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COMPOSITE MATERIALS
COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
Manufacturing, Properties,
and Applications

Edited by

IT-MENG LOW
YU DONG
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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 Contributors
Hazizan Md Akil School of Materials and
Mineral Resources Engineering, Engineering
Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
Abdullah Alhuthali Department of Physics,
Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
Volker Altst€adt Department of Polymer
Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth,
Germany
Mohammad I.M. Alzeer Fibre and Particle
Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu,
Oulu, Finland
Suna Avcıoglu Yıldız Technical University,
Faculty of Chemistry and Metallurgy,
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, Istanbul, Turkey
Erik Valentine Bachtiar Fraunhofer Institute for
Wood Research Wilhelm-Klauditz-Institut,
Braunschweig, Germany
Neeraj Kumar Bhoi Mechanical Engineering
Department, PDPM Indian Institute of
Information Technology, Design and
Manufacturing, Jabalpur, MP, India
Merve Buldu Sabancı University, Faculty of
Engineering and Natural Sciences, Materials
Science and Nano Engineering; Sabancı
University, Nanotechnology Research and
Application Centre (SUNUM), Istanbul,
Turkey
Minh Phung Dang Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of
Technology and Education, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Thanh-Phong Dao Division of Computational
Mechatronics, Institute for Computational
Science; Faculty of Electrical & Electronics
ix
Engineering, Ton Duc Thang University,
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Martin Demleitner Department of Polymer
Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth,
Germany
Yu Dong School of Civil and Mechanical
Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, WA,
Australia
Jayantha Epaarachchi School of Mechanical and
Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Health
Engineering and Sciences; Centre for Future
Materials, Institute for Advanced
Engineering and Space Sciences, University of
Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD,
Australia
Kunkun Fu School of Aerospace Engineering
and Applied Mechanics, Tongji University,
Shanghai, China
Qiuni Fu Department of Organic and Wood-
Based Construction Materials, Technische
Universit€
at Braunschweig, Braunschweig,
Germany
Ali Nemati Giv Department of Organic and
Wood-Based Construction Materials,
Technische Universit€
at Braunschweig,
Braunschweig, Germany
Kheng Lim Goh Composite Materials and
Mechanics Group, Newcastle Research and
Innovation Institute Singapore, Newcastle
University in Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
aublein Department of Polymer
Markus H€
Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth,
Germany
Abdellah Henni Laboratory of Dynamic
Interactions and Reactivity of Systems, Kasdi
Merbah University, Ouargla, Algeria
x Contributors
Madhubhashitha Herath School of Mechanical
and Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Health
Engineering and Sciences; Centre for Future
Materials, Institute for Advanced Engineering
and Space Sciences, University of Southern
Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
Silu Huang Department of Organic and Wood-
Based Construction Materials, Technische
Universit€at Braunschweig, Braunschweig,
Germany
Qian Jiang School of Textile Science and
Engineering; Ministry of Education Key
Laboratory for Advanced Textile Composite
Materials, Tiangong University, Tianjin,
People’s Republic of China
Bharat Jindal (Bhushan) School of Civil
Engineering, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi
University, Katra, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Pang Hee Juon Composite Materials
and Mechanics Group, Newcastle Research
and Innovation Institute Singapore,
Newcastle University in Singapore, Singapore,
Singapore
Amina Karar Laboratory of Dynamic
Interactions and Reactivity of Systems, Kasdi
Merbah University, Ouargla, Algeria
Bohumil Kasal Department of Organic and
Wood-Based Construction Materials,
Technische Universit€at Braunschweig;
Fraunhofer Institute for Wood Research,
Wilhelm-Klauditz-Institut, Braunschweig,
Germany
Cengiz Kaya Yıldız Technical University,
Faculty of Chemistry and Metallurgy,
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering, Istanbul, Turkey
Figen Kaya Yıldız Technical University, Faculty
of Chemistry and Metallurgy, Department of
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
Istanbul, Turkey
Samaneh Salkhi Khasraghi Department of
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Hieu Giang Le Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of
Technology and Education, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Yang Li College of Mechanical Engineering,
Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhejiang,
PR China
It-Meng Low Department of Applied Physics,
Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
Kenneth J.D. MacKenzie MacDiarmid Institute
for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology,
Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington,
New Zealand
Duc Nam Nguyen Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Industrial University
of Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Tan Thang Nguyen Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City Industry and
Trade College, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Nurul Zahirah Noor Azman School of Physics,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor, Penang,
Malaysia
Wendy Triadji Nugroho School of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University,
Perth, WA, Australia
ohler Fraunhofer Institute for
Christoph P€
Wood Research Wilhelm-Klauditz-Institut,
Braunschweig, Germany
Alokesh Pramanik School of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University,
Perth, WA, Australia
Saurabh Pratap Mechanical Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology
Varanasi (IIT-BHU), UP, India
Maizan Ramli Ramzun School of Physics,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor, Penang,
Malaysia
Fatin Nur Amirah Mohd Sabri School of
Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering,
Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang,
Malaysia
Hamid Saeedipour The Aerospace Hub;
School of Engineering, Republic Polytechnic,
Singapore, Singapore
Faiz Uddin Ahmed Shaikh School of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University,
Perth, WA, Australia
 Contributors
Sanjay Sharma Department of Civil
Engineering, NITTTR, Chandigarh, India
Akbar Shojaei Department of Chemical and
Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran
Harpreet Singh Mechanical Engineering
Department, PDPM Indian Institute of
Information Technology, Design and
Manufacturing, Jabalpur, MP, India
Min Sun College of Mechanical Engineering,
Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhejiang;
Key Laboratory of Special Purpose Equipment
and Advanced Processing Technology,
Ministry of Education and Zhejiang Province,
Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou,
PR China
Youhong Tang Institute for NanoScale Science
and Technology, College of Science and
Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide,
SA, Australia
Bo Wang Department of Organic and Wood-
Based Construction Materials, Technische
Universit€at Braunschweig, Braunschweig,
Germany
Liwei Wu School of Textile Science and
Engineering; Ministry of Education Key
Laboratory for Advanced Textile Composite
Materials, Tiangong University, Tianjin,
People’s Republic of China; Institute for
NanoScale Science and Technology, College of
Science and Engineering, Flinders University,
Adelaide, SA, Australia
xi
X. Xu Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute, Jingdezhen,
Jiangxi, China
Libo Yan Department of Organic and Wood-
Based Construction Materials, Technische
Universit€
at Braunschweig; Fraunhofer Institute
for Wood Research, Wilhelm-Klauditz-Institut,
Braunschweig, Germany
Bin Yang School of Aerospace Engineering and
Applied Mechanics, Tongji University,
Shanghai, China
Muhammad Razlan Zakaria Faculty of
Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti
Malaysia Perlis, Perlis, Malaysia
Qunfeng Zeng Key Laboratory of Education
Ministry for Modern Design and Rotor-Bearing
System, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an;
College of Materials Science and Engineering,
Yangtze Normal University, Chongqing, China
Djamal Zerrouki Laboratory of Dynamic
Interactions and Reactivity of Systems, Kasdi
Merbah University, Ouargla, Algeria
Zheng Zhang College of Mechanical
Engineering, Zhejiang University of
Technology, Zhejiang; Key Laboratory of
Special Purpose Equipment and Advanced
Processing Technology, Ministry of Education
and Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of
Technology, Hangzhou, PR China
Huixin Zhu School of Aerospace Engineering
and Applied Mechanics, Tongji University,
Shanghai, China
 Preface
In contrast to monolithic materials such as
metals, polymers or ceramics, a composite
material consists of two or more physically
and/or chemically distinct phases, well tai-
lored or uniformly distributed for secondary
phase as fillers/reinforcements within a ma-
trix. As a result, a composite material usually
has unique characteristics that are not usually
depicted by any of its constituents in isolation.
Composite materials have been well devel-
oped in order to meet the challenges of
high-performing material properties when
targeting engineering and structural applica-
tions. The mechanical properties of a compos-
