Mohamed A.

Almasri

"0932209691"

 A clause:
is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb.
 A phrase:
Is a group of words in a sentence that does NOT contain a subject and a verb.
 A dependent clause:
(One that is usually a supporting part of a sentence; can't stand alone by itself).
It often begins with (subordinator) such words as although, since, if, when,
because, as, while, whether, after, and before.
Examples:
Although she is hungry …
Because I am feeling well …
Unless you come early, you will lose a lot.
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 Types of sentences:
1) Simple sentence:
Is one independent clause; a sentence that contain a subject and a verb and
can stand one. It has nothing to do with how long or short the sentence is.
For example: he passed the exam.
2) Compound sentence:
Has two independent clauses at least; these clauses can stand as separate
sentences, but they are joined together in one compound sentence.
 These clauses are joined together by using linking words; conjunctions.
 The seven coordinating conjunctions are: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
3) Complex sentence:
Has one independent clause at least + one or more dependent clause.
 To connect these clauses, we use the subordinating conjunctions.
For example: (when, while, because, so that, until, if, as soon as, although,
though, as, as long as, after, before, who, which, by the time, unless, etc..) or
relative pronouns (who, that, which).
4) Compound complex sentence:
Has at least two independent clauses + at least one dependent clause.
For example:
While I was walking, I fell down and broke my leg, and I met the love of my life.

 General Capitalization Rules:

1) Capitalize the first word of a sentence. If the first word is a number, write it
as a word.
Examples:
- This is my new house.
- This is the first word of the sentence.
- Three of us worked the early shift.

2) Capitalize the pronoun I or the contraction I'm, and the abbreviations B.C or
A.D
Examples:
- It was dated 200 B.C.
- The group left when I asked them to go.
- The manuscript was dated 501 A.D.

3) Capitalize the first word of a quotation. Do not capitalize the first word of a
partial quotation.
Examples:
- He said, "Where were you?"
These words are quoted exactly as it is; direct quotations.
However, if the quotation is partial, don't capitalize the first letter.
Example:
 They called him "lazy boy" all that time.
A partial quotation is one that does not constitute a complete thought or a
complete sentence.

4) Capitalize the days of the week.

Example: Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday.

5) Capitalize months.
Example: January, February.

6) Capitalize holidays.
Example: Christmas, Halloween.

7) Capitalize historical events, periods, documents.

Example:
Civil War "historical event"
Dark Ages "historical period"
Declaration of Independence "document"
8) Capitalize special events, calendar events.
Example:
Pebble Beach Fall Classic, Renaissance Festival, Green River Days "special
events"
Labor Day, Father's Day "calendar events"

9) Capitalize names of people and places.

Example:
John Doe, Lincoln Center, Sears Tower

10) Capitalize names of structures and buildings.

Examples: Washington Memorial, Empire State Building.

11) Capitalize names of trains, ships, aircraft, and other modes of

transportations.
Example: Queen Elizabeth, Discovery, Sioux Lines, Trans World Airlines.

12) Capitalize names of products.

Examples: Corn King hams, Dodge Intrepid.

13) Capitalize names of officials.

Examples: Major Daley, President Clinton.

14) Capitalize works of art and literature.

Example: Hamlet "play", Black Elk Speaks "book", Mending Wall "Poem", Mona
Liza "painting".

15) Capitalize ethnic groups, races, languages, nationalities.

Example: Asian American, French, Indian, English.

16) Capitalize cities, states, and governmental units.

Example: Alaska, Republic of South Africa, Damascus.

17) Capitalize streets, highways, and roads.

Example: Grand Avenue, Deadwood Road.
18) Capitalize landmarks and geographical locations.
Example: Continental Divide, Grand Canyon.

19) Capitalize public areas, and bodies of water.

Example: Superior Forest, Missouri River.

20) Capitalize institutions, organizations, and businesses.

Example: Dodge Trucks, Darnieto.
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 When NOT to Capitalize:
- Avoid unnecessarily capitalizing compass directions; however, direction
words that refer to a specific area of the country should be capitalized.
Examples:
We headed west after the Depression.
He works in the West of the country.
The future of the country was cultivated in the West.

- Avoid unnecessarily capitalizing the words referring to family members.

Capitalize them only when they are used as names. If a possessive adjective
"my, our, your, his, her, their" comes before the word referring to a family
member, the family word is not capitalized.
Examples:
When Uncle Harry visited last winter, none of my other uncles came to see
him.
After my mother called me for lunch, Father served the entrée.
The Mother shouted at him.

- Avoid unnecessarily capitalizing the seasons of the year or parts of the

academic year.
Example:
If the university offers History of Education 405 in the spring semester. Horace
can graduate in May.

- Avoid unnecessarily capitalizing school subjects. They should be capitalized

only if they are part of the name of a specific course.
Examples:
I pass composition II.
I hate math.
I try to avoid math courses because I am not very good at them.
Betsy is taking Algebra II and Trigonometry I next semester.

