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 Fourth Edition

Stan Baronett

New York Oxford

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Baronett, Stan, author.

Title: Logic / Stan Baronett.
I
Desc句tion: Fourth edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018. I
Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018003144 (print) I LCCN 2018。”44 (ebook) I ISBN
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 Brief Contents

Preface . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . xv

PART I Setting the Stage

Chapter I 认That Logic Studies ....... .

~C>4 PART II Informal Logic

时b
Chapter 2 Language Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Chapter 3 Diagramming Arguments ............. 113
Chapter 4 Informal Fallacies ....................... 128

PART III Formal Logic

Chapter 5 Categorical Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Chapter 6 Categorical Syllogisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Chapter 7 Propositional Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Chapter 8 Natural Deduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Chapter 9 Predicate Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 73

PART IV Inductive Logic

Chapter 10 Analogical Arguments. …………… 534
Chapter 11 Legal Arguments. .………………. . SSS
Chapter 12 Moral Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S89
Chapter 13 Statistical Arguments and Probability 614
Chapter 14 Causality and Scientific Arguments . 6Sl
Chapter 15 Analyzing a Long Essay (available
online at www.oup.com/ us/ baronett)

AppendiχA：刀ieLSAT and
Logical Reasoning ........ 689
AppendixB ： τhe 丁γuthAbout
Philosophy Majo γs . . 721
Gloss aγy . 728
Answeγs to Selected Eχercises 736
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
Contents

Pγεface

Part I Setting the Stage Part II Informal Logic

CHAPTER 1 、气That Logic Studies ................... 1 CHAPTER 2 Language 岛f atters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
A. Statements and Arguments ................... 4 A. Intension and Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
B. Recognizing Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Terms, Use, and Mention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Exercisεs lB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Two Kinds of Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Proper Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
C. Arguments and Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Exercises 2A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Exercises 1C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
B. Using Intensional Definitions ..…………… 73
D. Truth and Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Synonymous Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
E. Deductive and Inductive Arguments . . . . . . . . .23 Word Origin Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Exercises lE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Operational Definitions . . .......... 75
F. Deductive Arguments: Validity Definition by Genus and Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
and Soundness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 C. Using Extensional Definitions . …………… 79
Argument Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Ostensive Definitions ..…………………… 79
Counterexamples ___ , __ - _ _ … - · - - · · · · · · · · · · .34 Enumerative Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Summary of Deductive Arguments ........... 41 Definition by Subclass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Exercises lF . ...................................... 41 Exercises 2C ……………………………… I 81
G. Inductive Arguments: Strength D. Applying Definitions 84
and Cogency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 Stipulative Definitions ......................... 84
Techniques of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Lexical Definitions 85
The Role of New Information ............. 48 Functional Definitions ........................ 86
Summary of Inductive Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Precising Definitions ..…………………… 87
Exercises 1G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . so Theoretical Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

H. Reconstructing Arguments . 52
Persuasive Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Exeγcises lH .......... . . 57 Exercises 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
E. Guidelines for Informative Definitions . . . . . 96
SUMMARY . .60
Exεrcises 2E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
I(EYTERMS ·........................ .63
LOGIC CHALLENGE: F. Cognitive and Emotive Meaning ............ 102
THE PROBLEM OF THE HATS .63 Exercises 2F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
G. Factual and Verbal Disputes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Exεrcises 2G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

SUMMARY .................................. 110

I(EYTERMS .. . .. ........ 112
LOGIC CHALLENGE: THE PATH . . . . . . . . 112
CHAPTER 3 Diagramming Arguments ...... 113 11. Division ν· 伽．，．勋，．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．….... 148
12. Biased Sample ……··................ 149
A. The Basics 。f Diagramming Arguments . . . 113
False Cause Fallacies ……··................ 150
B. Diagramming Extended Arguments 116 13. Post Hoc ……··.................. 150
Exeγcises 3B 118 14. Slippery Slope ……··........ 153
SUMMARY . 127 Summary of Weak Inductive
KEY TERMS .. …….............. 127 Argument Fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Eχeγcises 4 C .....................................，』 155
LOGIC CHALLENGE:
THE TRAIN TO VEGAS ··.............. 127 D. Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption
。r D1vers1。n . .... . . . . . . . . . 160
CHAPTER 4 Informal Fallacies ………........ 128 Unwarranted Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
A. Why Study Fallacies? . .. ·...... 130 15. Begging the Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
16. Complex Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
B. Fallacies Based 。n Personal Attacks or
17. Appeal to Ignorance . . , . . . . . . 163
Emotional Appeals . .. . . . . . . . . . 130 18. Appeal to an Unqualified Authority . . . . . 166
Fallacies Based on Personal Attacks . . . . . . . . 131 19. False Dichotomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
1. Ad Hominem Abusive 伽号．．．．”…. . . • . . . • . . • . . . . . 131 Fallacies of Diversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2. Ad Hominem Circumstantial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 20. Equivocation . 伽号．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．……… ω ，』 169
3. Poisoning the Well. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 21.StrawMan ............................ 170
4. Tu Quoque . . . . .. . . . . 133
22. Red Herring. …………………. • 171
Fallacies Based on Emotional Appeals . . . . . . 134
23. Misleading Precision . .………………. 172
S. Appeal to the People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 24. Missing the Point . . . . . 173
6. Appeal to Pity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Summary of Fallacies of Unwarranted
7. Appeal to Fear or Force . . . ................. 137 Assumption and Diversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Summary of Fallacies Based
Exercises 4D . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
on Personal Attacks ..伽号．．．．”. . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . . .138
Summary of Fallacies Based E. Recognizing Fallacies in Ordinary
on Emotional Appeals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Language .................. ........ 180
Exercises 4B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Exercises 4E . .. . ... .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 183

