OF CATCHING ELEPHANTS. — ROYAL
CRANES. — SPLENDID BARTER. — TRIBE OF THE BUKOS. —
STOICISM OF AN OLD NATIVE. — SLAVES. — HIPPOPOTAMI AND
CROCODILES. — THE TSHIÈRRS. — THE ELLIÀBS AND BÒHRS. —
DESCRIPTION OF THE FORMER TRIBE: THEIR WAR-DANCE. 102

CHAPTER VI.
EXAMINATION OF AN ARM OF THE NILE. — FORESTS ON THE 133
BANKS. — PRICE OFFERED IN ENGLAND FOR A LIVE
HIPPOPOTAMUS. — THESE ANIMALS RARELY MET WITH IN EGYPT.
— THE LIÈNNS. — ROPES MADE FROM THE LEAVES OF THE
DOME-PALM. — UÈKA. — CHARACTER AND DESCRIPTION OF THE
LIÈNNS. — THE EMEDDI-TREE. — DÖBKER-TREE. — COTTON-
TREES. — THE TSHIÈRRS. — TRIBES OF THE BODSHOS AND
KARBORAHS. — LABYRINTHS OF THE WHITE STREAM. — BARTER
WITH THE KARBORÀHS: THEIR DRESS, ARMS, ORNAMENTS, ETC.
— MOUNT NERKANJIN. — ISLAND OF TUI. — THE KOKIS. —
CONTEST WITH HIPPOPOTAMI. — CROCODILES’ EGGS. —
HOSTILITY OF THE TSHIÈRRS TO THE ELLIÀBS. — EBONY CLUBS.
— THE BÒHRS: THEIR SONGS, ORNAMENTS, ETC. — ANT-HILLS. —
“IRG-EL-MOJE” OR WATER-ROOT, A SPECIES OF VEGETABLE. —
VETCHES. — THE ANDURÀB OR ENDERÀB-TREE. — THE DAKUIN-
TREE. — A SOLDIER STABBED BY A NATIVE. — ANTIQUITY OF
DUNG-FIRES.

CHAPTER VII.
THE BÒHR “JOI”: HIS TREATMENT ON BOARD THE VESSEL: HIS
ESCAPE. — WOMEN’S VILLAGE. — FELT CAPS. — SONGS OF THE
BÒHRS. — TUBERS SIMILAR TO POTATOES. — THE BUNDURIÀLS.
— THE TUTUIS AND KÈKS. — AN ELEPHANT ATTACKED AND
KILLED. — TASTE OF THE FLESH OF THIS ANIMAL. — CHEATING
OF THE NATIVES IN BARTER. — WINTER TOKULS OR WOMEN’S
HUTS. — MANNER OF MAKING A BURMA OR COOKING-VESSEL. —
“BAUDA” AGAIN. — FEÏZULLA-CAPITAN’S INDUSTRY IN SEWING. —
THE KÈKS LIVE BY FISHING. — DESCRIPTION OF THE WOMEN. —
SERIOUS ACCIDENT TO THE VESSEL. — OSTRICHES AND APES. —
FOGS ON THE WHITE STREAM. — WATCH-TOWERS. — SALE
SHOOTS A GIGANTIC CRANE: IS PUNISHED. — THE NUÈHRS. 169

CHAPTER VIII.
NUÈHRS. — ORNAMENTS. — MANNERS OF THE WOMEN. — THE 203
MEN. — CURIOUS CUSTOM OF DRESSING THE HAIR, AND
STAINING THEMSELVES. — VISIT OF A CHIEF. — SPEARS USED
INSTEAD OF KNIVES. — SINGULAR WAY OF MAKING ATONEMENT,
ETC. — WE HEAR ACCOUNTS OF OUR BLACK DESERTERS. —
BOWS AND QUIVERS SIMILAR TO THOSE REPRESENTED IN THE
HIEROGLYPHICS. — THE TURKS INDULGENT IN ONE RESPECT. —
MOUNT TICKEM OR MORRE. — TRACES OF ANIMAL-WORSHIP
AMONG THE NUÈHRS. — ARNAUD’S CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF A
LAKE (AND GASCONADES). — ADVICE TO FUTURE TRAVELLERS
ON THE WHITE NILE. — SWALLOWS. — MEANS OF DEFENCE
AGAINST GNATS DISCOVERED. — THE SHILLUKS AGAIN. —
QUESTION OF THE CONTINUAL ALTERATIONS IN THE APPEARANCE
OF THE NILE. — GUINEA-FOWLS. — GIRAFFES. — BLACK WASPS.
— TURTLE-DOVES. — OUR AUTHOR CAUGHT IN A THORN-BUSH. —
FABLED LUXURIANCE OF THE PLANTS IN THE TROPICAL REGIONS.
— VIEW FROM A HILL. — MANNER OF CATCHING FISH AMONG THE
NATIVES. — THE SOBÀT RIVER. — THE INUNDATIONS OF THE NILE
CONSIDERED.

