A report on “Durability Design of Concrete Structures”

Submitted by: Pragya (23RB918)

Concrete, a material known for its strength and versatility, is the most fundamental material in modern
construction. However, a critical concern is the durability of concrete i.e. its ability to withstand various
environmental and load conditions over time. Addressing factors leading to deterioration like chloride intrusion,
carbonation, physical wear ensures longevity and integrity of concrete structures.
During regular train operations on June 27, 1999, a section of the concrete ceiling weighing 250kg in the
Fukuoka tunnel, a part of JR Kyushu, spalled and fell on the tracks. Concrete in the Fukuoka tunnel between
Kokura and Hakata in JR Sanyo Shinkansen line flaked off. The flake directly hit a Hikari Shinkansen train
running in the tunnel, and the roof of rolling stock and part of the pantograph were damaged. Because of this
accident, West Japan Railway Co. checked all tunnels of Sanyo Shinkansen line and made the safety
announcement. But after about 3 months, it was found that concrete mass had fallen on the line of the
Kitakyushu tunnel in the same section.

The incident caused significant disruptions to train services and raised concerns about safety of tunnel
infrastructure. The cause of the accident of the Fukuoka tunnel was the inconsecutive plane of the concrete,
which is called cold joint (CJ). Throughout construction, curing, and use, the crack was generated in the inside
of the CJ, and it developed, and it seemed to cause the flaking. In the case of the accident of the Kitakyushu
tunnel, a protuberant pouring mouth established by the construction process was not removed after completion
of the tunnel, and was left as it was. For some reasons such as subsidence of the side wall, the crack between the
projection and the side wall occurred. Then, the crack developed from water leaks, temperature changes, train
vibrations, etc. in the long term, and it finally fell because of the dead weight. The affected section was halted
for train operations and reinforced, and several additional measures were implemented to enhance safety and
prevent future occurrences.
JR-East countermeasures against spalling of concrete from railway viaducts:
1. Inspection and monitoring - regular visual inspections and using infrared cameras to detect potential
spalling areas
2. Continuous monitoring of areas prone to concrete degradation and corrosion.
3. Immediate and timely removal of deteriorated concrete to prevent further damage
4. Ensuring adequate cover thickness for reinforcements, with a minimum cover thickness of 30mm.
Using spacer bars for transverse reinforcement to maintain adequate spacing
5. Using fiber sheets to protect vulnerable concrete areas
6. Improving construction techniques for continuous concreting to prevent cold joint formation
7. Using epoxy-coated reinforcing steel bars to prevent corrosion
8. Using non-destructive testing methods to detect early-stage defects and ensure construction quality.
There are various important key factors in durability design.
1. Chloride intrusion: It is one of the primary causes of reinforcement corrosion. The chloride ions, often
from use of de-icing agents or from sea-water, can penetrate concrete and disrupt the protective oxide
layer on steel reinforcement, leading to corrosion. These chloride ions penetrate concrete primarily
through diffusion, capillary suction and permeation. The ingress rate depends upon concrete’s porosity
and permeability. This corrosion leads to expansion of rust products further leading to cracking and
spalling of concrete cover.
2. Carbonation: is a process in which CO2 from the atmosphere reacts with calcium hydroxide in the
concrete to form calcium carbonate. This reduces the alkalinity of the concrete, resulting in corrosion of
steel reinforcement. It typically progresses inwards from the surface of the concrete.
3. Thermal and shrinkage stresses: are major factors affecting the durability of concrete structures.
Thermal stresses arise from temperature variations and loss of moisture from concrete. These stresses
 induce cracking, which serves as pathway for chlorides and carbon dioxide to act on it, reducing the
load bearing capacity of concrete and hence, making them susceptible to environmental attack. Concrete
structures expand and contract with temperature variation. During the hydration process, heat is
generated, leading to thermal gradients within the concrete leading to early age thermal cracking. Cyclic
thermal stresses arise from long term exposure to seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations and may
result in fatigue cracking. Shrinkage stresses may occur shortly after placing concrete due to rapid
moisture loss from surface or due to loss of moisture over time or as a result of chemical reaction during
the hydration process.
4. Spalling and cracking: are common manifestations of durability issues and may be due to corrosion of
reinforcement or freeze thaw cycles or alkali silica reaction. All these result in internal stresses leading
to surface spalling. Cracking may occur due to excessive or uneven loads (shear cracks), shrinkage and
thermal stresses or poor construction practices like inadequate consolidation, curing or construction
joints.
Because of these key factors in durability design, the following design strategies should be followed:
1. Adequate cover thickness to reinforcement– should be ensured as it acts as a physical barrier against the
ingress of harmful substances. It depends upon the exposure conditions. High exposure to carbonation
or chloride attack may require higher cover thickness.
2. Use of high-performance materials – Using supplementary cementitious materials like fly ash, slag,
silica fume will enhance the durability of concrete as these materials help in refining the pore structure
of concrete and makes it less permeable to chlorides and other harmful agents. Similarly, slag cement
enhances resistance to chloride induced corrosion and has been effective in mitigating alkali silica
reaction.
3. Effective curing methods – will help the structure in achieving the intended strength and durability as it
ensures that hydration continues.
4. Various indicators and parameters are used to assess concrete quality like water-binder ratio (W/B),
curing conditions, environmental effects etc. They are crucial in determining the rate of penetration of
water and hence, the corrosion.
5. Traditional durability design focuses on carbonation, assuming higher corrosion rates in dry conditions.
However, the durability design method highlights that real structures experience higher corrosion in wet
conditions, thereby providing a realistic assessment of durability.
6. Life cycle cost analysis – in the design phase will help in selecting the most cost-effective measure. It
involves comparing the initial costs and long-term maintenance expenses of various design options to
ensure economic efficiency.
7. Regular monitoring and maintenance will help identify early signs of corrosion and will help in
addressing it properly. Further, advance measurement techniques to measure chloride content like
ultrasonic testing can help in assessing the condition of reinforcement and concrete. Methods like
cathodic protection can be used to mitigate ongoing corrosion.
The best example of durability design is the use of UFC panels and titan coating of steel pipes to prevent
corrosion in 4th runway of Tokyo International Airport. The UHPFRC slabs has the advantage of being light
weight and has less thickness resulting in reduction in overall weight of structure. Further, since the UHPFRC
slabs are highly durable, they reduce the maintenance cost bringing the overall cost of the project down. The
UHPFRC has a very high resistance against carbonation and chloride ion penetration contributing to its high
durability design.

Another example of robust durability design is the butterfly web structure used in Takubogawa bridge which
used butterfly shaped panels which acted as a double warren truss structure against shear force acting on the
web. The material used was high strength fiber reinforced concrete with prestressing steel in diagonal direction.
This was an innovative highly durable structure with a rapid construction rate, easy maintenance and reduced
risk of corrosion.
Specialized repair material like fiber-reinforced polymer cement mortar, developed by JR in collaboration with
DENKA, offers enhanced adhesion and reduced chloride content and moisture penetration and improves
durability and performance of repair works.