C. Weak Inductive Argument Fallacies ·.... 144 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Generalization Fallacies . 144 KEY TERMS .. 伽．，．伽？”、．．”……··．．．．．．．．．．….... 192
8. Rigid Application of a Generalization. . ..... 144 LOGIC CHALLENGE:
9. Hasty Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 A CLEVER PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10. Composition ．”………．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． ·ψ 146
Part III Formal Logic
CHAPTER 5 Categorical Propositions . . . . . . . . . 194 Implied Quantifiers . ... ..... .. .. ... ... . 234
A. Categorical Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Nonstandard Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Exercises SA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Conditional Statements ........................ 236
Exclusive Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
B. Quantity, Quality, and Distribution . . . . . . . . . 198 ＇＇τhe Only" . . . . . .. 239
Exercises SB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Propositions Requiring Two Translations . . 239
C . Existential Import. ………………………... 203 Exercises SH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
D. The Modern Square of Opposition SUMMARY ................................. 244
and Venn Diagrams .…………………... 203 I(EYTERMS . ....................... 245
Venn Diagrams. 』…………………………. . 205 LOGIC CHALLENGE:
Exercises SD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 GROUP RELATIONSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
E. Conversion, Obversion, and
Contraposition in the Modern Square. … 211 CHAPTER 6 Categorical Syllogisms . . . . . . . . . 247
Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 A. Standard-Form Categorical Syllogisms . . . . 247
O bversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Contraposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
B. Mood and Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Exεrcises 6B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . .…------……… 212
Summary of Conversion, Obversion, C. Diagramming in the Modern
and Contraposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Interpretation . . .... .. .. ..... ... 252
Exercises SE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 S Diagramming A-Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

F. The Traditional Square of Opposition Diagramming E-Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

and Venn Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Diagramming I-Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Diagramming 0-Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Exercises SF.1 .』………. . . 220
飞叮rapping Up the X .... ... ..... .. .. ... .. .. 260
Venn Diagrams and the Traditional
Is the Syllogism Valid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Square ................................... 222
Exercises SF. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Exercises 6 C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

G. Conversion, Obversion, D. Rules and Fallacies Under the

Modern Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
and Contraposition
in the Traditional Square .. ......... 227
Rule I: The middle term must be
Summary of Conversion, Obversion, distributed in at least one premise. . .. ... 269

and Contraposition ..... . 227

Associated Fallacy: Undistributed Middle . . . 269

Conversion . 228
Rule 2: If a term is distributed in
Obversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
the conclusion, then it must be
Contraposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
distributed in a premise. . . . .. ...... .. 270
Associated Fallacies: Illicit Major/
Exercises 5 G ..……………………………… 229
Illicit Minor . . . . . . . . ....... 270
H. Translating Ordinary Language into Rule 3: A categorical syllogism cannot
Categorical Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 have two negative premises. …- - -- -……. 271
Missing Plural Nouns …………………. . . l 230 Associated Fallacy: Exclusive Premises ........ 271
Nonstandard Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Rule 4: A negative premise must have
Singular Propositions ........ .... .. ... ..... . 232 a negative conclusion. . . . . . ... . . 272
Adverbs and Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Associated Fallacy: Affirmative Conclusion/
"It Is False That ...” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 4 Negative Premise .......................... 272
 Rule 5: A negative conclusion must have a Conditional . . . . . .. .. ..... ... 322
negative premise. . . . . . . . . . . . .... 273 Distinguishing “ If'' from “ Only If'' ... .. .... 322
Associated Fallacy: Negative Conclusion/ Sufficient and Necessary Conditions . . . . . . . . 323
Affirmative Premises ..... 273 Biconditional. . , . . ........ 324
Rule 6: Two universal premises cannot Summary of Operators and Ordinary
have a particular conclusion.. 274 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Associated Fallacy: Existential Fallacy . 274 Exercises 元1.. • . . • • . . . • • . • . . • . . • • . . . . • . • . • • . . • • . . . 325
Summary of Rules 275
B. Compound Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Exercises 6D . . 275
Well-Formed Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
E. Diagramming in the Traditional Exercises 7B.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Main Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
A-Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Exercises 7B.2. . . . . .. ........ 333
E-Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Translations and the Main Operator . . . . . . . . 333
Exercises 6E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Exercises 7B.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

F. Rules and Fallacies Under the C. Truth Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 338

Traditional Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Defining the Five Logical Operators . . . . . . . . 338
Exercises 6F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Negation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
G. Ordinary Language Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Co时unction ……………………………. l 340
Reducing the Number of Terms Disjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
in an Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Conditional ...................................... 341
Exercises 6G.l . . . . . . . ............ 291 Biconditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Exεrcises 7C.l . . . . ....... 343
Paraphrasing Ordinary Language
Arguments . . . . ... , ................ 293 Operator Truth Tables and Ordinary
Categorical Propositions and Language . . . . . ... 345

Multiple Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Propositions with Assigned Truth Values . . . 348

Exercises 6G.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

Exercises 7C.2 ................................... 350

H. Enthymemes ................................. 298

D. Truth Tables for Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Exercisεs 6H . . ..... 303

Arranging the Truth Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
The Order of Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
I. Sorites .................................... 307
Exercises 7D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Exercises 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31O
E. Contingent and Noncontingent Statements 356
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Tautology . . . . ............................. 356
KEY TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 SelιContradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
LOGIC CHALLENGE: RELATIONSHIPS Exercises 7E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
REVISITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
F. Logical Equivalence and Contradictory,
Consistent, and Inconsistent
CHAPTER 7 Propositional Logic . 317
Statements . . . . ........................... 358
A. Logical Operators and Translations . 318 Logical Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Simple and Compound Statements . 318 Exεrcises 7F.l . . . . . . 360
Negation 320 Contradictory, Consistent, and Inconsistent
Conjunction ........ . 320 Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Disjunction . . .... 320 Exercises 7F.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
 G. Truth Tables for Arguments 364 E. Replacement Rules I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Validity . 365 De Morgan (DM) . . . . .. . 424
Analyzing Su面cient and Necessary Double Negation (DN) . . . . . . .. . .. 426
Conditions in Arguments . . .......... . 366 Commutation (Com) . . . ... .. .. 427
Technical Validity . 368 Association (Assoc) . .. . . 428
Exeγcises 7G.1 369 Distribution (Dist) . . . ... .. .. 430
Argument Forms l …………·· 372 Applying the First Five
Exercises 7G.2 375 Replacement Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

H. Indirect Truth Tables .. .............. 377

Exercises SE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
’Thinking Through an Argument ............ . 377 F. Replacement Rules II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
A Shorter Truth Table 378 Transposition (Trans) . . .. .. 439
Exercises 7H.l 382 Material Implication (Impl) ... .. . ... 439
Using Indirect Truth Tables to Examine Material Equivalence (Equiv) .......……. . 440
Statements for Consistency . 384 Exportation(Exp) .. . . . . . .. . 441
Exercises 7H.2 . 387 Tautology (Taut) . . . . .. . 442
Applying the Second Five
SUMMARY . .................................. 389
Replacement Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
443
I(EYTERMS . ……·............... 390
Exercises SF ..................................... 445
LOGIC CHALLENGE:
A CARD PROBLEM ...................... . 390 G. Conditional Proof 』. • • • • • • • • • • • • 45 3
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