ite material are mainly dictated by the type,
size, morphology, and content of the rein-
forcements, as well as the nature of the matrix.
For instance, in a fibre–reinforced composite,
its properties are dependent upon the fibre
content, length of individual fibres, fibre ori-
entation and strength fibre-matrix interfacial
bonding and fibre distribution.
The ability of composite materials to ab-
sorb stresses and dissipate strain energy is
vastly superior to that of monolithic mate-
rials, and thus they offer engineers many
mechanical, thermal, chemical and damage-
tolerance advantages with limited draw-
backs such as brittleness. A material that
can absorb mechanical vibration, and yet re-
main stiff and lightweight, is sought after for
a wide range of applications which include
automobile and aircraft engine components,
rocket engine nozzles, aircraft brakes, indus-
trial robots, and low-density armour.
Since time immemorial, composite mate-
rials have been central to the evolution and
xiii
survival of human civilisation. The use and
development of composite materials has
been a core part of mankind’s technology
since the Egyptian builders used crushed
limestone, clay, water, and lime to fabricate
ancient concrete (aka geopolymer) for the
construction of gigantic pyramids more than
5 thousand years ago. Later, the ancient
Chinese used straw to reinforce mud bricks
for the construction of the Great Wall to de-
fend against the barbarians about 3 thousand
years ago. A similar process to the building
of the Egyptian pyramids but with modified
ingredients (i.e. lime and glutinous rice) was
used by the Chinese to construct their Great
Wall. The “sticky rice” mortar sealed the
bricks tightly so that they were waterproof,
thus preventing the growth of weeds that
might cause cracking. These historical struc-
tures have survived because of improved
strength, toughness and durability afforded
by the composite materials used in the con-
struction. Similarly, the Mongols in the 12th
century made the most advanced weapons
with archery bows that were smaller but
more powerful than those of their enemies.
These bows were made of composites struc-
tures by combining cattle tendons, horn,
bamboo, and silk which bonded with natural
pine resin. The tendons were placed on the
tension side of the bow, the bamboo was
used as a core, and sheets of horn were lam-
inated to the compression side of the bow.
The entire structure was tightly wrapped
with silk using the rosin adhesive to achieve
high strength and impressive material
performance.
xiv Preface
Since then, advances in the technology,
design and development of composite mate-
rials have been breadth-taking. Hitherto,
these materials are routinely used in a wide
range of applications which include thermal
protection systems for space vehicles, rocket
engine nozzles, automobile and aircraft en-
gine components, aircraft brakes, industrial
robots, and low-density armour. The advent
of additive manufacturing has also enabled
the precision manufacturing of these mate-
rials by 3-D printing. The imminent disrup-
tive capability and impact of 3-D printing
in materials design and manufacturing is
now unavoidable. Recently, a fully 3D-
printed house has gone on sale and this tech-
nology is destined to radically shake up
building costs and the housing industry,
thus greatly improving the housing afford-
ability on a large scale.
This book consists of 23 chapters and pre-
sents a comprehensive review of current sta-
tus and future directions, latest sophisticated
technologies and innovative work, chal-
lenges and opportunities encountered for
composite materials. The chapters present
latest advances and comprehensive coverage
of material types, design, fabrication, model-
ling, properties and applications from con-
ventional composite materials to advanced
composites such as nanocomposites, self-
healing and smart composites.
Chapter 1 offers the guiding information
regarding newly developed strategies for
synthesising aluminium metal-matrix com-
posites with major focus on their material
processing and mechanical properties.
Chapter 2 investigates the effects of different
nanomaterial additives, ie., nano-SiO2, nano-
clay, nano-Al2O3, carbon nanotubes, and
nano-TiO2 on the properties of geopolymer
paste, mortar and concrete obtained from
different industrial by-products. Chapter 3
reviews the recent advances of carbon fibre
(CF)-carbon nanotube (CNT) reinforced
composite materials in their potential struc-
tures, resulting material properties as well
as a wide range of typical applications. On
the other hand, Chapter 4 provides a holistic
review by focusing on 3-D printed composite
materials based on polymers, ceramics and
metals as the matrices.
Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive re-
view of natural fibre reinforced geopolymer
composites in terms of their synthesis, struc-
tures and properties. Chapter 6 describes the
mechanisms of forming interphase between
reinforcements and matrices according to
adhesion theory in order to correlate the mi-
crostructure of interphase with resulting me-
chanical properties of composite materials.
Chapter 7 reviews the durability of synthetic
fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites
induced by chemical, physical, and mechan-
ical properties such as temperature, mois-
ture, alkalinity and acidity, ultraviolet
radiation, as well as their combinations with
mechanical loading in time. Chapter 8 ad-
dresses different retrofitting methods that
are used to strengthen, rehabilitate and
repair existing structures using different
composite materials as well as future per-
spectives for further developments. The fab-
rication of vinyl-ester resin matrix
composites reinforced with recycled cellu-
lose fibre (RCF) via a soaking method is de-
scribed in Chapter 9.
A comparison on the effects of RCF,
Cloisite 30B nanoclays and halloysite
nanotubes (HNTs) on physical and mechan-
ical properties of these composites is also
presented. Chapter 10 covers the fracture
mechanics of short carbon and glass fibres
reinforced composites induced by moisture.
Chapter 11 presents mechanical properties of
recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
fibre-reinforced fly ash geopolymer and fly
ash-slag-blended geopolymer composites.
Chapter 12 reveals a comprehensive review
on the investigation of thermal damage in
 Preface
carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP)
composites such as colour change, as well
as mechanical effect at various temperature
levels for the different heat exposure dura-
tions. The concepts and technologies in rela-
tion to self-sensing and self-healing in
polymer composites, research strategies for
their technique-based links as well as
widespread applications is introduced in
Chapter 13.
Chapter 14 highlights the recent progress
in lightning strike damage prediction models
and protection techniques for carbon fibre
reinforced composites (CFRCs) in aerospace
applications. Chapter 15 provides a detailed
overview of flame retardant additive used
for fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs) in vari-
ous fields from aircrafts, railway, automo-
biles, civil engineering to electronics along
with their corresponding flame retardant
mechanisms in a range of nanoscaled, micro-
scopic and macroscopic levels. Chapter 16 of-
fers an explicit review on recent work in
reconfiguration mechanism, fabrication and
design of multistable composite structures
with the major applications taking place in
morphing structures, bioinspired structures
and soft robotics grippers. Chapter 17 sum-
marises typical strategies and methods
utilised for the design and fabrication of
highly intelligent composite materials for
the applications of sensors and actuators.
Chapter 18 covers γ-Fe2O3@SiO2 and
Ag doping γ-Fe2O3@SiO2 nanocomposites
prepared by the sol-gel method and nano-
composite coatings deposited on the steel
substrate in order to characterise their high
temperature superlubricity behaviours. The
current trends in developing novel X-ray
shielding materials was investigated in
Chapter 19 where the authors investigated
the feasibility of these materials for use in
xv
X-ray shielding applications with the consid-
eration of safety requirement in medical
X-ray imaging facilities. In a similar work,
Chapter 20 focuses on the synthesis of nu-
clear grade nano boron carbide (B4C) pow-
ders along with their reinforcement role in
polymer composites particularly targeting
radiation shielding application.
Chapter 21 highlights smart structural ap-
plications of shape memory polymer com-
posites (SMPCs) which are intended for use
in the realm of aerospace and space engineer-
ing. Chapter 22 provides a comprehensive
report on the history of development, archi-
tecture, and processing techniques of 3D
four-step braiding preforms and composite
materials. Finally, the major challenges and
requirements for improving supercapacitor
applications directly benefiting from the
biomass advantages obtained from nanocom-
posites are elucidated in Chapter 23.
Each of these chapters has been written by
experienced and established researchers of
many years working in the respective
specialised fields. All the chapters have been
subjected to a rigorous process of peer
review to warrant the high quality of
published work in this book. As the editors
of this book, we are also indebted to Gwen
Jones, Rafael Trombaco, Sheela Bernardine
Josy from Elsevier for their dedicated team
work to make this book come true. Finally,
we would welcome any constructive feed-
back on this edited book from materials
researchers, industrial scientists and engi-
neers with expertise in composite materials.
It-Meng Low
Yu Dong
12 March 2021
 C H A P T E R