CHAPTER IX.
ROYAL CRANES. — SCRUPLES OF FEÏZULLA-CAPITAN. —
COMPOSITION OF THE SHORES. — DESCRIPTION OF THE
DHELLÈB-PALM AND ITS FRUIT. — FORM OF EGYPTIAN PILLARS
DERIVED FROM THIS TREE. — DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EGYPTIAN
AND GREEK ARCHITECTURE. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SUNT-TREE.
— DEATH OF AN ARABIAN SOLDIER. — VISIT OF A MEK OR CHIEF.
— DANGEROUS RENCONTRE WITH A LION ON SHORE. — PURSUIT
OF THIS BEAST BY THE AUTHOR AND SULIMAN KASHEF WITH HIS
MEN. — FEAR OF THE NATIVES AT THE TURKS. — PLUNDER OF
THEIR TOKULS BY THE CREW. — BREAD-CORN OF THE DINKAS. —
ANTELOPE HUNT. — DIFFERENT SPECIES OF THESE ANIMALS. —
IMMENSE HERDS ON THE BANKS OF THE WHITE NILE. — LIONS
AGAIN. — BAD CONDITION OF THE VESSELS. 237

CHAPTER X.
VARIOUS SPECIES OF GRASSES. — FORMATION OF THE
SHORES. — WATER-FOWLS. — AN ANTELOPE OF THE TETE
SPECIES, NOW AT BERLIN. — STRATA OF THE SHORE. — THE
SOBÀT RIVER: THE MAIN ROAD FOR THE NATIVES FROM THE
HIGHLANDS TO THE PLAINS. — OBSERVATIONS ON THE COURSE
OF THE NILE AND SOBÀT. — A THOUSAND ANTELOPES SEEN
MOVING TOGETHER! — WILD BUFFALOES, LIONS, AND HYÆNAS.
— AFRICA, THE CRADLE OF THE NEGRO RACE. — THE SHUDDER-
EL-FAS: DESCRIPTION OF THIS SHRUB. — ARNAUD’S
CHARLATANRY. — OUR AUTHOR FEARED BY THE FRENCHMEN. —
ARNAUD AND SABATIER’S JOURNALS: THE MARVELLOUS STORIES
OF THE FORMER. — THIBAUT’S JEALOUSY. — VISIT OF A SHIEKH
OF THE SHILLUKS. — FEAR OF THE TURKS AT THESE PEOPLE. —
SULIMAN KASHEF PURSUED BY A LION. 257

CHAPTER XI.
THE SHILLUKS, A VITIATED PEOPLE. — CAUSE OF THE VIOLENT 280
RAINS IN INNER AFRICA. — REFUSAL OF THE SULTAN OF THE
SHILLUKS TO VISIT THE VESSELS. — DESCRIPTION OF A SPECIES
OF GRASS. — BARTER WITH THE SHILLUKS. — CONQUEST OF
THEIR COUNTRY NOT DIFFICULT. — FORM OF THEIR BOATS. —
AMBAK RAFTS. — IRON RARELY FOUND AMONG THE EGYPTIAN
ANTIQUITIES. — WORSHIP OF TREES BY THE SHILLUKS: THEIR
RELIGIOUS RITES. — STARS IN THE SOUTHERN REGIONS OF
AFRICA. — SHILLUK WOMEN: THEIR DRESS. — REFUSAL OF THE
MEN TO SELL THEIR ARMS. — THE BAGHÀRAS: THEIR DRESS,
ETC. — RE-APPEARANCE OF THE ISLAND PARKS, AND MOUNT
DEFAFAÙNGH. — ASCENT OF THIS MOUNTAIN, AND FULL
DESCRIPTION OF IT. — THE DINKAS: THEIR LOVE FOR OLD
CUSTOMS. — DESERTION OF TWO DINKA SOLDIERS, AND
REFUSAL OF THEIR COUNTRYMEN TO GIVE THEM UP. — SHEIKHS
SEIZED, AND DESERTERS RECOVERED.