CHAPTER 8 Natural Deduction .................. 391
A. Natural Deduction ............................. 392
B. Implication Rules I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modus Ponens (MP) . . . . . . .. ..
Exercises 8 G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
H. Indirect Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Exercises SH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
394 I. Proving Logical Truths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
394 Exεrcises 81 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

Modus Tollens (MT) .. .. .. . 396 SUMMARY …··............................. 471

Hypothetical Syllogism (HS) .. . ... . 397 I(EY TERMS . . . . . . . . . . 472
Disjunctive Syllogism (DS) . .. 398 LOGIC CHALLENGE: THE TRUTH ....... 472
Justification: Applying the Rules
of Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
CHAPTER 9 Predicate Logic. . .................... 473
Exercises SB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
A. Translating Ordinary Language ............. 474
C. Tactics and Strategy . _. _………. - - . - . . . . 406 Singular Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Applying the First Four Implication Rules . 407 Universal Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Exercises 8 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Particular Statements . - · · … . . - ........ 477
D. Implication Rules II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Summary of Predicate Logic Symbols . . . . . . . 478
Simplification (Simp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Paying Attention to Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Conjunction (Conj) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Exercises 9A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Addition (Add) .... ... ... .. 414
B. Four New Rules of Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Constructive Dilemma (CD) .. . ... 415
Univers Instantiation (UI) . . . . 482
Applying the Second Four Universal Generalization (UG) . . . . . . . 484
Implication Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Existential Generalization (EG) . . . . . . . 485
Exercises SD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Existential Instantiation (EI) ... . .. ... 486
 Summary of the Four Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Tactics and Strategy ........................... 488
Exercises 9B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
C. Change of Quantifier {CQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Exercises 9C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
D. Conditional and Indirect Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Conditional Proof (CP) . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Indirect Proof (IP) . . . . . . . .. 499
Exercises 9D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500

E. Demonstrating Invalidity ..................... 502

Counterexample Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Finite Universe Method ....................... 504
Indirect Truth Tables ........................... 505
Part IV Inductive Logic
Exercises 9E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
CHAPTER 10 Analogical Arguments ......... 534
F. Relational Predicates ........................... 509
Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 A. The Framework of Analogical
Exercises 9F.1 .................................... 512 Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Proofs . . . .. ..... .. ..... ....... .. .... 513 Exεrcises 1DA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 8

A New Restriction .. ..... .. ... .... ..... .. .. 514 B. Analyzing Analogical Arguments . . . . . . . . . . 542
Change of Quantifier .. . ....... 515 Criteria for Analyzing Analogical
Conditional Proof and Indirect Proof . . . . . . . . 516 Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Exercises 9F.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Exercises 1OB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
G. Identity . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 C. Strategies of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Simple Identity Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Disanalogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
“ Only” . . . . . ... . .. 519 Counteranalogy ..……………… . 548
咀e Only'' . . .. ... .. .. .. .. . ” Unintended Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
“ No ... Except ” · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Combining Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
“'All Except” · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Exercises 10 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 52
Superlatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
SUMMARY .................................. 553
“'At Most'' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
KEY TERMS . ……··............... 554
“'At Least" 522
LOGIC CHALLENGE:
“ Exactly'' . . ......................... 522
BEAT THE CHEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Definite Descriptions . . __…-………… 523
Summary of Identity Translations ............. 525
Exercises 9G.l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
CHAPTER 11 Legal Arguments .................. 555
Proofs ．圃· • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • 526 A. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . 555
Exercises 9G.2 . . ................................. 528 B. Conditional Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
SUMMARY ................................... 530 C. Sufficient and Necessary Conditions . . . . . . 557
KEY TERMS . 532
D. Di纣unction and Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
LOGIC CHALLENGE:
YOUR NAME AND AGE, PLEASE . . ...... 532 E. Analyzing a Complex Rule . . .................. 560
Exercises 1lE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
 F. Analogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 咀1e Size of the Standard Deviation . 625
G. The Role of Precedent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 How to Calculate the Standard Deviation . . 626
Eχεγcises llG
Exercises 13 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
………………………….... 573
D. What If the Results Are Skewed? . . . . . . . . . . 628
SUMMARY . .................................. 587
l(EYTERMS ………………….. 587
E. The Misuse of Statistics 631
LOGIC CHALLENGE: Exeγcisεs13E 632
A GUILTY PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 F. Probability Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
A Priori Theory. . . ... .. ... .. .. ... .. .. . 635
CHAPTER 12 Moral Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 Relative Frequency Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
A. Value Judgments ... .... ..... .. .. .. ... ..... . 590 Subjectivist Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Justifying “ Should ” · ·..... ... .. .. ...... 59 0 G. Probability Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Types of Value Judgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 Co时unction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Taste and Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Disjunction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Exercises 12A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Negation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
B. Moral Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594 Exercises 13 G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Emotivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594 H. True Odds in Games of Chance . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Consequentialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
I. Bayesian Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
Egoism . ..... ...... .. ....... ... .. ... ...... 596
Exercises 131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Utilitarianism . . ................................. 596
Deontology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 SUMMARY .................................. 649
Relativism . . . . . ,. . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . 599 l(EYTERMS .. ....................... 650
Contrasting Moral Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 LOGIC CHALLENGE:
Exercises 12B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 THE SECOND CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
C. The Naturalistic Fallacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
CHAPTER 14 Causality and Scientific
D. The Structure of Moral Arguments ........ . . 603
Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
E. Analogies and Moral Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . 606
A. Sufficient and Necessary Conditions . . . . . . 653
Exercises 12E .....................................607
Exercises 14A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
SUMMARY . .................................. 612
B. Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
l(EYTERMS ....................... 613
LOGIC CHALLENGE: C. Mill’s Methods. . _. _............................. 657
DANGEROUS CARGO ...................... 613 Method of Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 7
Method of Difference . . . .. 658
CHAPTER 13 Statistical Arguments Joint Method of Agreement and Difference . . 659
Method of Residues . . ......... 660
and Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Method of Concomitant Variations . . . . . . . . . 661
A. Samples and Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Exercises 14 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Exercises 13A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
D. Limitations of Mill ’s Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
B. Statistical Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
E. Theoretical and Experimental Science . . . . . 669
Exercises 13B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
F. Inference to the Best Explanation .......... 671
C. Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Dividing the Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 G. Hypothesis Testing, Experiments,
and Predictions 』．．．．．．．．． 673
 Controlled Experiments ............. . 674 2. Deductive and Inductive Arguments . . . . . . 691
Determining Causality ...... . 674
3. Identifying Conclusions and Premises . . . . . 693
H. Science and Superstition. …· 675 A. Identifying the Conclusion 693
The Need for a Fair Test . 676 B. Choosing the Best Missing Conclusion . . 695
Verifiable Predictions ……·................ 676 C. Assumptions: Choosing the Best
Nontrivial Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 Missing Premise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Connecting the Hypothesis 4. Additional Information That Strengthens
and Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 or Weakens an Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Science and Superstition ，吨. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 6 80
The Allure of Superstition . ………………. . 681
5. Arguments That Use Either Analogical,
Exercises 14H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
Statistical, or Causal Reasoning . . . . . . . . . 701
A. Analogical Reasoning ....................... 701
SUMMARY .................................... 687 B. Statistical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
l(EY TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 C. Causal Reasoning .......................... 705
LOGIC CHALLENGE:
6. Explaining or Resolving Given
THE SCALE AND THE COINS ......... 688
Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707