1
Futuristic synthesis strategies for
aluminum-based metal-matrix
composites
Neeraj Kumar Bhoia, Harpreet Singha, and Saurabh Pratapb
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design
and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, MP, India bMechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of
Technology Varanasi (IIT-BHU), UP, India

1.1 Introduction

Aluminum-based metal-matrix composites (Al-MMCs), with excellent specific strength,

and thermal and damping properties, are not industrially viable due to poor control of dis-
persion of reinforcement in the matrix and inability to tailor matrix-reinforcement interface
which dictates their properties. Particles, short and long fibers, 2D sheets, nanorods, etc., are
used for reinforcing Al. The reinforcing elements such as Al2O3, AlN, CeO2, CNT, MWCNT,
SWCNT, GNP, Gr, TiN, TiB2, TiC, Si3N4, ZrO2, ZrB2, and WS2 are widely used in Al compos-
ites for tailoring the properties as per requirements [1–4]. The Al-MMCs are used to develop
components for automobile, defense, and aerospace industries with improved mechanical
properties in the range of UTS: 290–310 MPa, YS: 170–210 MPa, and percentage elongation
of 7%–8% in the gravity/semisolid cast. The intermetallic compounds (i.e., reinforcing mate-
rials) present within the proposed composite (Al-MMCs) exhibit high hardness, low thermal
expansion coefficient, reasonably high elastic modulus, and higher corrosion resistance [5, 6].
The chapter describes controlled approaches (conventional and newly developed techniques)
for the development of Al-MMCs and different strategies to overcome the abovementioned
problem for boundaries.
Numerous manufacturing processes have been used to fabricate Al-MMCs, which include
the solid, liquid, and semisolid processing methods. The major drawbacks of the conventional
processing method are improper mixing of reinforcement and lesser bonding strength at the

Composite Materials 3 Copyright # 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820512-9.00006-X
4 1. Futuristic synthesis strategies for aluminum

interface of the matrix and reinforcement particles. However, several developments and re-
search are being carried out for homogeneous particle distribution, improved diffusions, and
refined grain structure to achieve superior material properties. Traditionally, materials are
manufactured through casting and powder metallurgy techniques to meet the demand of dif-
ferent sectors. However, advanced MMC materials with a potential for specific applications
require unique characteristics. The casting process is generally described by (a) heating and
melting of the matrix material, (b) pouring of the preheated reinforcing elements into the mol-
ten matrix and method for the uniform mixing of the reinforcement in the matrix and at the
final stage, and (c) the pouring of molten state for the final cast product. On a similar note, the
powder metallurgy techniques for the generation of functional part consist of three different
stages: (a) blending and mixing of powder materials, (b) cold compaction of the blended pow-
der material with desired shape and size, and (c) for mechanical stability sintering of the
compacted part to achieve strong metallurgical bonding in the matrix and reinforcement
phase. The adaptability of powder metallurgy techniques in different manufacturing indus-
tries is such that it is useful for the generation of the component with precision and accurate
geometrical features simultaneously focusing on bulk production. The requirement of sec-
ondary processes such as machining and finishing in case of powder metallurgy is negligible.
These characteristics of the powder metallurgy process aid in formulating a new and ad-
vanced strategy for the development of functional materials. The assistance of advanced
processing techniques such as hybrid microwave and spark plasma with powder metallurgy
is of great interest in current industrial development due to higher degree of uniformity and
sustainability. These advanced processes reduce the overall processing time and energy con-
sumptions with rapid product development.
The newly developed methods and strategy will give a vigilant choice of the alloying el-
ements and reinforcements for the development of metastable and high-performance
Al-MMCs to meet the industrial expectation. The chapter focuses on different innovative
manufacturing strategies (i.e., hybrid microwave processing, friction stir processing,
ultrasonic-assisted methods, disintegrated melt depositions, etc.) and associated characteris-
tics for different applications. The following beneficial outcomes are expected from the newly
developed strategy for the fabrication of Al-MMCs.
• The process must save time and energy.
• It must be effective for a wide range of metallic, nonmetallic, industrial, and agriculture
waste material reinforcements.
• The process must be rapid and flexible.
• The process must be flexible in nature.
• The developed process must be sustainable and feasible.
• The overall process must be economical with minimal damage to the surroundings.

1.2 Classifications of composite materials

Composite materials are classified according to their physical, thermal, mechanical, and
tribological properties. In a broad category, composite is grouped into three different forms:
(a) metal-matrix composites, (b) ceramic-matrix composites, and (c) polymer-matrix compos-
ites. In the recent year, different metallic and nonmetallic materials have been combined to

I. Manufacturing
 1.3 Description of the process and working principle 5
achieve a particular property depending on the specific requirement. The variation in the
configurable structures of these materials requires a dynamic control over the processing cir-
cumstances. The processing strategies play a deterministic role in the outcomes of the devel-
oped composite phase. Variation in the processing temperatures of the hard ceramics and
carbide materials in the matrix plays a deterministic role in the interface behavior and
service life.
In the class of MMCs generally aluminum, titanium, magnesium, and copper are used as
main constituent elements while ceramics, carbon-based elements, and organic and inorganic
elements are used as reinforcing elements. Three different types of reinforcing elements are
used: particulates, short fibers or whiskers, and long fibers. Particulates or particle-reinforced
Al-MMCs with reinforcement range from few microns to nanometer and with a volume frac-
tion of reinforcement range from 0% to 30% [3, 7, 8]. The wide applicability and use of particle
reinforcement are mainly due to easy availability, and ease of manufacturing with a feasible
cost. Short and long fibers show greater potential for high-temperature applications in auto-
mobile industries such as piston materials. The short and long fibers or whiskers in the matrix
form a series of intricate network arrangement with matrix material possessing good inter-
facial characteristics. Thus, the composite phase exhibits improved load-bearing capacity.
Similarly, the reinforcement is coated with hard ceramic content to improve the strength
of the material. The coated part of the reinforcement generates a protective layer for improv-
ing load-bearing capacity [2].

1.3 Description of the process and working principle

The process for the development of Al-MMCs can be broadly classified into three groups:
(i) solid-state processing, (ii) liquid-state processing, and (iii) a combination of solid- and
liquid-state processing (semisolid state mode). Some of the newly developed strategies for
the development of Al-MMCs are discussed here.

1.3.1 Microwave-assisted processes

Microwave-assisted processes are further divided into three different groups based on the
utilization of microwave energy for the development of composite material.

1.3.1.1 Microwave hybrid sintering process

Fig. 1.1 explains the process involved in the microwave hybrid sintering (MHS) approach.
In MHS process, the initial raw material is subjected to blending/mixing using different mill-
ing methods (mechanical milling, high energy ball mill, rotary milling, etc.) for the effective
diffusion and uniform mixing of the reinforcement and matrix phase. The homogeneously
mixed powder sample is cold compacted and further subjected to MHS. The MHS process
consists of different susceptor materials (i.e., powder and bulk form of silicon carbide, carbon
nanotubes, boron nitride, carbon fiber-activated charcoal, graphite powder, etc.). The
susceptor material quickly absorbs microwave radiation and converts it into heat. Further,
the compacted part is subjected to bidirectional heating mode in the MHS process. Here,

I. Manufacturing
FIG. 1.1 Working schematic representation of the powder metallurgy process and microwave-assisted sintering technique.
 1.3 Description of the process and working principle 7
the bidirectional heating is related to susceptor heating from outside to inside and microwave
heating from the core of the material to the surface [9, 10]. The schematic representation of the
susceptor heating process is presented in Fig. 1.2. In the case of conventional sintering pro-
cess, the heat flows from the surface of the material to the core. However, microwave heating
occurs due to molecular vibration causing the heat to flow from the core to the surface of the
material. Here, with the use of susceptor, the bidirectional heating capability is utilized for
product development. The diffusion process of the reinforcing elements with the matrix is
provided in Fig. 1.2. In a similar context, Reddy et al. [11] demonstrated that the use of mi-
crowave sintering and hot extrusion process for the development of Al/Al2O3 composite
causes minimal defects in the composite phase with improved properties. A comparison
of obtained density and porosity of the fabricated composite material is provided in
Table 1.1. From Table 1.1 it is evident that the obtained density for the Al/Al2O3 composite
exhibits nearly fully dense microstructure with minimal porosity level. The minimal porosity
in the composite material exhibits higher hardness, tensile strength, and compressive
strength [11]. In a similar exploration, Bhoi et al. [12] explained the behavior and manufactur-
ing capabilities of Al and ZnO nanorods for different functional applications using micro-
wave sintering. A very small fraction of ZnO nanorods in the composite exhibits better
mechanical properties compared to monolithic Al. The effective diffusion of reinforcement
and hybrid sintering techniques shows the unique capabilities for material fabrication [12].