CHAPTER XII.
LANDING IN THE TERRITORY OF THE BAGHÀRAS: DESCRIPTION
OF THEM: THEIR HOSTILITY TO THE DINKAS, AND MARAUDING
EXCURSIONS INTO THE COUNTRY OF THIS TRIBE. — CURIOUS
POSITION IN WHICH THE LATTER TRIBE STAND. — MOUNT
N’JEMATI: EXAMINATION OF IT. — A SHRUB-ACACIA. —
APPEARANCE OF ELEPHANTS AND LIONS. — GEOLOGICAL
DESCRIPTION OF THE MOUNTAINS. — MONKEYS APPEAR AGAIN.
— MOHAMMED ALI UNDER THE FORM OF AN HIPPOPOTAMUS. —
ISLAND OF ABU. — THE HASSARIES. — A HIPPOPOTAMUS KILLED
BY SULIMAN KASHEF. — SHORES OF THE NILE COMPARED TO
THOSE OF THE MISSISSIPPI. — EL AES. — THE KABBABISH
ARABS. — HEDJASI. — THE MOUNTAIN GROUP OF ARASKOLL. —
CONDUCT OF SULIMAN KASHEF TO A SHIEKH AND ARABS. —
BEST WAY TO TREAT THE TURKS. — THE DOWNS: THEIR NATURE.
— INTELLIGENCE OF THE DEATH OF SOLIMAN EFFENDI AND
VAISSIÈRE. — APPROACH TO KHARTÙM. — ARRIVAL, AND
MEETING OF OUR AUTHOR WITH HIS BROTHER. — CONCLUSION. 309

APPENDIX
 EXPEDITION

TO DISCOVER THE SOURCES

OF THE

W H I T E N I L E.
 CHAPTER I.
SLEEPING TOKULS OR BARNS. — CRUELTY AND LICENTIOUSNESS OF THE
TURKS. — ARNAUD AND SELIM CAPITAN’S FEAR OF THE NATIVES. —
NEGROES SHOT BY THE TURKS. — CONDUCT OF THE NATIVES. — RED
MEN. — ARNAUD’S MADNESS. — FEAR OF THE NEGROES AT FIRE-ARMS.
— VISIT OF A CHIEF AND HIS SON. — TOBACCO AND SHEEP. — MOUNT
KOREK. — NATION OF BARI. — VISIT OF THE BROTHER AND SON-IN-LAW
OF THE KING. — CHAIN OF MOUNTAINS.