Instructors interested in providing students with an 7. Argument Flaws . . _. _. _ . . . _. . . . . . 708

A. Fallacies Based on Personal Attacks or
opportunity for further analysis can refer them to
Emotional Appeals . . ... .. . 708
Online Chapter 15, located on the companion website
B. Weak Inductive Argument Fallacies .-… 709
at www.oup.com/ us/ baronett.
C. Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption
or Diversion .................................. 711
ONLINE CHAPTER 15 Analyzing a Long Essay
8. Recognizing Reasoning Patterns . . ........... 712
A. Childbed Fever
A.ClassTerms . ,--·-··-·-···················· 712
B. Vienna B. Conditional Statements . . ...... 713
Exeγcises 15B C. Translating Conditional Statements . . . . . . 714
C. Miasm and Contagion D. Distinguishing “ If” from “ Only If” . . . . . . . 715

Exercises 15C E. Conditionals and Arguments . ...... 715

F. Sufficient and Necessary Conditions . . . . . . 717
D. Semmelweis’s Account of the Discovery
Eχεγcises 15D
9. Continuing the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720

E. Initial Questions
APPENDIX B The Truth About Philosophy
Exeγcises 15E
M苟ors . .. . . ... . . . . ... .. ... 721
F. A New Interpretation
Eχεγcises 15F
Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
Salaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
SUMMARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
APPENDIX A The LSAT and Logical
Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 Gloss aγy . . 728
Answeγs to Selected Eχercises . .................. 736
1. Logical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Index . 』……………………………………. 781
Preface

Today’s logic students want to see the relevance of logic to their lives. ’They need
motivation to read a logic textbook and do the exercises. Logic and critical thinking
instructors want their students to read the textbook and to practice the skills being
taught. ’They want their students to come away with the ability to recognize and evalu-
ate arguments, an understanding of formal and informal logic, and a lasting sense
of why they matter.τhese concerns meet head-on in the classroom. 卫1is textbook is
designed to help alleviate these concerns.

THE CONTINUING STORY

τhe focus of the fourth edition has been on fine-tuning an already student-friendly
and comprehensive introduction to logic book. To that effect, several passages have
been reworked with an eye toward more clarity and precision. 卫1e goal has been to
define, explain, and illustrate those key logical concepts that require an in-depth
understanding based on the many possible applications of those concepts.τhe idea
is to provide as much information as possible regarding key concepts so students are
well equipped to tackle the exercise sets.
τhe driving force behind writing the fourth edition has been the continuing effort
to make logic relevant, interesting, and accessible to today’s students, without sac-
rificing the coverage that instructors demand and expect. An introduction to logic is
o丘en a student ’s only exposure to rigorous thinking and symbolism. It should pre-
pare them for reasoning in their lives and careers. It must balance careful coverage of
abstract reasoning with clear, accessible explanations and vivid everyday examples.
τhis book was written to meet all those challenges. Relevant examples provide a
bridge between formal reasoning and practical applications of logic, thereby con-
necting logic to students' lives and future careers. Each chapter opens with a dis-
cussion of an everyday example, 。丘en taken directly from contemporary events, to
pose the problem and set the narrative tone. ’This provides an immediate connection
between logic and real-world issues, motivating the need for logic as a tool to help with
the deluge of information available today.
τhe challenge of any introduction to logic textbook is to connect logic to students'
lives. Yet existing texts can and should do more to reinforce and improve the basic
skills of reasoning we all rely on in daily life. Relevant, real-life examples are essential
to making logic accessible to students, especially when they mesh seamlessly with the
technical material. To accomplish this, quotes and passages from modern and classic
sources illustrate the relevance of logic through some of the perennial problems that
impact everyone ’s lives. Examples concerning the workplace, careers, sports, poli-
tics, movies, music, TV, novels, new inventions, gadgets, cell phones, transportation,

xv
XVI PREFACE

newspapers, magazines, computers, speeches, science, religion, superstition, gam-

bling, drugs, W问 abortion, euthanasia, capital punishment, the role of government,
taxes, military spending, and unemployment are used to show how arguments, and
thus the role of logic, can be found in nearly every aspect of life. The examples were
chosen to be interesting, thought-provoking, and relevant to students, and the writing
style was cra丘ed to engage students by connecting logic to their lives.

AN INCLUSIVE TEXT
咀1e fourteen chapters are designed to provide a comprehensive logic textbook, but
also one that can be tailored to individual courses and their needs.τhe result is a full
five chapters on deductive logic, but also a uniquely applied five-chapter part on induc-
tive logic. Here separate chapters on analogical arguments, legal arguments, moral
arguments, statistical arguments, and scientific arguments allow students to apply the
logical skills learned in the earlier parts of the book. As with previous editions, expla-
nations and examples have been created to facilitate student comprehension, and to
show students that the logical skills they are learning do in fact have practical, real-
world application. 卫1e material also provides more resources to help students when
they do the exercise sets.
Since each chapter has been developed to provide maximum flexibility to instruc-
tors, some sections can be skipped in lecture without loss of continuity. In addition,
those wishing for a briefer text can choose a text tailored to their course. They may
choose to emphasize or omit certain chapters on formal logic or critical reasoning,
and they may choose a selection of the five applied chapters to reflect their and their
students' interests.