- Avoid unnecessarily capitalizing words modified by proper adjectives.

Examples:
Syrians restaurants, Polish sausage, Mexican restaurants.
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Rules For Using Periods

 Use a period after an initial and after every part of an abbreviation, unless
the abbreviation has become an acronym – an abbreviation that is pronounced
as a word, such as AIDS- or a widely recognized name "TV, FBI, NATO, NASA"

 Titles: Mr. , Ms. , Dr. , and so on – are also abbreviations that use periods. If
the abbreviation comes at the end of a sentence, only one period is needed.

 Acronym is a word made of many different word. So, in the word NATO, each
letter stands for a word. We use a period after abbreviation and after every
part of an abbreviation unless the abbreviation has become an acronym. In the
title like in the passage we read "Ms. Lewis"
Examples:
The tour leaves on Mon. , Jan. 1, at 3 p.m.
The book was written by C.S. Lewis
A.J Mandelli researched brain function for the FBI.

 Use a period as a decimal between numbers and between dollars and cents.
Examples:
A gallon equals 3.875 liters.
The new textbook costs 54.75 $.
Only 5.6% of our consumers spend over 100.00$ per month on our products.

 Use a period at the end of a sentence that makes a statements.

Examples:
Henry Kissinger served under two U.S presidents.
Wilson will lecture in the forum after school today.
Many consider P.T Barnum the best salesman ever to have walked the earth.

 Use a period at the end of a sentence that makes a request, gives an

instruction, or states a command
 Use a period at the end of a sentence that asks an indirect question.
Example:
My neighbor asked if we had seen his cat. "The direct question was,
(Have you seen my cat?)"
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Rules for Using Question Marks and Exclamation Points
 Use a question mark after a word or group of words that asks a question,
even if it is not a complete sentence.
Examples:
What did you do last night?
Okay?

 Use an exclamation point after a sentence that expresses strong feeling.

Examples:
Look out for that car!
I just can't stand the smell here!

 Use an exclamation point after an interjection – a word or phrase

expressing strong feeling when it is written as a single sentence.
Examples:
Oh no!
Uh-huh!

 Use an exclamation point after a sentence that begins with a question word
but doesn't ask a question.
Example:
What a dunce I am!
How marvelous of you to come!
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Complete Sentence is a group of words that meets all three of the following
criteria:
1. It has a verb "an action, such as want, run, take, give, or a state of being,
such as am, is, are, was, were". Ex: He wants to be a doctor.

2. It has a subject
Ex:
Jad likes Orange.
Bob and Alexandra both want a promotion.
3. It expresses a complete thought:
Ex:
He is a student.
He is playing.
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 Complete Sentences "also called independent clauses"
Example:
Our team finished its year- end evaluation.
Roger tried to explain his position.
 Sentence fragments "also called dependent clauses"
Example:
When our team finished its year – end evaluation.
Whenever Roger tried to explain his position.
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Sentence Fragments:
A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence, but actually
isn't a complete sentence.
Sentence fragments are usually missing a subject or verb, or they do not
express a complete thought.
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Run-On Sentences:
Without punctuation "a period, semicolon, or comma"
Example:
Lynn moved from Minneapolis her job was transferred.
When her job was transferred, Lynn moved from Minneapolis.
 Run-on Sentence:
He was tired he went to bed. (False)
 Adding a period:
He was tired. He went to bed. (true)
 Adding a comma and a conjunction:
He was tired, so he went to bed. (true)
 Turning an independent clause into a dependent one and adding a
subordinating conjunction:
Because he was tired, he went to bed. (true)
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Comma Splices:
A comma is used in place of a semicolon to join two independent clauses
without a conjunction.
She didn’t study, she failed the exam. (false)
She didn't study; she failed the exam. (true)
She didn't study, so she failed the exam. (true)
She didn't study. She failed the exam. (true)

A comma splice can be corrected:

1. Semicolon
2. Conjunction
3. Period
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 Complete Sentence:
A complete sentence has to have a subject and a verb, and a complete
thought.
 Types of faulty sentences:
- Sentence Fragments:
Sentence fragments are usually missing a subject or a verb, or they do not
express a complete thought.
- Run-On Sentences:
When two complete sentences are joined together without using a
coordinating conjunction or proper punctuation, such as a period or a
semicolon.
- Comma Splices:
When you join two independent clauses with a comma and no conjunction,
it's called a comma splice.
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Comma
 Use a comma to set of introductory words, phrases, and clauses from the
main part of a sentence.

 Introductory words and phrases:

An example for introductory word:
Happily, I opened the envelope.
An example for introductory phrase:
Preparing for the exam, I didn't sleep at night.

 The part of the introductory word or phrase is always dependent clause.

 Whenever you start your sentence with a dependent clause, you need to use
a comma. However, if you start with an independent clause, there is no need
for comma.
Example: I opened the envelope happily.
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 Use a comma with appositives:
An appositive is a word or group of words that immediately follows a noun or
pronoun.
Example: I ate a banana, my favorite food.
If the appositive is a proper noun, you don't have to use a comma.
Example: My brother Jad likes banana.

