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MISOGYNY
MISOGYNY
The New Activism

G A I L U KO C K I S

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2019

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ukockis, Gail L., 1962– author.
Title: Misogyny: the new activism / Gail Ukockis.
Description: New York: Oxford University Press, 2019. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018024109 (print) | LCCN 2018037527 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780190876357 (updf) | ISBN 9780190876364 (epub) |
ISBN 9780190876340 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Misogyny. | Women—Psychology. | BISAC: SOCIAL SCIENCE /
Feminism & Feminist Theory.
Classification: LCC HQ1233 (ebook) | LCC HQ1233 .U56 2019 (print) |
DDC 303.3/85082—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018024109

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

This book is dedicated to my brothers Francis,
Timothy, and Martin because they taught me
the enduring power of male friendship.
 CONTENTS

Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii

1. Introduction: I’m a Feminist—​Now What? 1

The Resurgence of Misogyny 1
First Case Study: Amy Schumer and the Heckler 6
Silencing of Women 7
Public Sphere Versus Private Sphere 7
Sexual Harassment on the Job 9
Objectification 9
Beauty Bias 12
Second Case Study: Advertising 13
On Being a Scary Radical Feminist 16
Structure of the Book 21
Action Steps 24
2. A Closer Look at Misogyny 30
Introduction 30
v i i i |    C ontents

Gender Violence: Sex Trafficking 31

Silencing of Women 35
Public Sphere/​Private Sphere 36
Objectification 37
Beauty Bias 38
Why the Manosphere Matters 40
Capitalism on Steroids 40
Aggressive Behavior and Hostility Toward
Women 41
Men of the Manosphere, Can We Talk? 44
Sports Culture 45
Influence of Capitalism 45
Marginalization of Women 51
Social Implications of Sports Culture 53
Action Steps 56
3. Silencing of Women 62
Introduction 62
Women in Politics 64
Personal Attacks 64
Learning to Hate Hillary Clinton 65
Credibility 73
Action Steps 81
4. Intersectionality 89
Introduction 89
Trauma Background 93
Adverse Childhood Experience 93
Trauma as Adults 96
Racism and Trauma 98
The Angry Black Woman Stereotype 98
Native American Women 102
Latinas/​Latinx 104
Conclusion 106
Action Steps 107
 C ontents |   i x

5. When Masculinity Becomes Toxic 114

Introduction 114
Masculine Norms 118
Masculine Norm One: Desire to Win 118
Masculine Norm Two: Emotional Control 119
Masculine Norm Three: Risk-​Taking 125
Masculine Norm Four: Violence 126
Masculine Norm Five: Dominance 130
Masculine Norm Six: Playboy Behavior 133
Masculine Norm Seven: Self-​Reliance 135
Masculine Norm Eight: Primacy of Work 135
Masculine Norm Nine: Power over Women 136
Masculine Norm Ten: Disdain for
Homosexuals 137
Masculine Norm Eleven: Pursuit of Status 138
Action Steps 139
6. When a Culture Is Embedded with Rape 146
Introduction 146
Rape in Art 148
Male Dominance 153
Medieval Myths and Male Fantasy 153
Power of Language 155
Slut-​Shaming 157
Slut-​Shaming Is Nothing New 161
Clothing 162
Suicide 164
“Slut” as a Term of Female Empowerment 165
Action Steps 166
7. Pandora’s Jar: The Messy Politics of
Reproductive Health 174
Introduction 174
The Politics of Periods 178
x |    C ontents

Access to Supplies 179

Menstrual Pain 180
International Trends 182
Abortion Stories 188
Story of One Doctor and One Staff Member 188
Stories of Women Who Ended Their
Pregnancies 191
Stories of Regret 192
If Abortion Were Criminalized in the United
States 193
Final Thoughts 199
Action Steps 200
8. Reflections: The Inner Work of Activism 207
Working on Our Own Biases 207
Self-​Reflection for Thoughtful Activists 207
Beauty Bias 210
Implicit Bias and Ageism 215
Discomfort with Transgender Persons 220
9. Taking Action: The Outer Work of Activism 231
Introduction: Thoughtful Activism 231
Alliances with Other Movements 233
Labor Movement 233
Ecofeminism—​Women Fighting for
Environmental Survival 237
Political Tools 245
The Power of Writing 245
The Power of Oratory 250
The Power of Political Advocacy 255
10. Failure Is Impossible 266
Introduction 266
When Activism Works 269
Frances Perkins—​“You Just Can’t Be Afraid” 269
 C ontents |   x i

Pat Schroeder—​“She Wins, We Win” 273

Local Successes 276
Resurgence of Feminism 278
Fighting Sexual Harassment 278
Women Running for Office 282
Young Feminists 283
Iceland 284
Final Words 287