1.3.1.2 Microwave casting

Development of near net shape products with microwave energy offers greater
flexibility, e.g., production of a large number of products with complex shape. In general,
the microwave casting setup consists of susceptor material, pouring basin, sprue, and insu-
lating medium. The insulation protects unwanted heat loss and damage to the applicator unit.
Fig. 1.3 exhibits a schematic representation of an in situ microwave casting process. In the
initial stage of the exposure, the microwave energy is absorbed by pouring basin (i.e., typi-
cally microwave-susceptible material) and the material is conventionally heated by slowly
raising the temperature. The thin native layer of oxide formed in the Al alloy limits the melt-
ing of the material during the conventional heating process. However, the oxide layer is trans-
parent to the incident microwave radiation which allows the interaction of bulk material with
microwaves [9, 12]. Also, the earlier published results suggest that the oxide layer helps in
improving the microwave absorption due to its good dielectric loss factor [13]. After a certain
amount of microwave interaction and beyond critical temperature the bulk metallic material
starts to melt with the disintegration of the formed oxide layer. The final regime is the self-
pouring zone of the molten metal where the oxide layer separates, and material flow occurs
through the sprue. Singh et al. [14] reported the possibility of the casting utilizing household
microwave oven for nickel (Ni) and silicon carbide (SiC) powder material. In the microwave
casting process, the powder charcoal material is used as the susceptor material. The achieved
material exhibits good material properties with uniformly distributed reinforcement phase
[14]. In a similar context, in situ microwave casting (MWC) was successfully carried out
for Al-Zn-Mg alloy (Al-7039) material. The MWC process was carried out with the help of
a microwave applicator of 1400 W at an operating frequency of 2.45 GHz. A detailed sketch
of the process illustrating the possible mechanism during the MWC is shown in Fig. 1.4.
The bulk metallic material reflects the microwave energy at room temperature. The use of

I. Manufacturing
FIG. 1.2 Schematic representation of the different heating mode and evolution in the grain structure of the material. The increase in the temperature
causes improved diffusion between the reinforcement and the matrix material.
 1.3 Description of the process and working principle 9
TABLE 1.1 Density and porosity measurements of pure Al and Al-Al2O3 composites.
Reinforcement Density properties
3
Material Wt.% Vol.% Theoretical density (g/cm ) Measured density (g/cm3) Porosity (%)
Pure Al 0 0 2.7 2.68 0.74
Al-5 vol.%Al2O3 6.54 5 2.76 2.72 1.45
Al-10 vol.%Al2O3 12.87 10 2.82 2.75 2.48
Al-15 vol.%Al2O3 19.00 15 2.88 2.78 3.47
Data taken from M. Penchal Reddy, F. Ubaid, R.A. Shakoor, V.M. Gururaj Parande, A.M.A. Mohamed, Effect of reinforcement concentration on
the properties of hot extruded Al-Al2O3 composites synthesized through microwave sintering process, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 696 (2017) 60–69.
https://doi.org/1098765432 with kind permission from Elsevier.

susceptor medium around the metallic part helps in achieving the critical temperature of
within a very short period. Once, the critical temperature is achieved within the material,
it starts to melt with the interaction of microwave radiations. The pouring in the mold mate-
rial is further achieved from the molten state of the bulk part [15].

1.3.1.3 Microwave hot pressing

Microwave-assisted pressing utilizes the heating capability of the microwave radiation
along with the compaction of the powder material. The nonuniformity in the relative density
and grain coarsening during the conventional pressing and sintering limits the mechanical
and tribological properties. As described in Section 1.3.1.1, microwave hybrid sintering im-
proves the performance of the material by refining the grain structure and improving diffu-
sion at the particle-particle interface. In the case of microwave hot pressing, minimal porosity
and uniform grain structure can be achieved in a short time compared to pressureless
sintering techniques [16, 17]. During microwave hot pressing the powder material is pressed
and exposed to microwave radiation. The schematic representation of a microwave hot press-
ing arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.3. The setup consists of susceptor material and press ar-
rangement for the development of a composite material. The susceptor material is used for
coupling and external heating in the microwave radiation. A comparative assessment of
the sintering temperature and compaction pressure shows that microwave hot pressing re-
quires 10 times less pressure for maintaining uniform and dense microstructure. Under sim-
ilar manufacturing conditions, microwave hot pressing exhibits better relative density and
mechanical properties compared to conventional hot pressing. In a study Al/4 wt% Al2O3
exhibited 90 and 175 GPa whereas conventional hot press material exhibited 80 and
135 GPa elastic modulus and micro-Vickers hardness, respectively. The application of pres-
sure helps in achieving reduced grain size compared to pressureless microwave sintering
approach [16].

I. Manufacturing
FIG. 1.3 Working schematic representation of the microwave casting and microwave hot pressing arrangements.
 Microwave exposure
(2.45 GHz) Conventional heating (CH)
Reflected MW
Microwave hybrid heating
Absorbed MW
MW Microwave
No MW
energy CH up to
In-situ Bulk absorption T =Tc Melting
Cast
casting metal/ In-situ pouring In-situ cast
Solidification
set up Alloy T<Tc T>Tc

Heat transfer by
MW energy conduction
absorption
Pouring basin

Microwave exposure Self pouring and solidification

FIG. 1.4 Schematic illustration of the in situ microwave casting process. Adapted from R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, On mechanism of in-situ microwave casting
of aluminium alloy 7039 and cast microstructure. Mater. Des. 112 (2016) 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.09.041 with kind permission from Elsevier.
12 1. Futuristic synthesis strategies for aluminum

1.3.2 Spark plasma sintering process

Spark plasma sintering (SPS) consists of mechanically and electrically assembled special
arrangements for the development of small components. In the case of SPS specially arranged
electrically conductive die and punch system is utilized for the sintering of the desired ma-
terial under a constrained environment. A typical arrangement for the SPS process is shown
in Fig. 1.5. During processing with SPS compaction, pressure in the range of 50–300 kN and
electrical current in the range of 1–10 kA are applied over the die punch as per the desirability.
Very fast heating rate, low processing time, and uniform densification at comparatively low
temperature are achieved through SPS process. By increasing the compaction pressure, small
powder agglomeration can be largely rectified allowing homogeneous densification and
grain growth [18, 19]. The processing of different reinforcement and Al has been explored
by the several researchers utilizing SPS and different secondary characterization methods
such as hot extrusion, accumulative roll bending, etc. [20–22]. On a similar exploration, Chen
et al. [20] reported the SPS processing and hot extrusion of multiwalled carbon nanotube
(MWCNT) with Al as matrix phase. The dispersed phase of MWCNT, formation of secondary
phases during the processing and nearly fully dense microstructure of the developed material
can be widely utilized for different functional applications in aerospace and automotive com-
ponents [20]. Strong interfacial bonding, uniform and fully dense microstructure, and effec-
tive diffusion in case of SPS lead to greater and higher structural integrity and improved
material property.

1.3.3 Friction stir processing

In the case of friction stir processing (FSP) with the help of external tooling arrangement
intense localized plastic deformation is done on the exposed work material. The tool may be
consumable and nonconsumable depending on the applications. The intense plastic deforma-
tion over the exposed surface generates uniform and dense microstructure resulting in better

FIG. 1.5 Working schematic representation

of a FAST/SPS apparatus. Adapted from O.
Guillon J. Gonzalez-Julian, B. Dargatz, T.
Kessel, G. Schierning, J. R€
athel, et al. Field-assisted
sintering technology/spark plasma sintering: Mecha-
nisms, materials, and technology developments,
Adv. Eng. Mater. 16 (2014) 830–849. https://doi.
org/10.1002/adem.201300409. Open access article
published on advanced engineering material (Wiley
Publication) permission not required.