ALTERNATE FORMATS AND CUSTOM EDITIONS

Because every course and professor is unique, Logic, Fourth Edition, is available in a
variety of formats to fit any course structure or student budget.
The full text can be purchased in numerous formats:
• Print, ISBN: 9780190691714
• Loose leaf, ISBN: 9780190691738
• eBook, ISBN: 9780190691745
Additionally, Dashboard, the book’ s optional online homework system, includes a
full interactive version of the text that can be assigned alongside or in place of the
print text. Please see the Instructor and Student Resources section of the preface for
more information on Dashboard.
For those who do not wish to assign the complete text, Alternate and Custom
Editions are available in print and digital format. Each Alternate Edition comes
 PRE FACE XV II

with answers to problems, a full glossary, and an index. Please see the ISBN infor-
mation below:
Logic: Concise Edition
Chapters 1, 3, 4, S, 6, 7, 8
Order the print version using ISBN: 9780190691837
写1e eBook version is available from numerous eBook vendors. Look for
eBook ISBN: 9780190691844.
Logic: An Emphasis on Critical Thinking and Informal Logic
Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
Order the print version using ISBN: 9780190691875
写1e eBook version is available from numerous eBook vendors. Look for
eBook ISBN: 9780190691882.
Logic: An Emphasis on Formal Logic
Chapters 1, 4, S, 6, 7, 8, 9
Order the print version using ISBN: 9780190691851
咀1e eBook version is available from numerous eBook vendors. Look for
eBook ISBN: 9780190691868.
It is also possible to create a customized textbook by choosing the specific chap-
ters necessary for a course. For more information on Alternate and Custom Editions,
please contact your Oxford University Press sales representative, call 1-800-280-0280
for details, or see the insert at the beginning of the Instructor’s Edition of this book.

NEW TO THE FOURTH EDITION

Since student response to previous editions has been very positive, careful attention
has been given to retain the style of presentation and the voice of the previous edi-
tions. Every change is designed to preserve the delicate balance of rigor with the text's
overriding goal of relevance, accessibility, and student interest.
General changes ： τhere are many new or modified exercises intended to keep
students focused on applying the logical principles in each section.τhe overriding
goal has always been to provide exercises that are challenging, interesting, thought-
provoking, and relevant.
Chapter 1: Four new illustrations were added: First, in section lF, a new table and
accompanying explanation illustrates the various connections between premises, con-
clusions, validity, and soundness in deductive arguments.τhe second and third new
illustrations and accompanying explanations flesh out the various connections between
premises, conclusions, strength, and cogency in inductive arguments in section lG.
咀1e fourth new illustration, in section lH, offers an end-of-chapter summary regarding
statements and arguments. A discussion of the difference between what is stated and
what is implied by statements in everyday conversation has been added to section lA.
XVIII PRE FACE

In section IE, the definitions of deductive and inductive arguments now incorporate
the role of the inferential claim. In section lG, the definitions of strong and weakinduc-
tive arguments empha归e the probable truth of the conclusion following卢om the truth
of the premises.τhis emphasis leads to the discussion of an inductive argument in which
premises that are irrelevant to the conclusion fail to provide any probabilistic support
for the conclusion, resulting in a weak argume瓜 Finally, the "principle of charity" dis-
cussion has been expanded to stress its role in the search for truth.
Chapter 2: Two new reference boxes were added to help students with exercise sets
2C and 2D. Several new examples have been added to the discussion of operational
definitions. The discussions ofνaluε dgments, cognitive 附aning, and emoti阳neaning
have been reworked to offer more clarity.
Chapter 3: Additional explanation and examples of dependent premises, indepen-
dent premises, and diagramming techniques associated with extended arguments are
provided. Anew key term has been added: A simple diagram consists of a single prem-
ise and a single conclusion. Finally, several new exercises have been added.
Chapter 4: Several definitions of key terms have been revised. 咀1e revisions bring
out additional aspects of the concepts involved, thereby making it easier for students
to apply the definitions to the exercise sets. The revised terms include informal f alla-
cie马 tu quoque, appeal to the people, and rigid application of a generalization.
Chapter 5: The terms “ distr也uted" and “ undistributed" have been clarified for cat-
egorical statements. A new set of exercises has been added to Exercises SE to give
students more practice in analyzing immediate inferences under the modern inter-
pretation. The discussion of existential import in SC has been modified to clarify
its use in both the modern and traditional interpretations of universal propositions.
Also, the discussion of the traditional square of opposition in SF has been rewritten
to clarify the understanding and application of existential import and the “ ass ump-
tion of existence" for universal propositions. A new set of exercises has been added to
Exercises SF to give students more practice in analyzing immediate inferences under
the traditional interpretation.τhe directions for Exercise set SG have been rewritten
to offer more guidance to students.
Chapter 7：咀1e concept of a well-formed formula has been reworked to offer more
clarity and precision for students, and to help with the related exercises.τhe discus-
sions of inclusive di矿unction and exclusive di矿unction have been clarified. Several exer-
cises in 7A have been moved to a later exercise set where students have additional
information to apply to the exercises.τhe concept of a truth-functional proposition has
been clari且ed. 卫1e concept of negation has been expanded.τhe concept of a tautology
has been revised. 卫1e question of whether or not a set of statements is consistent has
been expanded to reveal its practical applications.
Chapter 8: A new discussion illustrates how natural deduction proofs allow for cre-
ativity by showing how more than one correct proof is possible for a given problem.
τhis is coupled with examples of questions that naturally arise when students start
creating their own proofs. 咀1e discussion of misapplications of distr访ution has been
expanded along with new examples.
 PREFACE XIX

Chapte主 9: The discussions of universal geneγalization and eχistential generaliza-

tion have been expanded and clarified by the addition of new examples.τhe change
of quar叫卢er section now has additional examples to help facilitate understanding
the four logical equivalences. 咀1e identity rules have been modified to include special
symbols that are more in line with the way the inference rules for predicate logic are
presented. Additional examples further illustrate each identity rule.
Chapter 12: Additional discussion of the role that logic plays in moral reasoning is
presented, especially in the analysis, evaluation, and construction ofmoral arguments.
τhree new Profiles in Logic have been added: Rudolf Carnap in Chapter 2; Francis
Bacon in Chapter 4; and G. E. Moore in Chapter 12.
New Appendix: Many instructors have asked for material that directly applies the
logical skills introduced in the book to the Law School Adm臼sion Test (LSAT). In a
new appendix to the book, LSAT-type questions are presented and analyzed by ref-
erence to specific logical reasoning techniques that occur in Logic. This new section
offers an in-depth look at the skills and techniques needed to do well on the LSAT
logical reasoning questions. By working through the study guide, students can readily
see that what they learn in Logic has direct application to the LSAT.
New Interactive eBook within Dashboard: An interactive eBook now appears
within Dashboard, our online homework platform. Marginal icons in the text alert stu-
dents to related exercises, video tutorials, and other study materials within Dashboard.