Index 297
 PREFACE

“I am going to depress the hell out of you!” That was what

I used to declare on the first day of my policy classes. In my
view, policy is the response to ongoing problems such as
poverty, racism, and climate change. Without studying the
problems first, one cannot work for social change.
However, the point of this book is not to depress the hell
out of you. Instead of spending money on such a grim book,
you would be better off buying a decent bottle of wine or
some gourmet chocolate. Yes, women’s rights have suffered
severe setbacks in the recent past. The resurgence of femi-
nism, though, has energized a wide range of people all over
the world. If you are concerned about the status of women,
you are certainly not alone.
Do you identify yourself as a feminist? I don’t care as long
as you buy or at least read this book. Friends advised me to
avoid the use of “feminist” in the title because it might scare
off some folks. The crisis facing women today is too urgent
to squabble over the “F” word. If you want to fight misogyny
x i v |    P reface

without calling yourself a feminist, go for it. Maybe call your-

self an anti-​misogynist instead, I don’t care. We still need you.
Honestly, the fact that I have written two books about
women’s issues has resulted in my new identity as a Scary
Feminist. When I tell somebody about my books, I get that
double-​take—​but you don’t look like a Scary Feminist. I do
not snarl, nor do I show any fangs. Hell, I even wear a bra. In
fact, I actually smile and joke around a lot. Sometimes their
surprised reaction is as extreme as if I had just grown an-
other head. But you’re a nice person, that look says.
Once at a holiday gathering, a friend introduced me to
the group. “This is Gail. She’s writing a book about women’s
issues but she’s not a feminist.”
I had to correct her. “Um, actually I am a feminist.”
“Well, you know what I mean! You don’t hate men or an-
ything like that.”
One part of me wanted to mention the pair of scissors
I carried around to castrate men, but I behaved myself.
Instead, I meekly agreed that I did not hate men or anything
like that.
As a Scary Feminist, I should have a solid understanding
of deconstructivist post-​humanism or whatever. My primary
identity, though, is not “feminist” but “writer/​activist” with a
keen awareness of social injustice. The oppression of women
is only one aspect of these injustices. Interrelationships have
always intrigued me, such as HIV prevention as related to
gender dynamics—​will or won’t he put on a condom?
My intellectual background is diverse. My senior honor
thesis was on T. S. Eliot’s “The Wasteland” (“April is the
cruelest month”). In my 20s, I had pursued a doctorate in
history. During those four years of graduate school, I co-​
authored a book about public works in Colorado (yes,
 P reface |   x v

I wrote the chapter on sewers!) and wrote my thesis about

the Vietnam War. Then I spent 10 years in the business world
working for finance and insurance companies. To rescue my
brain from “cubicle psychosis,” I wrote novels that never got
published.
When I had entered the social work field in my late
30s, I had no idea of what my specialty would be. I ended
up writing my dissertation on HIV/​AIDS after a field place-
ment in that area. It just happened. Like my interest in HIV/​
AIDS, the women’s issues textbook emerged because of
life circumstances. When I first started teaching at a small
university, I was lucky enough to develop my own course
in women’s issues that covered US and global concerns.
Unable to find a textbook to match my course, I wrote my
own. Teaching and writing about feminism, of course, have
strengthened my belief that gender equality is critical in
today’s world. Still, I probably never would have written that
book if I had been teaching at a larger school with its own
women’s studies faculty.
During my social work career, I have also worked
with several populations: homeless persons, TANF/​ wel-
fare recipients, and HIV-​positive persons. After a stint in
gerontology, now I am a drug counselor at a medication-​
assisted treatment clinic. Obviously, these experiences have
deepened my commitment to fighting injustices such as
misogyny.
What is misogyny anyway? I simply define it as the
hatred of women. (Don’t worry, Chapter 1 has a more in-​
depth discussion of this concept.) Unfortunately, the word
sounds too much like “massage” as in “massage therapy.”
When I would tell people that I was writing a book against
misogyny, I would sometimes get the stink eye. To all the
x v i |    P reface

massage therapists and clients out there—​it’s cool, I have

nothing against you.
You may wonder why you should even be buying this
book when that bottle of wine looks quite tempting. When
I was writing this book in 2017, I could not decide between
the songs “I Wanna Be Sedated” or “Comfortably Numb.” As
one Facebook post stated, “These days if a clown invited me
into the woods, I would just go.” When it comes to political
depression, I get it. Whimpering under a pillow can be one
way to cope with the recent political chaos.
Time’s up! (Okay, I misquoted Oprah here.) Get out of
bed or off the couch and exercise your rights! We have work
to do! You are going to be one kick-​ass (or genteel) advocate
for women now!
But where do we even begin? That question is why
I wrote this book. Thoughtful activism, not random actions,
will help us to fight misogyny.
Read. Discuss. Plan your actions. And remember: leave
the massage therapists alone—​unless they are misogynistic,
of course.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Writing this book has been both a joyful and aggravating ex-
perience. Many thanks to my friends and family who boosted
my endeavors this past year. At Oxford University Press, the
editors Dana Bliss and Andrew Dominello have been won-
derful. Dana Bliss was the one who had suggested this book
idea, so I hope that he is satisfied with the result.
Since its inception, the book project has involved several
in-​depth conversations with individuals and groups. These
community members helped me to develop my concepts and
provided me with striking insights. Without the folks listed
here, the book would have been sparser and less relevant.
Thank you!