 Use a comma with non-restrictive clauses:

Non-restrictive Clause:
Example: My sister, who is 35 years old, is a doctor.
If you omit the clause between two commas "who is 35 years old", the basic
meaning will not change. This is a non-restrictive clause.
Another example: Birds that cannot fly are called flightless bird.
The clause "that cannot fly" cannot be omitted because it will change the
meaning of the sentence. This is a restrictive clause.
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 Comma With Independent Clauses Joined by a Conjunction:

If a conjunction joins the clauses, place a comma after the first clause.
Example:
I finished my work, and I went to bed.

 Commas to separate items in a series:

Example:
Ali, Hussam, and Fadi went to school.

 Commas to separate items in a date or an address:

- When giving a complete date in the format month-day-year, put a comma on
either side of the year.
- When giving a date that is only a month and year, no comma is needed.
Ex: I went to Aleppo on July 2002.
- Use a comma to separate each element of an address.
Ex: I moved to Mezzeh, Damascus, last month.

 Commas to separate adjectives:

Use commas to separate two or more equally important adjectives.
Example:
I saw a white, large, and fast fish.

 Commas to separate other elements of a sentence:

1. Use commas to separate contrasting or opposing elements in a sentence.
Example:
I felt tired, but I couldn't sleep.
2. Use commas to separate words or phrases that interrupt the flow of thought
in a sentence.
Example:
Reading, in my opinion, is interesting.
3. Whenever the name of the person being addressed is included in a
sentence, it should be set off by commas.
Example:
I thought you are sleeping, Jad.

4. Mild Exclamations included in a sentence are also set off with commas.
Example:
Well, it was a pleasant surprise.
5. Use a comma after the greeting and closing of a personal or friendly letter.
Example:
Dear Kate, Sincerely.
6. Use a comma with word such as, "She said," to indicate a direct quotation,
or if it is at the end of the sentence. However, don't use a comma or an
exclamation mark after the question mark.
Example:
Evan said, "Mary ate dinner at 6:00"
"Evan made my dinner", announced Mary.
"Do you like your dinner?", Evan asked.
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When to use a semicolon?
 Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses joined without a
conjunction FANBOYS.
Example:
He felt tired; he went to bed.

 Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses that contain commas even

if the clauses are joined by a conjunction.
Example:
They served us fish, French fries, salad, and dessert; but since I had a
stomachache, I couldn't eat anything.

 Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses connected with a

conjunctive adverb.
Example:
Jad kept talking in class; therefor, he got in trouble.
 Here is a complete list of words used as conjunctive verbs:
Accordingly, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, instead,
moreover, never the less, otherwise, therefor, thus.
 Subordinating conjunction can't stand alone as a sentence.
 A clause with a conjunctive adverb is an independent clause, which should be
separated from another independent clause with a period and capital letter or
with a semicolon.

 Use a semicolon to separate items in a series if the items contain commas.

Example:
Last summer, I travelled to Dubai, UAE, Salala, Oman; and Beirut, Lebanon.
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Colons":"
Colons that introduce
 Use a colon to introduce a list of items, as long as the part before the colon
already a complete sentence.
Example:
I studied these subjects last year: math, science, and English.
- Do not use a colon if the part before the colon isn't a complete sentence.
Ex: The subjects I studied last year, were math, science and English.
 Use a colon to introduce a formal quotation. Quotation is the exact words of
someone.
Ex: President Trump said: "We will defend America"
 Use a colon to emphasize a word, phrase, or clause that adds particular
emphasis to the main body of a sentence.
Ex: All your troubles are caused by one thing: Stubbornness.
 Between two sentences when the second explains the first.
Ex: Hussam didn't eat his dessert: he had a stomachache.
We don't use the semicolon because the second sentence didn't give a new
idea, it is just an explanation to the first.
 Between the title and the subtitle of a book.
Ex: Learning English: Improving Spoken English.
 Between Forum and page number or between chapter and verse.
Ex: The Culture Book II: 26.
 Between hour and minute.
Ex: 02:30 p.m.
 After the greeting of a business letter.
Ex: Dear Mr. John:
Dear Chef Manager:
- However, even in a business letter, the closing is followed by a comma.
Ex: Respectfully yours,
Best Regards,
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The following text has had all punctuations, capital letters and paragraphs
removed. Rewrite the text and punctuate it as necessary:
thanks to the field of linguistics we know much about the development of the
5000 class languages in existence today we can describe their grammar and
pronunciation and see how their spoken and written forms have changed over
time for example we understand the origins of the indo-european group of
languages which includes norwegian hindi and english and can't trace them
back to tribes in eastern europe in about 3000 bc so we have mapped out a
great deal of the history of language but there are still areas we know little
about experts are beginning to look to the field of evolutionary biology to find
out how the human species developed to be able to use language so far there
are far more questions and half theories than answers