面 ~ ~ ~
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Level 1 Multiple- Venn Diagram Level 1 Interactive Level 1 Interactive
VideoTuto『ial Choice Questions Exercises Truth Table Exercises Proof Exercises

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SPECIAL FEATURES
τhe features that instructors found most useful in the third edition have been retained:

• Each chapter opens with a preview, beginning with real-life examples and out-
lining the questions to be addressed. It thus serves both as motivation and over-
view, and wherever possible it explicitly bridges both formal and informal logic
to real life. For example, Chapter 1 starts with the deluge of information facing
students today, to show the very need for a course in logic or critical thinking.
• Marginal definitions of key terms are provided for quick reference. l(ey terms
appear in boldface when they are first introduced.
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 A Kairouan, que je ne connaissais pas encore, et où j’allai sans
Marceline, la nuit était très belle. Au moment de rentrer dormir à
l’hôtel, je me souvins d’un groupe d’Arabes couchés en plein air sur
les nattes d’un petit café. Je m’en fus dormir tout contre eux. Je
revins couvert de vermine.

La chaleur moite de la côte affaiblissant beaucoup Marceline, je

lui persuadai que ce qu’il nous fallait, c’était gagner Biskra au plus
vite. Nous étions au début d’avril.
Ce voyage est très long. Le premier jour, nous gagnons d’une
traite Constantine ; le second jour, Marceline est très lasse et nous
n’allons que jusqu’à El Kantara. Là nous avons cherché et nous
avons trouvé vers le soir une ombre plus délicieuse et plus fraîche
que la clarté de la lune, la nuit. Elle était comme un breuvage
intarissable ; elle ruisselait jusqu’à nous. Et du talus où nous étions
assis, on voyait la plaine embrasée. Cette nuit, Marceline ne peut
dormir ; l’étrangeté du silence et des moindres bruits l’inquiète. Je
crains qu’elle n’ait un peu de fièvre. Je l’entends se remuer sur son
lit. Le lendemain, je la trouve plus pâle. Nous repartons.
Biskra. C’est donc là que je veux en venir. Oui ; voici le jardin
public ; le banc… je reconnais le banc où je m’assis aux premiers
jours de ma convalescence. Qu’y lisais-je donc ?… Homère ; depuis
je ne l’ai pas rouvert. — Voici l’arbre dont j’allai palper l’écorce. Que
j’étais faible, alors !… Tiens ! voici des enfants… Non, je n’en
reconnais aucun. Que Marceline est grave ! Elle est aussi changée
que moi. Pourquoi tousse-t-elle, par ce beau temps ? — Voici l’hôtel.
Voici nos chambres ; nos terrasses. — Que pense Marceline ? Elle
ne m’a pas dit un mot. — Sitôt arrivée dans sa chambre, elle s’étend
sur le lit ; elle est lasse et dit vouloir dormir un peu. Je sors.
Je ne reconnais pas les enfants, mais les enfants me
reconnaissent. Prévenus de mon arrivée, tous accourent. Est-il
possible que ce soient eux ? Quelle déconvenue ! Que s’est-il donc
passé ? Ils ont affreusement grandi… En à peine un peu plus de
deux ans — cela n’est pas possible… quelles fatigues, quels vices,
quelles paresses, ont déjà mis tant de laideur sur ces visages, où
tant de jeunesse éclatait ? Quels travaux vils ont déjeté si tôt ces
beaux corps ? Il y a là comme une banqueroute… Je questionne.
Bachir est garçon plongeur d’un café ; Ashour gagne à grand’peine
quelques sous à casser les cailloux des routes ; Hammatar a perdu
un œil. Qui l’eût cru : Sadeck s’est rangé ; il aide un frère aîné à
vendre des pains au marché ; il semble devenu stupide. Agib s’est
établi boucher près de son père ; il engraisse ; il est laid ; il est riche ;
il ne veut plus parler à ses compagnons déclassés… Que les
carrières honorables abêtissent ! Vais-je donc retrouver chez eux ce
que je haïssais parmi nous ? — Boubaker ? — Il s’est marié. Il n’a
pas quinze ans. C’est grotesque. — Non, pourtant ; je l’ai revu le
soir. Il s’explique : son mariage n’est qu’une frime. C’est, je crois, un
sacré débauché ! Mais il boit ; se déforme… Et voilà donc tout ce qui
reste ? Voilà donc ce qu’en fait la vie ! — Je sens à mon intolérable
tristesse que c’était beaucoup eux que je venais revoir. — Ménalque
avait raison : le souvenir est une invention de malheur.
Et Moktir ? — Ah ! celui-là sort de prison. Il se cache. Les autres
ne fraient plus avec lui. Je voudrais le revoir. Il était le plus beau
d’eux tous ; va-t-il me décevoir aussi ?… On le retrouve. On me
l’amène. — Non ! celui-là n’a pas failli. Même mon souvenir ne me le
représentait pas si superbe. Sa force et sa beauté sont parfaites. En
me reconnaissant, il sourit.
— Et que faisais-tu donc avant d’être en prison ?
— Rien.
— Tu volais ?
Il proteste.
— Que fais-tu maintenant ?
Il sourit.
— Eh ! Moktir ! si tu n’as rien à faire, tu nous accompagneras à
Touggourt. — Et je suis pris soudain du désir d’aller à Touggourt.
Marceline ne va pas bien ; je ne sais pas ce qui se passe en elle.
Quand je rentre à l’hôtel ce soir-là, elle se presse contre moi sans
rien dire, les yeux fermés. Sa manche large, qui se relève, laisse voir
son bras amaigri. Je la caresse, et la berce longtemps, comme un
enfant que l’on veut endormir. Est-ce l’amour, ou l’angoisse, ou la
fièvre qui la fait trembler ainsi ?… Ah ! peut-être il serait temps
encore… Est-ce que je ne m’arrêterai pas ? — J’ai cherché, j’ai
trouvé ce qui fait ma valeur : une espèce d’entêtement dans le pire.
— Mais comment arrivé-je à dire à Marceline que demain nous
partons pour Touggourt ?…
A présent, elle dort dans la chambre voisine. La lune, depuis
longtemps levée, inonde à présent la terrasse. C’est une clarté
presque effrayante. On ne peut pas s’en cacher. Ma chambre a des
dalles blanches, et là surtout elle paraît. Son flot entre par la fenêtre
grande ouverte. Je reconnais sa clarté dans la chambre et l’ombre
qu’y dessine la porte. Il y a deux ans elle entrait plus avant encore…
oui, là précisément où elle avance maintenant — quand je me suis
levé renonçant à dormir. J’appuyais mon épaule contre le montant
de cette porte-là. Je reconnais l’immobilité des palmiers… Quelle
parole avais-je donc lue ce soir-là ?… Ah ! oui ; les mots du Christ à
Pierre : « Maintenant tu te ceins toi-même, et tu vas où tu veux
aller… » Où vais-je ? Où veux-je aller ?… Je ne vous ai pas dit que,
de Naples, cette dernière fois, j’avais gagné Pœstum, un jour, seul…
Ah ! j’aurais sangloté devant ces pierres ! L’ancienne beauté
paraissait, simple, parfaite, souriante — abandonnée. L’art s’en va
de moi, je le sens. C’est pour faire place à quoi d’autre ? Ce n’est
plus, comme avant, une souriante harmonie… Je ne sais plus, à
présent, le dieu ténébreux que je sers. O Dieu neuf ! donnez-moi de
connaître encore des races nouvelles, des types imprévus de
beauté.
Le lendemain, dès l’aube, la diligence nous emmène. Moktir est
avec nous. Moktir est heureux comme un roi.