• Members of COUNT (Central Ohio United Non-​

Theists) group who had a discussion on mascu-
linity: five men and three women
• Shirley Curtis, social worker in rural Ohio
x v i i i |    A cknowledgments

• Students from my social work classes at Sinclair

Community College and Wright State University
• Cara Iacovetta, artist
• Larry Meyers, retired mental health professional
• Anjel Stough-​Hunter (sociology professor) and her
friends
• Kari Higgins, social worker
• Laura Gaines, social worker
• Julie Hart, sociology professor and peace activist
• Phil Hart, carpenter
• Michel Coconis, social worker and hell-​raiser
• Miriam Potocky, social work professor
• Deona Hooper, activist
• Vickie Deisner, animal rights activist
• Ellen Muncy, hair stylist
• Dan O’Kane, corporate recruiter
• Joseph Ukockis, graduate student
• Paul Morgal, student
• Michele Blackford, social worker
• Julia D’Agostino, social worker
• Dorothy Martindale and Colleen Dempsey, National
Association of Social Workers
• Robin Mama, social work professor
• Susan Wismer, Sexual Assault Response Network of
Central Ohio
• Laura Hancock, journalist
• Ed Norwood, IT
• Writing group at Delaware Library
MISOGYNY
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
leaves, and the spikelets themselves are borne in either spikes or
panicles. The two (seldom more) lowest floral-leaves in each spikelet
(Fig. 289 øY, nY) are barren (as the covering-leaves in many umbels
and capitula); these are termed the glumes. The succeeding floral-
leaves, each of which supports one flower as its bract, are called the
outer pales (nI); these sometimes each bear an “awn” (a bristle-like
body which projects in the median line either from the apex or the
back); sometimes the upper ones are barren. Each flower has a
bracteole, which is placed on the inside opposite the main axis; it is
thin, binerved or two-keeled, and never has an awn; it is known as
the inner pale (øI). Immediately succeeding the bracteole are: (a)
some small, delicate scales (lodicules, Figs. 287 D, 288 C, 290 L);
(b) three stamens with anthers versatile, so as to be easily moved,
and usually notched at each end (Fig. 287 C); and (c) a simple
gynœceum formed of one carpel with two styles having generally
spirally-branched stigmas (Figs. 287 D, 288 C). The ovary is
unilocular, and contains one ascending or pendulous, anatropous
ovule. Fruit a nut, whose seed is always firmly united with the thin
pericarp (“caryopsis”). The embryo is larger than in the Cyperaceæ
and is placed at the base of the seed, but on the outer convex
surface of the pericarp (Figs. 287 I, 288 288 D, 291), outside the
endosperm; plumule large with several leaf-primordia. On
germination the cotyledon remains in the seed.
The majority of Grasses are annual or perennial herbs; tree-like
forms being only found in the Tropics, for example, the Bamboos;
they branch (in tufts), especially from the axils of the basal-leaves,
while those which are borne higher on the stem are separated by
longer internodes and have no vegetative branches in their axils,
though a few forms, like Bambusa and Calamagrostis lanceolata,
produce branches in these axils.
 Fig. 288.—Bromus mollis: A inflorescence;
B the uppermost flower of a spikelet, with its
axis turned forward; in front is seen the two-
keeled inner pale (bracteole) and the stamens
protrude between this and the outer pale
(bract); C an ovary with the 2 stigmas on its
anterior side, the 2 lodicules, and the 3
 stamens; D the fruit seen from the dorsal side;
E the same from the ventral side.

