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NUNC COGNOSCO EX PARTE
TRENT UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
PRESENTED BY
Canon M. T. Newby
///.77 N'e v/W3 7
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2019 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation
https://archive.org/details/studyofhistory0003toyn
A STUDY OF
HISTORY
The Royal Institute of International Affairs is
an unofficial and non-political body, founded in
1920 to encourage anJ facilitate the scientific
study of international questions.
The Institute, as such, is precluded by its
rules from expressing an opinion on any aspect of
international affairs ; opinions expressed in this
book are, therefore, purely individual.
A STUDY OF
HISTORY
BY
ARNOLD J. TOYNBEE
Hon. D.Litt. Oxon. and Birmingham
Hon. LUO. Princeton, F.B.A.
Director of Studies in the Royal Institute
of International Affairs
Research Professor of International History
in the University of London
(both on the Sir Daniel Stevenson Foundation)
VOLUME III
146749
VI CONTENTS
Polybius . . . . . . • .310
Clarendon . . . . . • 3^
Ibn Khaldun ....... 321
Confucius ........ 328
Kant . . . . . • • .331
Dante . . . . . . • • 331
Hamlet . . . . . . . -332
Puberty ........ 332
Penalized Minorities . . . . . -333
Barbarian Rear-guards . . . . . . -335
Athens in the Second Chapter of the Growth of the Hellenic Society 336
Ionia in the First Chapter of the Growth of the Hellenic Society . 338
The Achaean Confederacy in the First Chapter of the Disintegration
of the Hellenic Society . . . . . .339
Italy in the Second Chapter of the Growth of the Western Society . 341
England in the Third Chapter of the Growth of the Western Society 350
What is to be Russia’s Role in our Western History ? . . 363
The Working of Withdrawal-and-Retum in the Histories of
Civilizations . . . . . . .365
IH. DIFFERENTIATION THROUGH GROWTH .... 211
III. A, Annex I: The ‘Conductivity’ of Nomadism as illustrated in the
Diffusion of Languages . . . . 391
Annex II: The Causes of the Occasional Eruptions of the Nomads
out of their own Domain on the Steppes into the
Adjoining Domains of the Sedentary Societies round
about them ...... 395
Annex III: The Numerical Ratio between Subjects and Masters
in the Ottoman Empire and in Laconia . -455
C 1 (a) Annex: Some Make-Weights against Social Retardation in
the Geographical Expansion of the Western World 458
11 (b) Annex I: The Concept of the Second Coming in its Psycho¬
logical Setting . . . . 462
Annex II: The Political Career of Muhammad . . . 466
Annex III: The Relativity of Ibn Khaldun’s Historical Thought . 473
Annex IV: The Victory of the City-State Regime over the Kingdom-
State Regime in the Hellenic World . . . 477
Winter In the beginning Hunting on the Dog sledge, Har¬ In the beginning
of winter, the sea ice. poon. of winter, earth
coast land; later house; later in
in the winter, the winter, snow
the sea ice. house.
Summer Inland. Hunting on land Kayak, Lance, Tent.
and fishing in Bow and Arrow,
rivers. Salmon Spear.
1 Steensby, op. cit., p. 43. For a systematic and detailed survey of the ingenuities by
which the Esquimaux have adapted their life to their physical environment, see Weyer
Jr., E. M.: The Eskimos: Their Environment and Folkways (New Haven 1932, Yale Uni¬
versity Press), ch. iv.
2 Steensby, op. cit., p. 42. 3 Steensby, op. cit., p. 156,
4 ‘There is hardly another people in the world whose self-maintenance mores are
so strictly regulated by the changes in the seasons.’ Weyer, op. cit., p. 79.
s Steensby, op. cit., pp. 157-8. Compare the more elaborate chart in Weyer, op. cit.,
on pp. 80-2 (fig. 11), which illustrates the author’s account of the ‘Seasonal Life-Cycle
of Eskimos’ in ch. v, § 1.
6 THE PROBLEM OF THE GROWTHS OF CIVILIZATIONS
Sub-Arctic Eskimo Culture.
Principal
Season. Place of Abode. Occupation. Implements. Dwelling.