Chegga ; Kefeldorh’; M’reyer… mornes étapes sur la route plus

morne encore, interminable. J’aurais cru pourtant, je l’avoue, plus
riantes ces oasis. Mais plus rien que la pierre et le sable ; puis
quelques buissons nains, bizarrement fleuris ; parfois quelque essai
de palmiers qu’alimente une source cachée… A l’oasis je préfère à
présent le désert — ce pays de mortelle gloire et d’intolérable
splendeur. L’effort de l’homme y paraît laid et misérable. Maintenant
toute autre terre m’ennuie.
— Vous aimez l’inhumain, dit Marceline. Mais comme elle
regarde elle-même ! et avec quelle avidité !
Le temps se gâte un peu, le second jour ; c’est-à-dire que le vent
s’élève et que l’horizon se ternit. Marceline souffre ; le sable qu’on
respire brûle, irrite sa gorge : la surabondante lumière fatigue son
regard ; ce paysage hostile la meurtrit. Mais à présent il est trop tard
pour revenir. Dans quelques heures, nous serons à Touggourt.
C’est de cette dernière partie du voyage, pourtant si proche
encore, que je me souviens le moins bien. Impossible, à présent, de
revoir les paysages du second jour et ce que je fis d’abord à
Touggourt. Mais ce dont je me souviens encore, c’est quelles étaient
mon impatience et ma précipitation.
Il avait fait très froid le matin. Vers le soir, un simoun ardent
s’élève. Marceline, exténuée par le voyage, s’est couchée sitôt
arrivée. J’espérais trouver un hôtel un peu plus confortable ; notre
chambre est affreuse ; le sable, le soleil et les mouches ont tout
terni, tout sali, défraîchi. N’ayant presque rien mangé depuis
l’aurore, je fais servir aussitôt le repas ; mais tout paraît mauvais à
Marceline et je ne peux la décider à rien prendre. Nous avons
emporté de quoi faire du thé. Je m’occupe à ces soins dérisoires.
Nous nous contentons, pour dîner, de quelques gâteaux secs et de
ce thé, auquel l’eau salée du pays a donné son goût détestable.
Par un dernier semblant de vertu, je reste jusqu’au soir auprès
d’elle. Et soudain je me sens comme à bout de forces moi-même. O
goût de cendres ! O lassitude ! Tristesse du surhumain effort ! J’ose à
peine la regarder ; je sais trop que mes yeux, au lieu de chercher
son regard, iront affreusement se fixer sur les trous noirs de ses
narines ; l’expression de son visage souffrant est atroce. Elle non
plus ne me regarde pas. Je sens, comme si je la touchais, son
angoisse. Elle tousse beaucoup ; puis s’endort. Par moments, un
frisson brusque la secoue.
La nuit pourrait être mauvaise et, avant qu’il ne soit trop tard, je
veux savoir à qui je pourrais m’adresser. Je sors. Devant la porte de
l’hôtel, la place de Touggourt, les rues, l’atmosphère même est
étrange au point de me faire croire que ce n’est pas moi qui les vois.
Après quelques instants je rentre. Marceline dort tranquillement. Je
m’effrayais à tort ; sur cette terre bizarre, on suppose un péril
partout ; c’est absurde. Et, suffisamment rassuré, je ressors.
Étrange animation nocturne sur la place ; circulation silencieuse ;
glissement clandestin des burnous blancs. Le vent déchire par
instants des lambeaux de musique étrange et les apporte je ne sais
d’où. Quelqu’un vient à moi… C’est Moktir. Il m’attendait, dit-il, et
pensait bien que je ressortirais. Il rit. Il connaît bien Touggourt, y
vient souvent et sait où il m’emmène. Je me laisse entraîner par lui.
Nous marchons dans la nuit ; nous entrons dans un café maure ;
c’est de là que venait la musique. Des femmes arabes y dansent —
si l’on peut appeler une danse ce monotone glissement. — Une
d’elles me prend par la main ; je la suis ; c’est la maîtresse de
Moktir ; il accompagne. Nous entrons tous les trois dans l’étroite et
profonde chambre où l’unique meuble est un lit ; un lit très bas, sur
lequel on s’assied. Un lapin blanc, enfermé dans la chambre,
s’effarouche d’abord, puis s’apprivoise et vient manger dans la main
de Moktir. On nous apporte du café. Puis, tandis que Moktir joue
avec le lapin, cette femme m’attire à elle, et je me laisse aller à elle
comme on s’abandonne au sommeil.
Ah ! je pourrais ici feindre ou me taire ; mais que m’importe à moi
ce récit, s’il cesse d’être véritable ?
Je retourne seul à l’hôtel, Moktir restant là-bas pour la nuit. Il est
tard. Il souffle un sirocco aride ; c’est un vent tout chargé de sable, et
torride malgré la nuit ; un vent de fièvre qui aveugle et fauche les
jarrets ; mais j’ai soudain trop hâte de rentrer, et c’est presque en
courant que je reviens. Elle s’est réveillée peut-être ; peut-être a-t-
elle besoin de moi ?… Non ; la croisée de la chambre est sombre ;
elle dort. J’attends un court répit du vent pour ouvrir ; j’entre très
doucement dans le noir. — Quel est ce bruit ?… Je ne reconnais pas
sa toux… Est-ce bien elle ?… J’allume…
Marceline est assise à moitié sur son lit ; un de ses maigres bras
se cramponne aux barreaux du lit, la tient dressée ; ses draps, ses
mains, sa chemise, sont inondés d’un flot de sang ; son visage en
est tout sali ; ses yeux sont hideusement agrandis ; et n’importe quel
cri d’agonie m’épouvanterait moins que son silence. Je cherche sur
son visage transpirant une petite place où poser un affreux baiser ; le
goût de sa sueur me reste aux lèvres. Je lave et rafraîchis son front,
ses joues. Contre le lit, quelque chose de dur sous mon pied : je me
baisse, et ramasse le petit chapelet qu’elle réclamait naguère à
Paris, et qu’elle a laissé tomber ; je le passe à sa main ouverte, mais
sa main aussitôt s’abaisse et le laisse tomber de nouveau. Je ne
sais que faire ; je voudrais demander du secours… Sa main
s’accroche à moi désespérément, me retient ; ah ! croit-elle donc que
je veux la quitter ? Elle me dit :
— Oh ! tu peux bien attendre encore. Elle voit que je veux parler :
— Ne me dis rien, ajoute-t-elle ; tout va bien. — De nouveau je
ramasse le chapelet ; je le lui remets dans la main, mais de nouveau
elle le laisse — que dis-je ? elle le fait tomber. Je m’agenouille
auprès d’elle et presse sa main contre moi.
Elle se laisse aller, moitié contre le traversin et moitié contre mon
épaule, semble dormir un peu, mais ses yeux restent grands
ouverts.
Une heure après, elle se redresse ; sa main se dégage des
miennes, se crispe à sa chemise et en déchire la dentelle. Elle
étouffe. — Vers le petit matin, un nouveau vomissement de sang…