Fig. 289.—Diagrammatic outline of a spikelet: n Y

lower glume; ø Y upper glume; n I upper pale; ø I the
inner pale; l-l lodicules; st stamens; I-I main axes; II
lateral axes.
 Fig. 290.—Diagram of the Grass-
flower: ni outer pale; øi inner pale; l-l
lodicules.
 Fig. 291.—Longitudinal
section of an Oat-grain: a the skin
(pericarp and testa); b the
endosperm; c the cotyledon; d
the plumule.
Only a few Grasses have a solid stem, such as Maize, Sugar-cane, and
Andropogon. The blade is flat in the meadow-grasses, but the Grasses which live
on dry places (“prairie-grass”) exposed to the sun, often have the blade tightly
rolled up and almost filiform or bristle-like, with anomalous anatomical structure. A
closed tubular sheath is found in Melica uniflora, Bromus-species, Poa pratensis
and trivialis, Briza and some Glyceria-species. The sheath is developed for the
purpose of supporting the young internodes while their growth is proceeding at the
base. The “nodes” (the swollen joints which are seen on stems of Grasses) are not
really part of the stem but are formed by the base of the leaf-sheath. They play a
part in assisting the haulms to regain a vertical position when laid prostrate by
wind or rain. The awn on the pale is homologous with the blade of the Grass-leaf,
and the pale itself is the sheath. The arrangement of the leaves in the spikelet is
similar to that in Cyperus and other Cyperaceæ, their floral-leaves being borne in
several rows in Streptochæta. More than two barren “glumes” are found in
Streptochæta, several Phalarideæ and others. The spikelets, too, are again
arranged in two rows in the axils of suppressed floral-leaves. The inflorescence
becomes a “compound spike” (ear) when the spikelets are sessile. In the majority
of instances the spikelets are borne on long stalks; when these branch, then the
secondary branches, and similarly all branches of higher order, are placed so far
down upon the mother-axis that they all appear to be of equal value and to arise in
a semicircle from the mother-axis itself, though in reality they arise from each other
(Panicle, Fig. 288 A). Sometimes the main axis and branches of different orders
unite together as in Alopecurus, Phleum, and some other Grasses, and hence the
single (short-stalked) spikelets appear to arise singly and spirally, or without any
definite order, directly from the main axis, with the production of a cylindrical
inflorescence bearing “spikes” on all sides, that is, a “spike-like panicle.”—Many
inflorescences are somewhat dorsiventral. The flower is rarely unisexual (Zea
mais) or barren. Considerable difficulty is experienced in reducing the Grass-flower
to the ordinary 3-merous Monocotyledonous type. Some authorities consider the
lodicules, which are present in all Grasses but absent in the Cyperaceæ, to be
homologous with a perianth. According to a more recent theory they are
bracteoles, and hence the Gramineæ, like many of the Juncaceæ, have 2–3
bracteoles placed in two rows in the median plane. If this theory be correct, the
flower is naked. The lodicules expand quickly and cause the opening of the flower
(i.e. the two pales become separated from each other). Generally only 3 stamens
belonging to the outer whorl are present (Fig. 290), as in Iris (Fig. 279), certain
Juncaceæ and Cyperaceæ (Fig. 284), but in some, such as the Rice and certain
species of Bamboos, all 6 are found. Pariana has more than 6. Only 1 of the
carpels is present, namely, the anterior (of those in Fig. 284), so that the ventral
suture and the place of attachment of the ovule are situated at the back of the
ovary. The number of styles does not correspond with the number of carpels, and
the styles may therefore be supposed to arise from the edges of the leaf to the
right and left—a position which is not without analogy. In addition, a stylar
projection is sometimes found on the anterior side and in the median line (e.g. in
Phragmites), and the solitary style in Nardus has exactly this position; a similar
arrangement is found in some species of Bambusa which have only one style;
other species of Bambusa have three styles. A tripartite style is found in Pharus.
[The Grass-flower may be reduced to the ordinary Monocotyledonous type thus:
—The outer pale is the bract of the flower since it bears in its axil the floral shoot;
the inner pale occupies the customary position of the bracteole. The fact that it is
binerved can be explained by its having been pressed against the main-axis during
development. Similar binerved bracteoles are found in Iris (Fig. 279). These
bracteoles in both Grass and Iris arise from single primordia, and are not produced
by the coalescence of two leaves. The lodicules are the only parts of the perianth
remaining, the outer whorl having been suppressed, and also the posterior leaf of
the inner whorl; a posterior lodicule, however, is found in the Rice and some
