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HANDBOOK OF ALGAL BIOFUELS
This page intentionally left blank
HANDBOOK OF
ALGAL
BIOFUELS
Aspects of Cultivation, Conversion, and
Biorefinery

Edited by

MOSTAFA EL-SHEEKH
Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt

ABD EL-FATAH ABOMOHRA

New Energy and Environmental Laboratory (NEEL), Department of Environmental Engineering,
School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Chengdu University, Chengdu, P.R. China
Elsevier
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Publisher: Candice Janco

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Production Project Manager: Prasanna Kalyanaraman
Cover Designer: Victoria Pearson

Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

 Contents

List of contributors xi 3.2 Lipids and fatty acids in algae 58

About the editors xv 3.3 Carbohydrates 66
3.4 Proteins 73
1. Cyanoprokaryotes and algae: 3.5 Conclusion 73
classification and habitats 1 References 74
Abdullah A. Saber, Ahmed A. El-Refaey, Hani Saber,
Prashant Singh, Sanet Janse van Vuuren and Marco Cantonati
4. Algal physiology and cultivation 79
1.1 Introduction 1 Kushi Yadav, Reetu, Shrasti Vasistha and Monika Prakash Rai
1.2 Key taxonomic characteristics of
cyanoprokaryotes and algae 2 4.1 Introduction 79
1.3 Cyanoprokaryotes: taxonomic classification 4.2 Photosynthetic efficiency of algae 80
history, modern age, and perspectives 2 4.3 Factors influencing growth and biochemical
1.4 History and present-day algal taxonomy 11 composition 81
1.5 Global distribution and habitats of 4.4 Microalgae cultivation system 83
cyanoprokaryotes and algae 14 4.5 Artificial growth of seaweeds 86
1.6 Conclusions and perspectives 31 4.6 Cost analysis of algae cultivation 87
References 32 4.7 Integrated cultivation system 88
4.8 Conclusion 90
2. Global seaweeds diversity 39 Acknowledgments 91
References 91
Mohamed S.M. Abdel-Kareem and Alaa A.F. ElSaied

2.1 Introduction 39 5. Genetic manipulation of microalgae for

2.2 Basis of seaweeds classification 40
2.3 The diverse groups of seaweeds 41
enhanced biotechnological
2.4 Seaweeds composition based on applications 97
classification 42 Ashutosh Pandey, Gaurav Kant, Shadma Afzal,
2.5 Global distribution of seaweeds 46 Manish Pratap Singh, Nand Kumar Singh, Sanjay Kumar and
Sameer Srivastava
2.6 Symbiotic relation of seaweeds with
other marine organisms 49 5.1 Introduction 97
2.7 Conclusion 50
5.2 Genetic modification of algae for the
References 50
generation of energy and value-added
metabolites 98
3. Biochemical compounds of algae: 5.3 Advance methods used in genome
sustainable energy sources for editing 103
biofuel production 57 5.4 Future perspectives of genetic engineering in
İlknur Ak, Edis Koru, Gülen Türker, Ekrem Cem Çankırılıgil and
microalgae 110
Macide Güneş Dereli 5.5 Concluding remarks 114
Acknowledgments 114
3.1 Introduction 57 References 114

v
vi Contents

6. The current status of various 8.5 Economic feasibility 174

algal industries 123 8.6 Role of algal biofuel in desalination
process 175
Ahmed E. AlProl and Marwa R. Elkatory
8.7 Conclusion 176
6.1 Introduction 123 References 176
6.2 The algae industry 124
6.3 Main chemical compounds and bioactive 9. Biofuel versus fossil fuel 181
compounds in algae 125
Ahmed I. EL-Seesy, Mostafa E. Elshobary and Zhixia He
6.4 Energy production 126
6.5 Algae-based nonenergy field 131 9.1 Introduction 181
6.6 Cosmetics 135 9.2 Mechanisms of fossil fuel and biofuel
6.7 Food ingredients and polymers 136 production 183
6.8 Algae industrial companies 137 9.3 Algal biomass 183
6.9 Wastewater treatment by marine algae 138 9.4 Algal biodiesel and other types of
6.10 Conclusion 141 physicochemical properties 186
References 142 9.5 Combustion and emission parameters 186
9.6 Conclusions 187
7. Algal biomass as a promising tool Acknowledgments 190
for CO2 sequestration and wastewater References 190
bioremediation: an integration of
green technology for different aspects 149 10. Algae for biodiesel production 195
Reda M. Moghazy, Sayeda M. Abdo and Rehab H. Mahmoud Mohammadhosein Rahimi, Fateme Saadatinavaz and
Mohammadhadi Jazini
7.1 Introduction 149
7.2 Strategies of carbon dioxide sequestration 150 10.1 Introduction 195
7.3 Carbon dioxide biosequestration using 10.2 Lipids in algal biomass 197
microalgae 151 10.3 Different methods of transesterification 208
7.4 Bioremediation: an ecofriendly approach for 10.4 Biodiesel characteristics 211
wastewater treatment 152 10.5 Economic feasibility 217
7.5 Algae-based wastewater treatment plants 153 10.6 Conclusions and perspectives 217
7.6 Algal bacterial symbiosis system for References 217
wastewater treatment: role and effect of carbon
dioxide 154
7.7 Biosorption and bioaccumulation 157 11. Eco-friendly biogas production from
7.8 Conclusion 162 algal biomass 225
References 162 Mohamed A. Hassaan, Marwa R. Elkatory, Ahmed El Nemr and
Antonio Pantaleo