J’ai fini de vous raconter mon histoire. Qu’ajouterais-je de plus ?

— Le cimetière français de Touggourt est hideux, à moitié dévoré
par les sables… Le peu de volonté qui me restait, je l’ai tout employé
à l’arracher de ces lieux de détresse. C’est à El Kantara qu’elle
repose, dans l’ombre d’un jardin privé qu’elle aimait. Il y a de tout
cela trois mois à peine. Ces trois mois ont éloigné cela de dix ans.
 Michel resta longtemps silencieux. Nous nous taisions aussi, pris
chacun d’un étrange malaise. Il nous semblait, hélas ! qu’à nous la
raconter, Michel avait rendu son action plus légitime. De ne savoir où
la désapprouver, dans la lente explication qu’il en donna, nous en
faisait presque complices. Nous y étions comme engagés. Il avait
achevé ce récit sans un tremblement dans la voix, sans qu’une
inflexion ni qu’un geste témoignât qu’une émotion quelconque le
troublât, soit qu’il mît un cynique orgueil à ne pas nous paraître ému,
soit qu’il craignît, par une sorte de pudeur, de provoquer notre
émotion par ses larmes, soit enfin qu’il ne fût pas ému. Je ne
distingue pas en lui, même à présent, la part d’orgueil, de force, de
sécheresse ou de pudeur. — Au bout d’un instant, il reprit :
Ce qui m’effraie, c’est, je l’avoue, que je suis encore très jeune. Il
me semble parfois que ma vraie vie n’a pas encore commencé.
Arrachez-moi d’ici à présent, et donnez-moi des raisons d’être. Moi,
je ne sais plus en trouver. Je me suis délivré, c’est possible ; mais
qu’importe ? je souffre de cette liberté sans emploi. Ce n’est pas,
croyez-moi, que je sois fatigué de mon crime, s’il vous plaît de
l’appeler ainsi ; mais je dois me prouver à moi-même que je n’ai pas
outrepassé mon droit.
J’avais, quand vous m’avez connu d’abord, une grande fixité de
pensée, et je sais que c’est là ce qui fait les vrais hommes ; je ne l’ai
plus. Mais ce climat, je crois, en est cause. Rien ne décourage
autant la pensée que cette persistance de l’azur. Ici toute recherche
est impossible, tant la volupté suit de près le désir. Entouré de
splendeur et de mort, je sens le bonheur trop présent et l’abandon à
lui trop uniforme. Je me couche au milieu du jour pour tromper la
longueur morne des journées et leur insupportable loisir. J’ai là,
voyez, des cailloux blancs que je laisse tremper à l’ombre, puis que
je tiens longtemps dans le creux de ma main, jusqu’à ce qu’en soit
épuisée la calmante fraîcheur acquise. Alors je recommence,
alternant les cailloux, remettant à tremper ceux dont la fraîcheur est
tarie. Du temps s’y passe, et vient le soir… Arrachez-moi d’ici ; je ne
puis le faire moi-même. Quelque chose en ma volonté s’est brisé ; je
ne sais même où j’ai trouvé la force de m’éloigner d’El Kantara.
Parfois j’ai peur que ce que j’ai supprimé ne se venge. Je voudrais
recommencer à neuf. Je voudrais me débarrasser de ce qui reste de
ma fortune ; voyez, ces murs en sont encore couverts. Ici je vis de
presque rien. Un aubergiste mi-français m’apprête un peu de
nourriture. L’enfant, que vous avez fait fuir en entrant, me l’apporte
soir et matin, en échange de quelques sous et de caresses. Cet
enfant qui, devant les étrangers, se fait sauvage, est avec moi
tendre et fidèle comme un chien. Sa sœur est une Ouled-Naïl qui,
chaque hiver, regagne Constantine où elle vend son corps aux
passants. Elle est très belle et je souffrais, les premières semaines,
que parfois elle passât la nuit près de moi. Mais, un matin, son frère,
le petit Ali, nous a surpris couchés ensemble. Il s’est montré fort irrité
et n’a pas voulu revenir de cinq jours. Pourtant il n’ignore pas
comment ni de quoi vit sa sœur ; il en parlait auparavant d’un ton qui
n’indiquait aucune gêne. Est-ce donc qu’il était jaloux ? — Du reste,
ce farceur en est arrivé à ses fins ; car, moitié par ennui, moitié par
peur de perdre Ali, depuis cette aventure je n’ai plus retenu cette
fille. Elle ne s’en est pas fâchée ; mais chaque fois que je la
rencontre, elle rit et plaisante de ce que je lui préfère l’enfant. Elle
prétend que c’est lui qui surtout me retient ici. Peut-être a-t-elle un
peu raison…
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