species of Bamboo. The outer whorl of stamens is usually absent, though this
again is present in the Rice and Bamboo. The three carpels are reduced to one
with two or sometimes three stigmas.]
 The Flowering. In the panicles the flowers open in basipetal order; the flowers
in the spikes situated somewhat above the middle, commence to open first, and
the flowering proceeds upwards and downwards. A few Grass-flowers never open
(cleistogamic); Leersia oryzoides, Stipa-species, and e.g. Wheat and Rye in cold
damp weather; some open their pales so wide that the anthers and stigmas may
protrude at the top; most frequently the lodicules expand and force the pales
suddenly and widely apart. The filaments elongate considerably, so that the
anthers are pendulous and the stigmas unfold. In some Grasses e.g. Wheat, the
blooming of each flower only lasts a short time. Pollination is generally effected
by the wind. The Rye separates the pales very widely in the morning, and allows
the anthers and stigmas to appear; it is almost entirely sterile when self-pollinated.
The Wheat flowers at any time of the day, each flower lasting only a quarter of an
hour. The pales open suddenly, but only half way, and the anthers scatter one-third
of the pollen in their own flower and two-thirds outside. Self-pollination is effectual,
but crossing gives better results. In Hordeum vulgare (all flowers ☿) the flowers of
the 4 outer rows behave as in the Wheat, but those in the two central rows always
remain closed. The ☿-flowers in the two central rows of H. distichum remain closed
and fertilise themselves; they open exceptionally, and may be pollinated by the ♂-
flowers in the 4 lateral rows. H. hexastichum is cleistogamic. Oats pollinate
themselves.
 Fig. 292.—Barley grain: A section through the
skin (a-d) and the most external part of the
endosperm; Gl the “aleurone layer”; st starch-
containing cells; B starch grains.
 Fig. 293.—Wheat-grain
germinating: g the plumule; b the
first leaf succeeding the
cotyledon; r1 the primary root; r2
lateral root.
 Fig. 294.—Older seedling of
the Wheat: s the second
sheathing-leaf; l first foliage-leaf.
The ripe Grass-fruit, in some species of Bamboo, is a berry; in some other
Grasses a nut with loosely lying seed, in some even a capsule, but otherwise a
“caryopsis.” In some instances it is loosely enveloped by the pales (Oat), in others
firmly attached to these (Barley), and finally, in others, “naked,” i.e. it is entirely free
from the pales (Wheat and Rye). On the ventral side there is a groove (Fig. 288 E);
on the anterior side (dorsal suture), which is turned towards the inner pale, it is
convex, and at the base on this side, inside the testa, lies the embryo (Fig. 288 D).
The apex of the fruit is often hairy (Fig. 293). The skin (Fig. 291, a) is formed by
the pericarp and testa, and in some cases (Barley) the pales also form the outer
portion. The endosperm (b) is large, and formed of parenchymatous, starch-
containing cells: aleurone (proteid) grains may also be found among them. When
the starch-grains and the aleurone-grains adhere together the endosperm
becomes “horny,” but is “floury” when the starch-grains lie loosely with air between
them. In the most external region, just beneath the skin, 1–several layers of nearly
cubical cells (filled principally with aleurone-grains and fat) are found, the
aleurone-layer (Fig. 292). The embryo (Fig. 291 c-d) contains large quantities of
fatty oil; the large shield-like structure, attached to the embryo and turned inwards
towards the endosperm (c), is the cotyledon (scutellum); it remains enclosed in the
seed during germination, and dissolves the endosperm by means of the peculiar
epithelial cells developed on the dorsal surface. The radicle, on germination, is
obliged to perforate a mass of cells derived from the suspensor and which form the
“root-sheath” (coleorhiza, Fig. 293) round its base. In addition to the tap-root,
lateral roots are frequently developed before germination; these quickly break
through, and later on are followed by others which appear at the base of the leaf
(Figs. 293, 294).
The distribution of the fruit is most frequently effected by the wind. The
spirally-twisted and hygroscopic awn which persists on the fruits of some species
(Avena, Stipa, etc.) assists in their dissemination, and even helps to bury them in
the ground.
The two preceding orders are more closely related to each other than they are
to the Gramineæ.
The generic differences are chiefly founded on the form of the inflorescence, the
number and sex of the flowers in the spikelets, the shape and relative length of the
pales, awns, etc. In addition to these the structure of the fruit and seed presents a
great many differences; some have compound starch-grains, while in others they
are single; some have 1 layer of aleurone-cells, others have several (Fig. 292),
etc.