The Nomads
The tour de force of the Esquimaux has been to take up the chal¬
lenge of the Ice and the tour de force of the Polynesians to take up
the challenge of the Ocean. The Nomad, who has taken up the
challenge of the Steppe, has had the audacity to grapple with an
equally intractable element; and indeed, from the social (as dis¬
tinct from the physiographical) point of view, the Steppe, with its
surface of grass and gravel, actually bears a greater resemblance to
‘the unharvested sea’1 than it bears to terra firma that is amenable
to hoe or plough. Steppe-surface and water-surface have this in
common, that they are both accessible to Man only as a pilgrim
and a sojourner. Neither offers him anywhere on its broad expanse
(apart from the islands and oases) a place where he can rest the
sole of his foot and settle down to a sedentary existence. Both
provide strikingly greater facilities for travel and transport than
those parts of the Earth’s surface upon which human communities
are accustomed to live in permanence ;2 but both exact (as the penalty
for trespassing upon them) the necessity of constantly ‘moving on’,
or else ‘moving off’ their surface altogether and finding some
standing ground upon terra firma somewhere beyond the coasts
which respectively surround them. Thus there is a real similarity
between the Nomadic horde which annually follows the same orbit
of summer and winter pasture-ranges, and the fishing-fleet which
cruises from bank to bank according to the season; between the
convoy of merchantmen which exchanges the products of the
opposite shores of the sea, and the camel-caravan by which the
opposite shores of the Steppe are linked with one another; between
the water pirate and the desert raider; and between those explosive
movements of population which impel Norsemen or Minoans or
Crusaders to take to their ships and to break like tidal waves upon
the coasts of Europe or the Levant, and those other movements
which impel Imoshagh or Arabs or Scyths or Turks or Mongols to
1 ‘Unharvested’ (arpuyeros) is one of the stock epithets of the sea in the Homeric Epic;
2 For the light thrown upon this question of relative ‘conductivity’ by a study of the
geographical distribution of languages, see III. A, Annex I, below.
8 THE PROBLEM OF THE GROWTHS OF CIVILIZATIONS
swing out of their annual orbit on the Steppe and to break, with
equal violence and equal suddenness, upon the settled lands of
Egypt or 'Iraq or Russia or India or China.
It will be seen that the Nomads’, like the Polynesians’ and the
Esquimaux’s, response to the challenge of Physical Nature is a tour
deforce; and in the case of the Nomads the historical incentive to
this tour de force is not, as in the case of the Esquimaux, altogether
a matter of conjecture. We are entitled to infer that Nomadism
was evoked by the same challenge that evoked the Egyptiac and
the Sumeric civilizations and that drove the forefathers of the
Shilluk and the Dinka into Equatoria and the forefathers of the
Norsemen into Scandinavia. Nomadism, likewise, maybe conceived
as having arisen in response to the searching challenge of desicca¬
tion; and we have touched upon its possible origins already in¬
cidentally, in inquiring into the origins of the fluvial cultures.1 The
origins of the Nomadic Civilization, as well as those of the sedentary
civilizations which have arisen in the same arid zone, are illuminated
by the discoveries of modern Western Archaeology;2 and the clear¬
est light which we have upon Nomadism, up to date, has been
thrown by the researches of the Pumpelly Expedition in the Trans¬
caspian oasis of Anau :3 a site in the extreme south-western corner
of the Eurasian Steppe, at the foot of the north-eastern escarpment
of the Iranian Plateau.
In the Transcaspian oases, as in the river-valleys of the Lower
Tigris and Euphrates and the Lower Nile,4 we find the challenge of
desiccation, in its first incidence, stimulating certain communities
which had formerly lived entirely by hunting to eke out their liveli¬
hood under less favourable conditions by taking to a rudimentary
form of agriculture.
‘With the gradual shrinking in dimensions of habitable areas and the
disappearance of herds of wild animals, Man, concentrating on the oases
and forced to conquer new means of support, began to utilize the native
plants; and from among these he learned to use seeds of different grasses
growing on the dry land and in marshes at the mouths of larger streams
1 See II. C (ii) (b) 2, vol. i, pp. 304-5, above.
2 On this point, a cautionary note has been communicated to the writer of this Study
by Mr. G. F. Hudson: ‘Nomadism has to be carefully distinguished from the keeping
of domestic animals by sedentary folk, and the archaeological evidence only refers to the
latter. I think it is very probable that both intensive agriculture and animal-domestica¬
tion began in oases as a result of a process of desiccation, namely the drying-up of North
Africa, Arabia, and Iran when the climatic belts shifted north at the end of the Ice Age—
though even this is rather conjectural. Nomadism, on the other hand, was a develop¬
ment about which we have not, and cannot have, satisfactory archaeological evidence.’