20th January.—The vessels were towed further to the

southward by the Libàhn, whilst the commanders, and we Franks
with them, walked on the magnificent shore. The wind, with which,
however, we had previously sailed, although not quicker than the
pace we walked at on shore, freshened at ten o’clock, and we
repaired again on board the vessels. I had made a real forced
march, and was at last compelled to be carried, owing to increasing
weakness. Little villages and isolated tokuls stood in the beautiful
woody country, which is interspersed with solitary light spaces or
corn-fields, where, however, the short fine grass was withered.
These tokuls are elevated above the ground on stakes, and serve to
protect the fruits, or as sleeping-places for security against noxious
animals or the temporary damp of the soil. The natives dance, sing,
and jump, slide on their knees, sell or exchange their god (glass
beads—Arabic, sug-sug), amongst one another, and squat, but not
by sitting upright in the Turkish manner, and smoke their pipes.
These pipes have prettily-worked black clay bowls, with a tube of
reeds, and a long iron mouthpiece: even the tongs, to apply the
charcoal to light them, are not wanting. They are cheated in the most
shameful manner by the Turco-Arabian people; robbed of their
weapons, and plundered right and left. What am I to do? I am ill, and
have lost my voice; yet I try to prevent these outrages as far as I am
able.
 The so-called elephant-tree prevails here exclusively; and one of
the chief amusements this morning was to shoot down its fruit, in
which exploit Suliman Kashef distinguished himself as the best shot.
The shady trees, the prospect on the river, enlivened by the glittering
sails, the blue chain of mountains—it was a sight that did me good,
and refreshed my inmost soul. But all this was again clouded by
Turks. Is there another word for Turks? No: Turks,—basta! A negro,
who came from the other side to swim over to us, got into the track
of the sailing vessels, and was drowned, although he might have
been easily picked up by two ships following us. The commanders
had gone on a-head, and I was behind with the Frenchmen; I was
not able to call, and therefore fired off my gun, in order, by signs, to
induce them to save him. Arnaud also, whose vessel was just
bearing up, might have easily prevented the death of the unfortunate
creature if he had given a hail to his reïs. He even blamed my
impatience, saying I was ill; and added, with the contemptuous tone,
in which the Arab pronounces his “Abit,” and the Turk his “kiàfr,”
“Why do the fellows swim about in the water?” Upon this I could not
forbear using hard words.
An Egyptian soldier, who, like some others of the libàhn, had
remained behind on shore to ransack the deserted tokuls, ran behind
a young naked girl, when I fortunately noticed the circumstance in
our walk. I hastened to Suliman Kashef, who was gallant enough to
recall, with a voice of command, the libertine from this his wicked
purpose.
The Turkish character involuntarily shews itself on such
occasions as these; it goes against his grain to see an inferior
enjoying any pleasure. There was no merit, therefore, in Suliman’s
conduct, even had he warded off from us a Sicilian vespers. Thibaut
had had also a similar incident on board his vessel with the reïs, who
wanted to be too free with a young girl whom the former, during this
voyage, had purchased for a few glass beads,—I believe from the
Keks. This incident was also announced in due form by us; but they
laughed, and said, “Badèn” (afterwards), and Arnaud even joined in
this opinion.
 At a quarter past ten o’clock, the north wind has completely died
away, and we tack about towards the west for a short tract, when it
becomes again so fresh, whilst the wind is S.W., that we are able to
sail slowly. To all appearance, unfortunately, our vaunted voyage of
discovery will soon have an end. Selim-Capitan is frightened to a
ludicrous degree; Arnaud cannot conceal his fear; and Suliman
Kashef, not being yet restored to health, is utterly indifferent. I cannot
refrain from considering an instant return as a disgrace and as
treachery both to the world and Mohammed Ali. On the right an
island, and the last of those two which we had on our left still
continues, and so we are somewhat free from the noise of the
people on the shore. Sale and Sate Mohammed are no longer seen
on land; they have perhaps become the victims of their passions,
although they were only to shoot for me a pair of turtle-doves.
We halt, for a time, on the left shore, where there is a large
village, partly scattered in the wood that skirts the river so beautifully.
At eleven o’clock we set out again, and our men drive back the cattle
from the island close to us, through the water to the right shore, for
their unfathomable throats appear at last to be satiated. The clapping
of hands, keeping time to the singing, above which the “kih, kih” of
the women is heard, accompanies us from both sides. We cannot
hear or see anything for the crowd and clatter, especially myself,
round whom all the beautiful world floats as in a mist, and a jarring
din sings in my ears, so that my writing, inexorably necessary as it is,
becomes exceedingly difficult. I dared not close my eyes for fear of
becoming completely confused. I wanted to go to Selim Capitan, or
rather to his interpreter, but was not able to put the requisite
questions and to note down the answers. I continue to write
mechanically, and cannot square my own journal, when I try to revise
the entries of the last few days; for everything flickers before my
eyes, and my memory is gone, so that it all appears to me like a
dream.
With a light north-east wind, which also assisted us yesterday, we