I. Manufacturing
 1.3 Description of the process and working principle 13
FIG. 1.6 Schematic drawing of the fric-
Torque Mz
tion stir processing process and a tool [32].
Axial force Fz Taken from M.S. Węglowski, Friction stir
processing—state of the art, Arch. Civil Mech.
Shoulder
Rotating direction Eng. 18 (1) (2018) 114–129. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.acme.2017.06.002 with kind permission
e from Elsevier.
sid Pin
ci ng
van F y
Ad ad rce
Be se
fo ide Side force Fx
ver gs
Tra eatin
ng tr
elli Re
Tav ction line
dire ter
Ce

material properties. A schematic representation of the FSP and a tool arrangement is provided
in Fig. 1.6. During FSP a rotating tool is attached to the work surface and made traverse in a
specified direction. The main processing parameters that affect FSP are as follows:
• Traveling and rotational speed of the tool material.
• Depth of penetration and tilting angle of the tool material.
• Attaching elements and different modifying agent on the surface.
• Geometrical arrangements and tool dimensions.
FSP is now widely used for the development of surface composite due to unique charac-
teristics and performance over the conventionally processed material. For the development of
surface composites and wear resistance property, Al and its alloy materials utilizes soft
tooling and different alloying elements [23]. As FSP works on the principle of intense plastic
deformation on the exposed zone this method is well suited for the refinement of grain struc-
ture for different nonheat-treatable allot materials. Yazdipour et al. [24] beautifully explained
the grain refining mechanism and microstructural model for Al5083 assuming initially as
coarse grain model. They suggested that cooling rate and tool rotation during processing play
a deterministic role in the development of different grain and subgrain boundaries [24].

1.3.4 Disintegrated melt deposition

Disintegrated melt deposition (DMD) combines two different conventional techniques (stir
casting and spray forming) for the development of different compositional elements. The
processing techniques involve the mixing of the matrix and reinforcement materials in a cru-
cible above supercritical temperature and deposit onto a metallic surface in the slurry form. In
this process, higher temperature and low velocity are utilized to deposit into the bulk mate-
rial. The schematic representation of the DMD process is provided in Fig. 1.7. The setup con-
sists of resistance furnace, crucible, and stirrer unit. The molten and mixed slurry from the
crucible is poured into the metallic surface in the constrained environment. To avoid contam-
ination and oxidization in the slurry during pouring, an inert and protective environment is
used. Other supporting units such as nozzle and the temperature controller are used for the

I. Manufacturing
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 SAUCKEL: No, for the workers were used in those economic
branches for which they had been demanded, and they had nothing
at all to do with the OKW.
DR. NELTE: Thank you very much.
THE PRESIDENT: Do any members of the Prosecution wish to
cross-examine?
M. JACQUES B. HERZOG (Assistant Prosecutor for the French
Republic): Defendant Sauckel, you joined the National Socialist
Party in 1925, didn’t you? Is that correct?
SAUCKEL: I joined the National Socialist Party for the first time,
as an ordinary member, as early as 1923. When the Party was
reorganized in 1925 I again became a member.
M. HERZOG: But you had supported the policy of National
Socialism since 1921, had you not?
SAUCKEL: From 1921 onwards, I supported a German policy.
In 1921 I did not as yet belong to the Party. I knew about the Party,
and I was in sympathy with its ideas; that is probably the right way to
put it.
M. HERZOG: Did you not make speeches in favor of National
Socialism from that time on?
SAUCKEL: From about the middle of 1921 I made speeches in
favor of Germany, not expressly for the Party and only in a very
small way, at small gatherings, and as my conscience guided me.
M. HERZOG: You were Gauleiter, member of the Landrat,
Minister of the Interior, and Governor of Thuringia. Is it correct that in
this capacity you brought about the Nazification of your Gau?
SAUCKEL: I was Prime Minister of Thuringia from August 1932,
and I was Minister of the Interior as well.
M. HERZOG: I am asking you the question again: Is it correct
that, in your capacity as Gauleiter and Governor of Thuringia, you
brought about the Nazification of your Gau?
SAUCKEL: Nazification is a term with which I was neither
familiar nor do I consider it correct. I recruited for the National
Socialist Party and I supported it.
 M. HERZOG: You were Obergruppenführer of the organization
of the SS, were you not?
SAUCKEL: I do not quite understand. Of the SS?
M. HERZOG: You were an Obergruppenführer of the SS?
SAUCKEL: I already stated in my preliminary interrogation that I
was an honorary Obergruppenführer of the SS. I myself never
served in the SS, nor did I exercise any functions in the SS.
M. HERZOG: When did you become Obergruppenführer of the
SS?
SAUCKEL: As far as I remember I became an
Obergruppenführer of the SS in 1934.
M. HERZOG: And you were that until when?
SAUCKEL: Until the end.
M. HERZOG: Among the documents which you have presented
in your document book, there is Document Sauckel-95. I will read the
following passage on Page 252 of the French translation:
“My dear fellow countrymen, our magnificent SA and SS,
persecuted and insulted during a whole decade as the
scum of the German people, have carried through,
supported, and sustained this revolution with an unshakable
discipline....”
Is it correct...
THE PRESIDENT: From what are you reading?
M. HERZOG: From Document Sauckel-95 of the defendant’s
document book; Document Sauckel-95, which was submitted
yesterday by the learned counsel for the defense, Page 252 of the
French translation. It is in the third document book of the defendant.
THE PRESIDENT: Yes, go on.
M. HERZOG: I put the question again and read:
“My dear fellow countrymen, our magnificent SA and SS,
persecuted and insulted during a whole decade as the
scum of the German people, have carried through,
supported, and sustained this revolution with an unshakable
discipline....”
 Do you confirm this declaration?
SAUCKEL: Yes, but I request that I be shown the document in
cross-examination so that I can define my attitude in detail.
M. HERZOG: This document is taken from your own document
book, which you yourself submitted.
SAUCKEL: Yes, I remember it well.
M. HERZOG: Were the Nuremberg Laws concerning Jews in
accordance with your convictions?
SAUCKEL: I had no influence on legislation such as culminated
in the Nuremberg Laws. My conviction is that every nation and every
race has the right to exist and to demand respect and protection
through itself. What I demand and have demanded for my own
people is exactly the same.
M. HERZOG: Did you see to it that the Nuremberg Laws were
strictly applied in the Gau of Thuringia?
SAUCKEL: The Nuremberg Laws could apply to Thuringia only
insofar as my authority to appoint or dismiss employees was
involved; and, of course, according to German law, it was my duty to
carry out the law. The carrying out of this law by me entailed neither
ill-usage nor any other inhuman treatment.
M. HERZOG: Did you approve of Hitler’s theory of living space?
SAUCKEL: The Führer wrote about living space in his book.
How far I agreed or disagreed with him cannot, in my opinion, be
dealt with in this Trial, for I had no influence as to how the Führer
himself should interpret the word Lebensraum.
THE PRESIDENT: The Tribunal think that you must answer the
question, whether or not you approve of the doctrine of Lebensraum.
SAUCKEL: I am not fully acquainted with the statements made
by the Führer about the doctrine of Lebensraum. I should like to
emphasize that I never thought of Lebensraum in connection with
the carrying out of wars, or wars of aggression; neither did I promote
the idea; but the idea of Lebensraum is perhaps best brought home
to us by the fact that the population of Europe in the last 100 years
has increased threefold, from 150 million to 450 million.
 M. HERZOG: Did you, or did you not approve of the theory of
Lebensraum? Answer “yes” or “no.”
SAUCKEL: I did not agree with the theory of Lebensraum if it
had to do with wars of aggression.
M. HERZOG: Did you approve of Hitler’s theory of the master
race?
SAUCKEL: I could give abundant proof that I personally always
refused to emphasize the idea of a master race, and said so in my
speeches. I am personally much more interested in proficiency than
in ideas about a master race.
M. HERZOG: Then you did not think that the foreign policy of
Germany should have been conducted according to these two
theories; the theory of Lebensraum on the one hand, and the theory
of the master race on the other hand?
SAUCKEL: I have already stated to my counsel that I did not
concern myself with foreign policy and was not informed about it, as I
am not versed in matters of foreign policy.
M. HERZOG: On the contrary, did you not approve of all the
measures of foreign policy, and did you not participate in them?
THE PRESIDENT: Perhaps we had better break off now, and
you can repeat the question tomorrow.
[The Tribunal adjourned until 30 May 1946 at 1000 hours.]
 ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY-SECOND DAY
Thursday, 30 May 1946