3 Pumpelly, R.: Explorations in Turkestan: Expedition 0/1903 = Carnegie Institution
Publication No. 26 (Washington, D.C., 1905, Carnegie Institution); auctor idem:
Explorations in Turkestan: Expedition of 1904: Prehistoric Civilizations of Anau =
Carnegie Institution Publication No. 73 (Washington, D.C., 1908, Carnegie Institution,
2 vols.).
4 See II. C (ii) ([b) 2, vol. i, pp. 305-18, above.
THE PROBLEM OF THE GROWTHS OF CIVILIZATIONS 9
on the desert. With the increase of population and its necessities, he
learned to plant the seeds, thus making, by conscious or unconscious
selection, the first step in the evolution of the whole series of cereals.’1
Ei, ei, tämä oli, kuten kauppa-Lassin oli tapana sanoa, "huono
kauppa"; minun täytyi päästä järkiini ja puhua vakava sana
Bramberg-ukon kanssa.
"Huomenta poikaseni!
"No Jumalan nimessä sitte! Minä luulen, että Emmi ja minä emme
sovi toisillemme ja…"
Niin, Herra ties, mitä kaikkea minä sanoin. Muun muassa sanoin
minä luonnollisesti, että olin käyttäytynyt moukan tavoin, ja
Bramberg, joka käveli vieressäni pää painuksissa, oli kylliksi
ystävällinen sen myöntämään. Lopulta hän kohotti päänsä, katsahti
minuun sivulta päin ja mumisi:
"Kyllä, se kyllä käy päinsä, jos tahdot! Minä vien sinun terveisesi ja
selitän asian niin hyvin kuin voin."
"Suo anteeksi!"
"Kiitos!"
Hänellä oli ollut täysi syy luulla minua tyhmäksi, ja minä olisin
voinut epäillä, että hän tahtoisi olla ivallinen, mutta se ei
kummankaan mieleen juolahtanut, ja jos me koskaan olemme
toisistamme pitäneet tässä elämässä, oli se juuri silloin.
Oli kuusi vuotta siitä kuin viimeksi näin vanhat ystäväni, mutta
käden lyönnit olivat yhtä lämpimät ja katseet yhtä ystävälliset, vaikka
lautamiehen ja Leena-muorin hiuksiin jo olikin lunta sekoittunut.
Vai niin, se oli pikku sisko, nyt jo näin pitkäksi kasvanut. Ja minä
istuin taas odottamaan, tietämättä, mitä minä odotin. Lopulta minä
kysyin:
Kun polkka oli loppu, tahtoi isä huutaa hänet luoksemme, mutta
minä kielsin ja vein hänet mukanani paremmin puiden taakse.
Tahdoin nähdä, kuinka tuo kaunis, komea tyttö käyttäytyi muun
nuoren väen joukossa, tietämättä meidän läsnäolostamme.
Minkätähden tulin minä niin iloiseksi kun hän tanssin loputtua aina
meni vanhempien naisten luo, jotka olivat lystiä katselemassa, tai otti
jotakin muuta nuorta tyttöä vyötäisistä ja käveli edestakaisin joen
rannalla? Minkätähden minä hymyilin, kun isä pahoitellen kuiskasi:
Sitte vingahti viulu taas ja alkoi soittaa valssia, jonka minä hyvin
tunsin noista reippaista sävelistä.
"Muistan, Nils."
"Muistatko kun sinä olit pieni ja minä nostin sinut Pollen selkään ja
talutin aina myllylle asti?"
"Mutta nyt olen minä täällä! Nyt olen minä täällä, oma rakas pikku
tyttöni!" kuiskasin minä hänen korvaansa, ja koska suuni kerran oli
niillä seuduin, painoin ensimäisen suutelon hänen vapisevalle
pikkusuulleen ja suljin hänet syliini.
"Luuletko että olisi hyvin vaikeata oikein pian jättää isäsi ja äitisi ja
rakas lapsuudenkotisi?"
Ja sillä tavalla se kävi, että minä, joka olin ollut niin ylpeä
itsenäisyydestäni, pysyin itsenäisenä ainoastaan muutaman,
nopeasti kuluvan vuoden, sitten tullakseni hänen omakseen,
kokonaan antautuakseni hänelle, joka rakkautensa
auringonpaisteella on tehnyt koko elämäni valoisaksi, ja saanut
minut siihen lujaan vakaumukseen, että jos mikään sananlasku
puhuu totta, niin varmasti se, joka sanoo, että samanlaisilta lapsilta
luonnistuu leikki parhaiten.