proceed S.S.W. It is noon, and we have two islands, lying close to
each other, on our left. A large island ends on our right, and another
one begins, by which the course in the middle of the river is, in some
degree, confined. Nevertheless, the river always retains a
considerable breadth, and a proper depth; and then,—will the
poltroons return? The mountain, already several times mentioned,
peeps into the window from the west; it shews itself as two
mountains lying one close to the other, the western of which rises
conically, and has an obtuse peak, and an undulating tail to the west.
The latter appears somewhat wooded, yet these masses giving light
and shade may be mostly blocks; the conically ascending mountain,
on the contrary, has a smooth surface, and may be an extinguished
volcano, although one would not expect to find such here. We now
find, for the first time, stones in the river, and they are granite and
gneiss. They are not yet rounded; the chain of mountains from
whence they come cannot, therefore, be very far distant. We
proceed S.S.W. An island terminates on the left, and another follows
at the distance of some hundred paces.
Four o’clock. S.W. An occurrence has just happened, which
might be the death of us all if anything were to be feared from the
revenge of these evidently good-natured people. We were on the
right side of the river, and went to the left, where the little sandal was
towed not far from us by the Libàhn. Natives had stationed
themselves here in large and small groups; they greeted us, held up
their hands, pointed to their necks for beads, and sang, danced, and
jumped. There was no end of laughing in our vessel; I was attentive
to what was going on, and saw that the natives had seized the rope
of the sandal, and would not let it be towed further, for they wanted
beads. Probably the crew of the sandal had taken weapons or
ornaments from them, without giving anything in return, as this
frequently happened. We steered close to the left shore to assist our
men, when eight bold armed figures advanced towards us, and gave
us to understand by pantomimic signs, that we had presented beads
to their neighbours below, but would not give them anything. They
offered the rings on their arms, and their weapons, and signified to
us, as we were advancing libàhn, on account of the faintness of the
wind, that they would not allow us to tow any further unless we gave
them something. They said all this, however, with a laughing
countenance, jumped about, and laughed anew. It was plain they
were only in jest; but our bloodthirsty fellows, seeing no danger in
this small number of men, and never thinking of the probable
consequences, just like the Turks, considered this an excellent
opportunity to display their courage. They seized their weapons. I
was unwell, but yet was standing on deck, and kept order as well as
my weak voice would allow me. I went from one to the other, and
enjoined them not to fire, until arrows were first shot at them. The
black soldiers, who were mostly recruits, I admonished especially not
to be filles de joie (the usual expression here applied to those who
exhibit fear in discharging their guns), but men (rigàl, sing. ragel), to
grasp the gun firmly, and to take good aim. Our blacks are generally
very much afraid of the report of guns, and do exactly as the Greeks
did at the commencement of their war for freedom; they lay the butt-
end on the thigh, and fire at random. On the White River, also, the
report of these unknown weapons was more feared than the real
danger itself. They listened to me; but then came the vessel of
Captain Mohammed Agà, a fool-hardy Arnaut, who is always trying
to distinguish himself in some way or another. He shouted to the
sandal to cut away the rope, although the men were still on land.
This was about to be done, when the tallest negro, who had twisted
the rope round a little tree, pointed his bow at the sailor who was
about to cut it through with his knife. He laughed at the same time,
and it was clear that he was not in earnest; for he had wrestled in a
friendly manner with the other sailors, when they tried to get the rope
from him, without making use of his weapons. Yet the Arnaut
commanded them to “fire,” whilst he had already aimed at the
incautious native, being the first to discharge his piece. In a moment
all three vessels fired away, as though they were beset by the devil. I
was only able to pull back a couple of fellows whose guns had
flashed in the pan. Eleven or twelve other victims followed the first,
who was knocked over by the captain’s shot. Those who went away
wounded were not counted. An old woman was shot down by an
Egyptian standing near me, and yet he boasted of this heroic deed,
as did all the others of theirs. There might have been from twenty-
five to thirty natives collected together at that place, scarcely thirty
paces from us, and the high-standing straw might have concealed
several more.
We sailed away with the wind favouring our criminal action, for
our men had again come on board before the firing commenced. The
Dahabiës sailing ahead of us must have heard our shots; they did
not however furl one sail to lend us assistance, which might have
been eventually necessary. Before we caught up these vessels, we
saw a woman on the shore, looking about among the dead men, and
then afterwards running to the city at some distance from the shore.
The natives were hastening towards it, but they did not trust
themselves near us. Yet they knew not the melancholy truth that our
shots would hit at a distance; hitherto they feared only the thunder
and lightning of them, as we had seen several times. We halted a
moment; the unhappy creatures or relatives of the slain came closer
to the border of the shore, laid their hands flat together, raised them