1. Bambuseæ. Tall Grasses with woody, very siliceous stems

which bear many branches in the axils of the leaves. 6 stamens.
Bambusa (Bamboo).
2. Oryzeæ. Oryza sativa (Rice) is a herbaceous marsh-plant, with
panicle and small, 1-flowered spikelets, with two small glumes and
two large, boat-shaped, strongly siliceous pales. 6 stamens.—
Leersia. Lygeum. Pharus. Zizania aquatica.
3. Maydeæ. Zea mais (Indian-corn, Maize); the spikelets are
unisexual; the ♂ -spikelets in a terminal panicle; the ♀ -spikelets
closely crowded and arranged in many rows in a thick, axillary spike,
enclosed by large sheathing-leaves. The ♀ -spikelets are 1-(2-)
flowered; the ovary bears one, long, filamentous style, with bifid
stigma.—Euchlæna; Coix.
4. Andropogoneæ. Saccharum (Sugar-cane); the spikelets are
exceptionally small, 1-flowered, and borne in pairs in many-flowered,
long-haired panicles. Tall grasses with solid, sappy stem.—
Andropogon.
5. Festuceæ. Grasses with panicle (or spike-like panicle) and 2–
several-flowered spikelets. Glumes small, in each case shorter than
the spikelet.—Festuca (Fescue) and Bromus (Brome, Fig. 288) have
the awn placed at the apex of the pale, or slightly below it. Festuca
has perennial species, with only a sparsely-branched panicle with
branches solitary or in pairs, and round spikelets; the leaf-sheath is
widely open. Bromus has the branches borne in half whorls, and the
leaf-sheath scarcely half open. Brachypodium has very short-stalked
spikelets in a raceme.—Poa (Meadow-grass), Briza (Quaking-grass)
and Glyceria have awnless spikelets; these in Poa are ovoid,
compressed, and with sharply-keeled glumes; in Briza they are
broad, cordate and drooping, with boat-shaped glumes; in Glyceria
round, long, many-flowered, linear or lanceolate; some species of
Glyceria have closed leaf-sheaths.—Dactylis (Cock’s-foot) differs
from all others in the somewhat crowded and unilateral (subsecund)
spikelets, which are compressed and oblique (i.e. one side more
convex than the other).—Phragmites (P. communis, Reed); the
lowermost flowers of the spikelet are ♂; its axis is covered with long,
silky hairs; pales without awns, but acuminate. Perennial marsh-
plants.—Melica; panicle small, sparsely-branched with round,
awnless, few-flowered, usually drooping spikelets. The upper pales,
with arrested flowers, are generally united into a club-like mass.—
Molinia, Eragrostis, Koeleria, Catabrosa.—Cynosurus (Dog’s-tail)
has a small, spicate panicle with unilateral spikelets, some of which
are fertile, some barren, each supported by a pectinate scale.
Arundo. Sesleria. Gynerium. Triodia.
6. Aveneæ. Panicles with 2–many-flowered spikelets; at least one
of the glumes is quite as long as the entire spikelet.—Avena (Oat).
The pale is boat-shaped, often bifid, and at about the middle of the
back has a twisted, bent awn.—Aira (Hair-grass) has a long-
branched panicle with small, 2-flowered spikelets; the pale has a
dentate apex and bears an awn on the posterior side close to the
base.—Weingærtneria.—Holcus (Yorkshire-fog); a soft, hairy Grass
with an open panicle, keeled glumes; 2 flowers in the spikelet, of
which the lower one is ☿, the upper ♂; the pale which supports the ☿-
flower has no awn, but that which supports the ♂ -flower, on the
contrary, is awned.
 7. Agrostideæ. Panicles or spike-like panicles with 1-flowered
spikelets. Generally 2 glumes and only 1 pale.—The following have
panicles: Milium with square panicle-branches and round spikelets;
Agrostis (Fiorin), with compressed, glabrous spikelets, whose
glumes are longer than the pales. Calamagrostis differs in having a
chaplet of long hairs at the base of the pale.—Stipa (Feather-grass)
has a long, twisted awn.—The following have spikelike panicles:
Phleum (Cat’s-tail, Timothy-grass) has sharply pointed, entirely free
glumes, which are much longer than the awnless pales. Alopecurus
(Fox-tail); glumes united below; pale with awn. Ammophila
(Psamma). A. arundinacea; pales hairy at base; perennial, stiff-
leaved, glaucous sand-grass with creeping rhizome. Aristida.
Sporobolus.
8. Phalarideæ. Panicles and spike-like panicles. The spikelet has
in the upper part a single fertile flower; below it are placed 4 pales, of
which the upper 1–2 sometimes support ♂-flowers. On the whole, 6
floral-leaves of the first order are present.—Phalaris (P. canariensis,
Canary-grass) has an ovate, spike-like panicle, the spikelets are
compressed, convex on the outer side, concave on the inner. The
large glumes are winged on the back.—Digraphis (D. arundinacea)
is closely allied to Phalaris, but the keel of the glumes is not winged.
—Anthoxanthum (A. odoratum, Sweet-vernal) has a small,
lanceolate, open, spike-like panicle; the spikelets have below 2
barren flowers, and above these an ☿-flower with 2 stamens. The
upper glume is longer than the flower.—Hierochloa.
9. Chlorideæ. The spikelets are arranged in the form of a spike in two rows on
one side of an often flatly-compressed axis; they are mostly 1-flowered.—Chloris;
Ctenium; Cynodon; Eleusine; Microchloa.
10. Paniceæ. The spikelets are borne in panicles or spikes, which may be
arranged like fingers or in a raceme. There is a centrally-placed ☿-flower; below it
is sometimes a ♂ -flower.—Panicum; Paspalum; Oplismenus; Setaria has an
almost cylindrical spike-like panicle with several barren branchlets, which project
as stiff, rough bristles.—Cenchrus; Pennisetum.