Morning Session
[The Defendant Sauckel resumed the stand.]
PROFESSOR DR. FRANZ EXNER (Counsel for Defendant
Jodl): Mr. President, I should like to put a request to you. My client
comes next in order and he would like to be excused, if possible, this
afternoon and all day tomorrow, so that he can prepare his case.
THE PRESIDENT: Yes, certainly.
MARSHAL: May it please the Tribunal, the report is made that
the Defendant Von Papen is absent.
M. HERZOG: Defendant Sauckel, I was asking you yesterday
whether you considered that Germany’s foreign policy was based on
the Hitlerian theories concerning living space and the master race.
SAUCKEL: May I ask you to repeat the question? I did not quite
understand it in German.
M. HERZOG: I was asking you yesterday if you considered that
the foreign policy of Germany was based on the two Hitlerian
theories, Lebensraum and the master race.
SAUCKEL: I have understood—whether German foreign policy
was based on the principles of Lebensraum and the master race.
M. HERZOG: Yes, I am asking you to answer whether, in your
opinion, it was so.
SAUCKEL: Not on the principle of a master race. I should like to
be permitted to give an explanation of this.
I personally have never approved of the statements made by
some of the National Socialist speakers about a superior race and a
master race. I have never advocated that. As a young man I traveled
about the world. I traveled in Australia and in America, and I met
families who belong to the happiest memories of my life. But I loved
my own people and sought, I admit, equality of rights for them; and I
have always stood for that. I have never believed in the superiority of
one particular race, but I always held that equality of rights was
necessary.
M. HERZOG: That being so, you did not approve of the whole of
the foreign policy of Hitler; and you did not collaborate with him?
SAUCKEL: In answer to the question by my counsel I stated
that I never considered myself to be a politician as regards foreign
policy. I entered the Party by quite a different way and for quite
different motives.
M. HERZOG: Do you remember the declaration which you
made on 4 September 1945 to two American officers?
[Turning to the Tribunal.] This declaration is Document Number
3057-PS. It was submitted as Exhibit Number USA-223.
[Turning to the defendant.] You said the following:
“I have been a convinced National Socialist since 1921 and
agreed 100 percent with the program of Adolf Hitler. I
worked actively to that end; and during the period from
1921 until the assumption of power I made about 500
speeches, the sense and contents of which represented the
National Socialist standpoint. It was for me a particular
satisfaction to have raised the Gau of Thuringia to a
predominant position with regard to its National Socialist
views and convictions. Until the collapse I never doubted
Adolf Hitler, but obeyed his orders blindly.”
THE PRESIDENT: You are going a little bit too fast. This has
been read, M. Herzog. I do not think you need read all of it.
M. HERZOG: I would ask you then, Defendant Sauckel, if you
confirm the statements which were made under oath, voluntarily and
without any duress, on 4 September 1945, and which contradict
those that you made yesterday and which you have just made to me.
SAUCKEL: I confirm that my signature is appended to this
document. I ask the Tribunal’s permission to state how that signature
came about.
This document was presented to me in its finished form. I asked
to be allowed to read and study this document in my cell in
Oberursel and decide whether I could sign it. That was denied me.
During the conversation an officer was consulted who, I was told,
belonged to the Polish or Russian army; and it was made clear to me
that if I hesitated too long in signing this document I would be
handed over to the Russian authorities. Then this Polish or Russian
officer entered and asked, “Where is Sauckel’s family? We know
Sauckel, of course we will take him with us; but his family will have to
be taken into Russian territory as well.” I am the father of 10 children.
I did not stop to consider; and thinking of my family, I signed this
document.
When I returned to my cell, I sent a written message to the
commandant of the camp and asked permission to talk with him
alone on this matter. But that was not possible, because shortly
afterwards I was brought to Nuremberg.
M. HERZOG: Is not your signature at the end of this document
in which you declared that you “made the above declarations
voluntarily and without any duress”?
SAUCKEL: That is correct, but in this situation...
M. HERZOG: I think your explanation is sufficient.
THE PRESIDENT: Will you ask him whether he has read it now
and whether it is true.
M. HERZOG: I asked you a few moments ago, and I ask you
now: Are you ready to confirm that your statements are correct?
SAUCKEL: These statements are not correct in individual
points, and I asked that I might correct these various points; but I
was not given the time to do that.
On the last morning before I left I was told I could discuss this
matter in Nuremberg, and when I was interrogated here I told the
American officer about the matter.
THE PRESIDENT: M. Herzog, was this document read over in
the Tribunal during the prosecution?
M. HERZOG: This document was submitted under Exhibit
Number USA-223.
DR. SERVATIUS: Mr. President, as far as I recall this document
was not submitted. At the time I had a conversation with the
American representative of the Prosecution and told him about these
objections. He did not bring it up at a later session because of these
objections; and the President himself, at the conclusion, asked
whether this document would not be produced, and the prosecutor
said, “No. Having talked it over with the Defense, I will dispense with
this document.”
THE PRESIDENT: Well, you tell us that it wasn’t read over in
court.
DR. SERVATIUS: No, it was not read in court. At any rate I
would like to object to the admissibility of this document, for it was
given under duress.
THE PRESIDENT: Under these circumstances, M. Herzog, you
may cross-examine in what way you like upon the document. The
Tribunal was under the impression that it had already been read
over. That is why they stopped you reading it.
M. HERZOG: [Turning to the defendant.] In Paragraph 2 you
declared:
“After the putting into effect of the Nuremberg Laws, in
keeping with my convictions, I saw to it that all these laws
were fully carried out in the Gau of Thuringia.”
Paragraph 4:
“With regard to foreign policy I have been of the opinion that
the German people has a justified claim for living space in
Europe and by reason of their superior racial level have to
assume a leading position.... I agreed with all the decisions
taken by Hitler and the NSDAP concerning the means to be
used and the measures to be taken to obtain these ends,
and I collaborated actively in the execution of this plan.”
SAUCKEL: I could not follow your concluding sentences.
M. HERZOG: I will read it once more:
“...I agreed with all the decisions taken by Hitler and the
NSDAP concerning the means to be used and the
measures to be taken to obtain these ends, and I
collaborated actively in the execution of this plan.”
 I ask you to confirm whether you made these statements.
SAUCKEL: I certainly would not have made those statements in
the way I did, if I had been able to act freely and according to my
own will.
M. HERZOG: The Tribunal will consider it. Is it a fact that you
were appointed...
THE PRESIDENT: M. Herzog, the Tribunal thinks that the
document is before the witness and he should be asked to point out
in what way he says the document is wrong.
M. HERZOG: Defendant Sauckel, you heard what the President
has said. You say that this document does not correspond to the
truth. Will you kindly tell the Tribunal in what way it does not.
SAUCKEL: May I take this document point by point? I was 100
percent in agreement with the social program, and I told my counsel
that when he examined me.
THE PRESIDENT: Defendant, what the Tribunal wishes is that
you should take the document and point out, sentence by sentence,
what is wrong in it.
SAUCKEL: In Paragraph 1, the year 1921 is incorrect.
I became a member, as my first membership card shows, only in
1923 or 1925. Before the year 1923 I was in sympathy with the
Party.
As to being 100 percent in agreement with Adolf Hitler’s
program, I meant 100 percent insofar as the program appeared to
me to be justified legally and constitutionally, and according to ethics
and morality.
Just how many meetings I conducted I cannot say. My speeches
and lectures were based mainly on my life and on my experiences.
Those were the only things that I could talk about, and I wanted to
reconcile the German social classes and the German professions to
National Socialist ideology.
THE PRESIDENT: Defendant, I have pointed out to you that
what the Tribunal desires is for you to take the document and say
what sentences in it are wrong, and not to make speeches.
 SAUCKEL: In my eyes, all the sentences are wrong. I would not
have put them that way if I myself had been able to formulate them.
The way they stand, I dispute each and every sentence, for I did not
write them and I was not consulted. These sentences were put
before me as they are now.
DR. SERVATIUS: Mr. President, may I be permitted to give an
explanation of this matter? This statement is practically a summary
of all the interrogations in which the various points appear as a
confession in the sense of the Indictment. The defendant could not
say a word in his own defense if this were correct. Since it is a