above their head, slid upon their knees nearer to us, and sprang
again high in the air, with their compressed hands stretched aloft, as
if to invoke the pity of heaven, and to implore mercy of us. A slim
young man was so conspicuous by his passionate grief, that it cut to
my heart, and—our barbarians laughed with all their might. This
unbounded attachment to one another, and the circumstance that
that woman, in spite of the danger so close at hand, sought for the
man of her heart among those who had perished, affected me
exceedingly, because such moral intrinsic worth, flowing from pure
natural hearts, is unfortunately more acquired than innate in civilised
nations. We had only advanced a little on our way, and above thirty
unarmed natives, who must yet at all events have been informed of
the tragical incident that had just occurred, sat down on the sand
directly close to the river, without suspicion, or designing any harm to
us, as if nothing had taken place, and really—I had enough to do to
prevent their being shot at.
We reached the vessels of the commanders, and Mohammed
Agà was the first to hasten to them, in order to report the incident.
But I also drew near, and there was a kind of court martial
summoned. Arnaud did honour to the European name, and took the
part of the Turks, who looked upon the whole as a trifle. Finally, the
Arnaut, who had already confessed the fact, faced about boldly and
swift as lightning, declaring that he had never fired a shot, and that
he would bring witnesses to prove it, and—here the matter ended.
Selim Capitan thought he shewed his wish to keep up a good
understanding with the natives, by throwing into the grass on the
shore some miserable bits of glass paste, with a cup. The natives
looked and groped about, whilst we sailed to the neighbouring
island. Here we found two divisions of negroes, whose chiefs were
also presented with strings of beads. Again we threw beads among
the grass, and ordered the whole occurrence to be explained by the
interpreters; more beads, and—every one jumped forward delighted.
One of these chiefs had all his naked body streaked over with ochre:
he looked like the black huntsman of Bohemia. They are said to do
this in particular when they marry; we have seen already several
such red men; even the hair and the ivory bracelets which are thick
and of a hand’s breadth, as well as the numerous iron rings on the
wrists and ankles, are coloured red in this fashion. Rage and
vexation, together with the heat of the sun, compelled me to be
carried back quite exhausted down the shore to the vessel.
Thibaut and Sabatier disclosed to me, as usual, their vexation at
Arnaud’s assuming conduct, and how they are cut up and
calumniated in his journal, which they secretly read, without being
able to call him to account for it at the moment. So likewise I am
obliged to listen to the loud lamentations of his servant Mustaphà, a
Maltese renegade, who always ends with “Credo che sia mezzo
matto quest gran signore o baron fututto.” Although he looks very
fierce, yet he cannot renounce his nature as a tailor, and is
continually asking me whether we are in any danger and begs me,
for the holy Madonna’s sake, to take care that we return as speedily
as possible, for he would rather a thousand times live with his devil
of a wife, than venture again so far among the heathens. Arnaud is
jealous at Suliman Kashef having purchased a young girl with his
beads, and by the assistance of Duschoïl, the interpreter, prettier
than his little sailor’s trull, whom he has hung with glass beads from
head to foot. In a fit of madness he writes a long French letter to the
Kashef, summoning him to restore the girl immediately, although we
are already a long way from her people. Thibaut translates the letter,
and looks as if he had fallen from the clouds, for he is in the very
same boat with Arnaud himself, respecting the purchase of a girl,
that he is going to make a living present to his black Sara, whom he
brought back from England to Khartùm. After the letter was read
aloud, a rude burst of laughter naturally ensued, and Suliman Kashef
said when it was finished, in a pitying tone of voice, “El shems, el
shems!” (the sun, the sun.) Certainly it is not the first time that the
African sun has produced such an effect on Arnaud; he suffers like
all of us, and his arrogance and pride shake him more violently,
because they find opposition on every side.
21st January. I this morning felt myself uncommonly well but had
scarcely stepped out of the door to go ashore, when the stream of
light—I know not what other name to give it—rushed upon me with
such force, and penetrated, as it were, through me, that I was
scarcely able to sink back on my bed; and it is only now, when,
however, the sun is at its height, that I feel myself at all capable of
writing. We have remained since early this morning, in a southerly
direction. The sails have been twice hoisted, but on the average we
are towed by the rope. We leave an island on our right. There are
several red skins among the negroes, who are really handsome
men; the tokuls, standing singly, are large, well roofed, and, resting
upon strong stakes, open on all sides. The stakes form a peristyle,
and the inner wall is smeared inside with clay; perhaps they serve as
stables for cattle, and summer tokuls. A small gohr, or river, in the
neighbourhood of which we repose at noon, comes merrily in from
the right shore, and the stream has a noble breadth, but little depth
of water.
Two o’clock, S.W. We have a slight north wind, and an island on
our right; behind it, the forest continues on the shore. The high
mountainous district beyond it is still blue, for the day is not clear. It
appears, indeed, partly covered with wood, and to form a chain with