11. Hordeæ. Spikes compound; spikelets sessile in the notches

of a toothed axis.
 A. Spikelets solitary.—Triticum (Wheat, Fig. 287) has in each
tooth of the main axis, a several-flowered spikelet which turns its flat
side towards the central axis. The cultivated species (true Wheat)
are 1-2-annual, the wild ones (T. repens, Couch, also as an
independent genus, Agropyrum) are perennial, with creeping
rhizome and lanceolate glumes.—Lolium (Rye-grass) has in each
tooth of the main axis a many-flowered, compressed spikelet, which
is placed edgewise towards it and (with the exception of L. perenne)
has only one outwardly-turned glume (L. temulentum has a rudiment
of the inwardly-turned lower glume); the terminal spikelet has two
glumes.—Secale (Rye). A two-flowered spikelet in each tooth; small,
lanceolate, acuminate glumes. Nardus and Lepturus have very
narrow spikes, the former with unilateral spikelets.
B. In each notch of the axis 2 or more spikelets are placed close
together.—Hordeum (Barley). In each tooth three 1-flowered
spikelets. H. hexastichum (6-rowed Barley), has 6 rows of fruits,
since all the spikelets are fertile, and H. distichum (2-rowed Barley) 2
rows, since the lateral spikelets are ( ♂ , and barren (p. 292).—
Elymus has 2–6 many-flowered spikelets in each joint of the main
axis. Ægilops has awns upon the glumes.
Distribution. 315 genera with 3,500 species. The order is distributed over the
whole world, and as regards number of individuals is perhaps the richest. In the
Tropics, large, broad-leaved, tree-like forms are found (Bambuseæ, Olyreæ,
Andropogoneæ, etc.; in S. Europe, Arundo donax); in England, next to the
Compositæ, it is the order most rich in species (about 134).—The origin of some of
the cultivated Grasses is lost in obscurity. The Maize, no doubt, was indigenous to
America, where its nearest relatives are found, and where it has also been
discovered in ancient Indian graves; Durra or Guinea-corn, Millet and Sugar-cane
are South Asiatic plants, and our own cereals no doubt have sprung primarily from
Western Asia and South-Eastern Europe (Barley from Armenia and Persia, where
a very closely related wild species is found; Wheat from the same districts; Rye
from the perennial species S. montanum). Panicum altissimum and Rice have
come from Africa.
Uses. The Grasses play a very important part as cereals and fodder plants. The
following are the most important of the cultivated ones: Triticum vulgare (common
Wheat), turgidum, amyleum, polonicum, spelta, durum, etc.; Secale cereale (Rye);
Barley (Hordeum-species, see under the genus); Maize; Oats (Avena sativa,
orientalis, nuda); Millet (Panicum miliaceum); Durra (Turkish Millet, or Guinea-corn,
Sorghum vulgare, cernuum and saccharatum); Manna-grass (Glyceria fluitans). As
fodder-plants especially: Rye-grass (Lolium perenne); Oat-grass (Avena elatior);
Timothy (Phleum pratense); Fox-tail (Alopecurus pratensis); Cock’s foot (Dactylis
glomerata); Dog’s tail (Cynosurus cristatus); Sweet-vernal (Anthoxanthum
odoratum); Soft grass, or Yorkshire-fog (Holcus lanatus and mollis); Quaking-grass
(Briza media); species of Meadow-grass (Poa); Fescue (Festuca) and Brome
(Bromus).—Several cultivated species of Grass are also used in the preparation of
fermented liquors, the starch in the seeds being transformed to sugar (beer from
“Malt,” i.e. the germinated Barley; arrack from Rice); or the stem becomes
specially saccharine before flowering: the Sugar-cane, Sorghum saccharatum.
Officinal. The rhizome of Triticum repens, Oat-grain, flour of Barley, and the
starch of Wheat, also sugar.
The seeds of Lolium temulentum are considered poisonous.—The stems of
many species (including our common grains) are used in the manufacture of
paper, especially “Esparto grass” (Stipa tenacissima) from Spain and N. Africa,
and the sheathing-leaves of the ♀ -spike of Maize. Sand Lyme-grass (Elymus
arenarius), and especially Psamma arenaria, are important.—But few Grass-
species are sweet-scented: Anthoxanthum odoratum and Hierochloa odorata
contain coumarin; Andropogon-species have essential oils (“Citronella oil”).—
Ornamental plants are: the “Ribbon-grass” (a variety of Digraphis arundinacea),
Stipa pennata (whose awn is exceedingly long and feathery), Gynerium argenteum
(Pampas-grass), Lagurus ovatus, Hordeum jubatum, Bromus briziformis.