résumé and since conclusions can be drawn from it, he must have
the opportunity of refuting these conclusions; and that necessitates a
statement. These are not definite facts which can be answered with
“yes” or “no.”
THE PRESIDENT: The defendant has just said that the whole
document is wrong, and he has also said that the document was
obtained from him under duress.
DR. SERVATIUS: Yes.
THE PRESIDENT: And it is therefore not any use to go through
it in detail. But the Tribunal would like to hear from the American
Prosecution if they have anything to say about the matter.
MR. DODD: I do not have a copy of the document before me in
English, but I...
THE PRESIDENT: You see, Mr. Dodd, M. Herzog has said that it
was offered in evidence under the Exhibit Number USA-223.
MR. DODD: My recollection is that—I will check the record, Mr.
President—my recollection is that in the presentation of the case on
Slave Labor, we included this in our document book but did not offer
it in evidence. I think I said to the Tribunal at the time that we had
decided not to offer it. It had been printed and put in the document
book.
My memory may be faulty, but my recollection is, Mr. President,
that the President of the Tribunal asked me if I did not intend to offer
it, and I then stated that we had thought it over and decided not to
use it.
 THE PRESIDENT: I do not understand how it gets an exhibit
number if it isn’t offered in evidence.
MR. DODD: I don’t either. I think it is an error.
THE PRESIDENT: I see. Mr. Dodd, do you know whether this is
a résumé or a summary of a number of interrogations which were
taken?
MR. DODD: My understanding is to the contrary. I think it was
taken before the Defendant Sauckel was in Nuremberg and before
any interrogations were conducted on the part of the interrogation
division of the American Prosecution.
THE PRESIDENT: Were you aware Dr. Servatius was objecting
to the document on the ground that it was obtained under duress?
MR. DODD: My recollection is that at the time of the
presentation of the Slave Labor case Dr. Servatius made some
objection, and I think that is what brought the matter up at that time;
and that is why we did not use it.
THE PRESIDENT: Very well. Then you had better pass from it.
M. HERZOG: [Turning to the defendant.] You were appointed
Plenipotentiary General for the Allocation of Labor by an ordinance
of 21 March 1942?
SAUCKEL: Yes, that is correct.
M. HERZOG: Is it correct to say that this decree was
countersigned by the Codefendant Keitel?
SAUCKEL: The decree, I believe, was countersigned three
times. I believe that is right. At the moment I cannot confirm it with
certainty.
M. HERZOG: Would you kindly explain to the Tribunal under
what circumstances you were appointed to that office?
SAUCKEL: I answered that question when it was put to me by
my counsel yesterday. It was a surprise to me.
M. HERZOG: Did Speer, the Reich Minister for Armaments,
have anything to do with your appointment?
SAUCKEL: I cannot tell you that from my own knowledge.
Bormann’s announcement said it was at the suggestion of Speer; but
I cannot tell you that from my own knowledge.
 M. HERZOG: Do you recollect having made any statement on
that subject in your interrogation on 12 September 1945?
SAUCKEL: At this moment I cannot remember the statement.
M. HERZOG: On 12 September 1945 you were interrogated by
Major Monigan; and you appear to have stated the following—the
Tribunal will find this on the first page of the extracts of the
interrogatory which has been handed them:
“In March 1942 I was summoned rather suddenly by
Minister Speer, who had been appointed a short while
previously. Speer told me that it was urgent that I should
assume...”
THE PRESIDENT: Could you move those papers away from the
light; you cannot see the light which is constantly going on.
M. HERZOG: “...Speer told me that it was urgent that I
should assume new functions in connection with the
question of labor. A few days later he asked me to go with
him to general headquarters, and I was introduced to the
Führer who told me that I must accept this new appointment
without fail.”
Do you confirm that statement?
SAUCKEL: It is correct; only I cannot say whether that was
before a decision—whether my appointment was previously
arranged before these meetings through the initiative of some other
gentlemen; but except for that, the facts are correct.
M. HERZOG: But you confirm that the Defendant Speer,
Minister for Armament and War Production, took you to Hitler’s
headquarters on the occasion of your appointment.
SAUCKEL: Yes, that is correct.
M. HERZOG: Yesterday your counsel submitted a chart showing
the general organization of your service and how it was connected
with the other organizations of the Reich. You declared that chart
was correct. I would ask you to confirm, by saying “yes” or “no,”
whether you think that chart is correct.
SAUCKEL: According to my own personal recollection, yes.
 M. HERZOG: Have you that chart in front of you?
SAUCKEL: No, I have not.
M. HERZOG: It is the document which was handed up
yesterday by your counsel showing the different offices.
THE PRESIDENT: Which chart is it?
M. HERZOG: It is Chart Number 1, indicating how Sauckel’s
department dovetailed with the other ministerial services.
[Turning to the defendant.] Will you look at Column 6 starting
from the left, the column above which there is the name of the
Defendant Funk? Have you found it?
SAUCKEL: Yes.
M. HERZOG: Would you go down that column, the third square,
representing the armament inspectors? Is it correct that the
armament inspectors, as shown here, were under the Defendant
Funk?
SAUCKEL: Under Funk? Which department do you mean,
which division? That is not quite correct here. It should be moved a
bit to the side. Later it was under Speer. It says Reichsautobahn and
highway inspectors. That did not come under Funk. That is a
mistake.
M. HERZOG: Do you see the square beside that one, which
connects the Plenipotentiary General for the Allocation of Labor with
the directorate of the Reichsautobahn service. It is the square on the
right-hand side, a little above the others. Should it be connected with
the Reichsautobahn service? Should it not be with the square above,
inspectors of armaments?
SAUCKEL: Yes; I cannot understand how this mistake could
happen in this chart. I have not seen this diagram before. This is the
first time I have seen it; that is a mistake. I did not know about that.
M. HERZOG: And you stated it was accurate without having
examined it beforehand, is that so?
SAUCKEL: I assumed it to be the same chart as the one which
was put before me as complete.
DR. SERVATIUS: Mr. President, when I presented this chart
yesterday, I mentioned that there might be a few discrepancies.
These discrepancies came in when it was being mimeographed. But
I did not see the final...
THE PRESIDENT: Dr. Servatius, you can ask any questions if
you want to in re-examination, but there is no ground for objection to
questions which have been put. The questions are perfectly proper.
M. HERZOG: Defendant, you did take part in the conferences of
the Central Planning Board of the Four Year Plan?
SAUCKEL: Only in some of them, when labor problems were
being discussed.
M. HERZOG: Will you please tell the Tribunal which of your
colleagues accompanied you or represented you at such
conferences?
SAUCKEL: That varied—Dr. Timm, Dr. Hildebrandt, Dr.
Stothfang; but it varied.
M. HERZOG: Who among the other defendants also
participated in those conferences? Can you tell us?
SAUCKEL: I can recall with certainty only Herr Speer as being
one who participated in these conferences. Whether Herr Funk
actually participated, I really cannot remember any particular
meeting. Perhaps he did, and perhaps not. I am sorry I cannot say
for certain.
M. HERZOG: And the Defendant Göring?
SAUCKEL: At the meetings of the Central Planning Board I
personally never saw the Reich Marshal. I do not know whether
certain conferences which were held at his place had strictly to do
with the Central Planning Board. Some conferences in which he
participated took place at Karinhall, but whether they dealt with
matters concerning the Central Planning Board I cannot say. It was
not always clear.
M. HERZOG: But when the Defendants Göring and Funk did not
take part in these meetings were they not represented there?
SAUCKEL: The Reich Marshal was represented by Field
Marshal Milch, but whether Reich Minister Funk was represented I
cannot remember exactly. He might have been represented by Herr
Kehrl or someone else. There were many gentlemen there; I did not
know all of them personally.
M. HERZOG: Is it not correct to say that, at these conferences
of the Central Planning Board of the Four Year Plan, the general
decisions concerning the allocation of labor were made by all the
people who were present or were represented?
SAUCKEL: At the Central Planning Board no general decisions
were made. The demands were made known there and, as there
was nearly always a dispute, the higher authorities had to decide;
generally it was the Führer. That happened frequently.
M. HERZOG: The Central Planning Board had established a
collaboration between you and the other defendants who were
present or represented there, is that not so?
SAUCKEL: That collaboration did not originate there, as those
questions had already been discussed before the formation of this
Central Planning Board. The questions were also discussed there,
and demands were submitted and discussed.
M. HERZOG: Will you please take Document Number R-124. It
has already been submitted to the Tribunal under Exhibit Number
USA-179. You will see therein a declaration which you made at the
meeting of 1 March 1944. I read:
“My duty towards the Führer...”
SAUCKEL: Will you please tell me the page from which you are
reading?
M. HERZOG: Page 1780. The place is no doubt marked.
“My duty towards the Führer, the Reich Marshal, Minister
Speer, and you, gentlemen, as well as towards agriculture,
is clear; and I will fulfill it. As a start we have already
262,000 new workers; and I hope and am firmly convinced
that I shall obtain most of what has been asked. The labor
will have to be distributed, of course, according to the
needs of German armament first, and secondly, German
industry as a whole; and I shall always be prepared,
gentlemen, to see to it that closest contact is constantly
maintained here and that closest collaboration is given by
 the subordinated labor exchanges, as well as by the Gau
labor exchanges.”
Therefore, you do not contest the fact that the Central Planning
Board did establish collaboration among the various services which
recruited manpower, because you yourself asked for this
collaboration.
SAUCKEL: I did not deny that there was collaboration.
Collaboration is necessary in every regime and in every system.
Here we were not concerned with foreign labor only, but chiefly with
German labor, even at that period. I did not dispute the fact that work
was being carried on; but final decisions were not always made
there. That is what I wanted to say.
M. HERZOG: It is correct that you appointed delegates to
represent you in the various German administrative departments?
SAUCKEL: I did not have representatives in the various
administrative departments. I had liaison men, or else the
administrative departments had liaison men in my office.
M. HERZOG: Did you not have such a liaison officer with the
Defendant Speer, Minister for Armaments and War Production?
SAUCKEL: The man who was constantly with Speer was not a
liaison officer, but the man who talked over with the Minister
questions of demand, et cetera, which were pending. As far as I
remember it was a Herr Berk.
M. HERZOG: And did you have a liaison officer with the Reich
Minister of Labor?
SAUCKEL: I had no liaison officer with the Reich Minister of
Labor. There were two departments in the Reich Ministry of Labor
which concerned themselves with these problems in an
administrative capacity.
M. HERZOG: In your interrogatory of 12 September 1945 you
said as follows—the Tribunal will find it on Pages 6 and 7 of the
interrogatory:
“ ‘I had moreover two officials who acted as intermediaries
between Minister Speer and the Ministry of Labor.’
 “Question: ‘Did this liaison officer establish a connection
between your Ministry, Minister Speer, and the Ministry of
Labor?’
“Answer: ‘Between me, Minister Speer, and the Ministry of
Labor...’ ”
SAUCKEL: Will you please tell me the page?
M. HERZOG: Pages 4 and 5. Have you found it?
SAUCKEL: Yes.
M. HERZOG: “Between me, Minister Speer, and the Ministry of
Labor...”
THE PRESIDENT: That is surely Page 6, is it not? You said
Pages 4 and 5. It is Page 6, is it not?
M. HERZOG: Page 4 of the German extract, My Lord.
THE PRESIDENT: Oh, I see.
M. HERZOG: “Between me, Minister Speer, and the
Ministry of Labor there were two counsellors, Dr. Stothfang
... and Landrat Berk. They were jurists and experts in
national economy. Dr. Stothfang was commissioned to act
principally as liaison officer with the Ministry of Labor...”
Why did you tell me a few minutes ago that you had no liaison
officer with the Ministry of Labor?
SAUCKEL: I made it quite clear that there were two
departments which belonged to the Ministry of Labor, Departments 3
and 5; and this Ministerialrat Dr. Stothfang was formerly the personal
assistant to State Secretary Syrup. In a few isolated cases he had
discussions with State Secretary Syrup at my request, that is true;
but these were not important. In general the departments themselves
were in touch with the Ministry of Labor.
M. HERZOG: You confirm then, that you had a liaison officer at
the Ministry of Labor and another in Minister Speer’s office?
SAUCKEL: I confirm that for occasional conferences. But these
gentlemen were attached to those departments, and they came to
me as my personal consultants and did not work in that Ministry. I
cannot say either whether in this case the translation is correct. I do
not remember exactly, but in principle it is correct.
But these gentlemen worked with me.
M. HERZOG: And will you please tell the Tribunal what the
Stabsbesprechung was?
SAUCKEL: Stabsbesprechung was a conference on technical
questions in which the various ministries or industrial employers
participated who needed labor and the questions which had to be
considered were discussed. I could not act independently, of course,
as you have heard.
M. HERZOG: Who instituted these conferences, this new
arrangement, these staff conferences? Who took the initiative in
instituting them?
SAUCKEL: These staff conferences were instituted by me in
order to obtain a clear conception of all these important questions,
because in no regime or government in the world can anything be
done in the dark.
M. HERZOG: You confirm then that these various kinds of
liaison imply a common responsibility as to decisions taken by each
one of you in the matter of manpower?
SAUCKEL: This question is not clear to me technically or
administratively, for I could not do anything with the workers. I had to
give them to other people, and I had to discuss the way this was to
be done. But these conferences did not take place with the idea of a
conspiracy or of a criminal act; they were the same kind of
conferences as formerly took place. I have been present at
conferences under a parliamentary system, and matters were dealt
with in exactly the same way.
M. HERZOG: That is not what I was asking you. I was asking
you whether you confirmed that the existence of these liaison
officers to Minister Speer and the Minister of Labor, on the one hand,
and the existence of this new organization that you created, on the
other hand, implied a common responsibility in the decisions
regarding manpower taken by Minister Speer, the Minister of Labor,
and by you?
 SAUCKEL: I cannot answer this question with a definite “no,” as
orders were given to me which, as a German official, I had to carry
out in this case; and in order to carry them out I had to hold
conferences. It was not possible to do otherwise, for it was not I
personally, but German economy, that demanded and used these
workers. This matter had to be settled in some way, regardless of
whether German or other workers were concerned; and the same
situation applied in normal times.
M. HERZOG: Is it a fact that, after you were appointed, you
were authorized to be represented by special representatives in the
military and civil departments of the occupied areas?
SAUCKEL: After 30 October—I cannot state the exact date—at
the instigation of the Führer, I appointed representatives to the
governments in the occupied countries. I mentioned this yesterday
through my counsel.
M. HERZOG: The 30th of October? I think you mean the decree
of 30 September 1942. It is a mistake on your part for the decree is
dated 30 September.
SAUCKEL: I am sorry, I do not know the exact date.
M. HERZOG: Is it right that these representatives, appointed by
that decree, were directly subordinate to you?
SAUCKEL: Insofar as they were my delegates, that is, for the
passing on of orders, they were subordinate to me.
M. HERZOG: Is it true that they were authorized to give
directives to the civilian and military authorities in the occupied
territories?
SAUCKEL: That is correct as far as orders were concerned, but
it is not true in general. It was a technical matter.
M. HERZOG: Who was your delegate with the occupation
authorities in France?
SAUCKEL: The delegate with the occupation authorities in
France was, first of all, President Ritter; he was murdered in Paris.
And after him, President Glatzel.
M. HERZOG: Did you have a representative in Belgium?
 SAUCKEL: In Belgium I had a delegate by the name of Schulze;
he was with the military commander.
M. HERZOG: And in Holland?
SAUCKEL: In Holland there were various men. First of all, Herr
Schmidt, and there was another man; I believe his name was
Ritterbusch, or something like that, but I do not recall the exact
name.
M. HERZOG: This system of representatives with the
occupation authorities, was that approved of by Defendant Speer?
SAUCKEL: This was at the instigation of the Führer, and I
assume that Speer agreed. He recommended it, as far as I know.
M. HERZOG: To your knowledge, did he take any initiative in the
decree issued by the Führer concerning this matter?
SAUCKEL: Yes. He was present and he recommended it.
M. HERZOG: In your interrogatory you said, when speaking
about these representatives, that Speer instituted these agencies for
manpower in 1941 or 1942. The Tribunal will find this statement on
Page 9 of the excerpts from the interrogatory. What do you
understand by that sentence?
SAUCKEL: I did not quite understand you.
M. HERZOG: I shall read an extract of your interrogation of 8
October 1945.
“Question: ‘What was the mission entrusted to your
representatives in the labor offices of the military
commander and of the civil governor? Did they merely give
technical advice to the military authorities, which could be
rejected at any time by the latter, or did they have authority
to give directives to the military commanders on technical
questions?’ ”
THE PRESIDENT: On what page is that?
M. HERZOG: Page 9, Mr. President.
“Answer: ‘In 1941 or 1942 Speer instituted this delegation
for manpower.’ ”