Family 3. Spadicifloræ.
The primitive form resembles that of the preceding family. In it we
find the typical, perfectly developed, Monocotyledonous flower,
sometimes even with free carpels and with a dry or somewhat fleshy,
but never petaloid perianth; and this passes over into very different
forms by the suppression of the floral-leaves, perianth and
sporophylls (unisexual flowers are common), and by the close
aggregation of the flowers in the inflorescence. The flower is
hypogynous in every case. The inflorescence is a spike which may
be either single or branched, and has often a thick and fleshy axis (a
spadix). In Palms and Araceæ it is enveloped, at any rate prior to the
opening of the flowers, by a very large floral-leaf, the spathe, which
may be petaloid (Figs. 297, 301).
The fruit is most frequently fleshy (berry, drupe) or a nut, never a
capsule. The embryo is small, with large, fleshy endosperm (Fig. 299
C); very rarely the endosperm is wanting.

Fig. 295.—Piassava (Attalea funifera).

 Fig. 296.—A portion of the stem of Attalea
funifera with persistent leaf-bases.
The numerous plants belonging to this family are large,
herbaceous or tree-like, and the leaves seldom have the usual
Monocotyledonous form, i.e. linear with parallel venation, but most
frequently have pinnate or palmate venation.
Order 1. Palmæ (Palms). The majority are trees with an
unbranched, cylindrical stem, having short internodes and covered
with leaf-scars or the bases of the leaf-stalks (Fig. 296), and at the
summit a rosette of large leaves closely packed together (Fig. 295).
An exception to this is found in Calamus (Cane, “Rotang”), whose
thin, creeping or climbing stems have long internodes; sparsely[28]
branched is, e.g. the African Doum-palm (Hyphæne).
Notwithstanding their often enormous stems the Palms have fibrous
roots, like the bulbous Monocotyledons. The leaves are pinnate
(Feather-palms, Fig. 298) or palmate (Fan-palms, Fig. 295) and
often very large; they have a well-developed petiole with an
amplexicaul sheath, which is often more or less separated into a
large number of fibres. In the bud the blade is entire but folded, as
the leaf expands the lines of folding are torn, either those which are
turned upwards (thus ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨, e.g. Pritchardia, Livistona, Phœnix,
Chamærops) or those turned downwards (thus ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧, e.g. Cocos,
Chamædorea, Calamus). The inflorescence is usually lateral; when,
as in Sago-palm (Metroxylon rumphii) or Talipot (Corypha
umbraculifera) it is terminal, the plant is monocarpic, and dies after
flowering; it is often a very large and branched spadix with numerous
flowers either borne externally or embedded in it, and enclosed
either in one woody, boat-shaped spathe (Fig. 297) or several
spathes, in the latter case one for each branch. The flowers are
sessile or even embedded, regular, generally unisexual (monœcious
or diœcious) with the usual diagram (Fig. 278); the perianth is
inconspicuous, green or yellow, persistent, and more or less leathery
or fleshy. 6, rarely 3 or many stamens. The 3 carpels remain either
distinct or form one, generally 3-locular, ovary. The style is short.
There is one ovule in each carpel. Often during ripening 2 carpels
with their ovules are aborted. The fruit is a berry, drupe or nut,
generally one-seeded, with a large horny or bony endosperm with
hard thick-walled cells (e.g. Date-palm). In some (e.g. Cocoanut) it is
thin-walled, soft, and oily; in several “ruminate.”
When germination commences in the Cocoanut, Date, etc., the apex of the
cotyledon remains in the seed and developes into a spongy mass to withdraw the
endosperm; in the Cocoanut it attains a considerable size (Fig. 299 C) and
assumes the form of the fruit. The endosperm in the Cocoanut is hollow and the
interior is filled with “milk.” In the Date-palm and the Vegetable-ivory (Phytelephas)
the cell-walls of the hard endosperm serve as reserve material.
1. Phœniceæ. Phœnix (Date-palm) has pinnate leaves with
channeled leaflets and diœcious flowers with 8 free carpels, of which
usually only one developes into a berry with membranous endocarp;
the large seed has a deep furrow on the inner side, and horny
endosperm.
 Fig. 297.—Inflorescence of a
Palm with spathe. At the top ♂ -,
at the base ♀-flowers.
 Fig. 298.—Livistona australis.
2. Sabaleæ. These have fan-like leaves with channeled
segments; flowers ☿ or polygamous, rarely diœcious, with 3 separate
or only slightly united carpels, all of which are sometimes developed
into fruits (berry or drupe, with thin stone).—Chamærops, the Dwarf-
palm. The pericarp is externally fleshy, internally more fibrous, and
provided with a membranous inner layer. The endosperm is ruminate
(that is, the testa is several times deeply folded into the endosperm).
—Sabal, Copernicia, Livistona (Fig. 298), Thrinax, Corypha, Brahea,
and others.