8. Application of halophilic algae for 11.1 Introduction 225

water desalination 167 11.2 Structural and chemical composition of
Shristy Gautam and Dhriti Kapoor seaweeds 227
11.3 Anaerobic digestion 228
8.1 Introduction 167 11.4 Pretreatments 233
8.2 Marine environment 169 11.5 The challenges of biogas production from
8.3 Isolation of halophilic microalgae 171 algae 243
8.4 Efficiency of microalgae and seaweeds for 11.6 Conclusion 244
water desalination 173 References 244
 Contents vii
12. Algal biomass for bioethanol and 14.6 Biosystem and semiartificial system for
biobutanol production 251 photocurrent and biohydrogen
productions 320
Marwa R. Elkatory, Mohamed A. Hassaan and Ahmed El Nemr
14.7 Conclusion 326
12.1 Introduction 251 References 326
12.2 Current biofuels status 253
12.3 Bioalcohols 254
12.4 Microalgae 256
15. Biojet fuels production from algae:
12.5 Biofuel production processes 259 conversion technologies, characteristics,
12.6 Bioethanol from microalgae 265 performance, and
12.7 Biobutanol from microalgae 265 process simulation 331
12.8 Macroalgae 267 Medhat Elkelawy, Hagar Alm-Eldin Bastawissi,
12.9 Aquaculture seaweed cultivation 269 Ahmed Mohamed Radwan, Mohamed Taha Ismail and
12.10 Bioethanol from macroalgae 270 Mostafa El-Sheekh
12.11 Biobutanol from macroalgae 271
12.12 Conclusion 273 15.1 Introduction 332
References 273 15.2 Biomass jet fuel conversion pathways 333
15.3 Algae biojet fuel 345
15.4 Biojet fuel performance characteristics 346
13. Thermochemical conversion of 15.5 Fuel compatibility with current fueling
algal biomass 281 system of aircraft 350
15.6 Process simulation 355
Sabariswaran Kandasamy, Narayanamoorthy Bhuvanendran,
Mathiyazhagan Narayanan and Zhixia He 15.7 Conclusions 356
References 357
13.1 Introduction 281
13.2 Thermochemical conversion 282
13.3 Pyrolysis 283 16. Photosynthetic microalgal microbial
13.4 Hydrothermal liquefaction 287 fuel cells and its future
13.5 Gasification 291 upscaling aspects 363
13.6 Torrefaction 292 Mohd Jahir Khan, Vishal Janardan Suryavanshi,
13.7 Direct combustion 293 Khashti Ballabh Joshi, Praveena Gangadharan and
13.8 Economic feasibility 293 Vandana Vinayak

13.9 Conclusion 294

16.1 Introduction 363
Acknowledgment 295
16.2 What are photosynthetic microalgal microbial
References 295
fuel cell 366
16.3 Effect of light on the performance of
14. Direct biohydrogen production photosynthetic microalgal microbial fuel
from algae 303 cells 370
Eithar El-Mohsnawy, Ali Samy Abdelaal and Mostafa El-Sheekh 16.4 DNA sequencing of microbial genomes 373
16.5 Integrated approaches of photosynthetic
14.1 Introduction 303 microalgal microbial fuel cells 376
14.2 Biohydrogen as efficient future fuels 305 16.6 Future of photosynthetic microalgal microbial
14.3 Direct cellular biohydrogen production 306 fuel cells using diatoms 377
14.4 Photosynthetic hydrogen production— 16.7 Conclusions 379
cyanobacteria 314 Acknowledgments 380
14.5 Enhancing hydrogen production in microalgae Conflict of Interest 380
by gene technology 316 References 380
viii Contents

17. Sequential algal biofuel production 19.8 Technoeconomic considerations for different
through whole biomass conversion 385 routes of conversion of algae 441
19.9 Conclusion 443
Mahdy Elsayed and Abd El-Fatah Abomohra
Acknowledgment 444
17.1 Introduction 385 Conflict of interest 444
17.2 Different processes of algal biofuel References 444
production 387 Further reading 449
17.3 Recent trends in sequential algal biofuel
production 396
20. Physical stress for enhanced biofuel
17.4 Conclusion 400 production from microalgae 451
References 400 Sivakumar Esakkimuthu, Shuang Wang and
Abd El-Fatah Abomohra
18. By-products recycling of algal biofuel
20.1 Introduction 451
toward bioeconomy 405
20.2 Nutrient stress 452
Hanan M. Khairy, Heba S. El-Sayed, Gihan M. El-Khodary and
20.3 Physical stress 454
Salwa A. El-Saidy
20.4 Challenges and future directions of physical
18.1 Introduction 405 stress 467
18.2 Applications of algae by-products 409 20.5 Conclusion 469
18.3 Microalgal by-products of biomasses References 469
conversion processes 411
18.4 By-products from ethanol production 411
21. Microalgal
bacterial consortia for
18.5 Glycerol by-products of biodiesel biomass production and wastewater
productions 412 treatment 477
18.6 By-products from bio-oil fuel Muhammad Usman Khan, Nalok Dutta, Abid Sarwar,
production 412 Muhammad Ahmad, Maryam Yousaf, Yassine Kadmi and
18.7 Microalgal-based protein by-products 413 Mohammad Ali Shariati

18.8 Environmental impact of biodiesel

21.1 Introduction 477
and by-products 413
21.2 Interchange of substrates, intercellular
18.9 Economic feasibility of microalgae
communication, and horizontal gene transfer
biodiesel 414
in microalgal
bacterial consortia 479
18.10 Future research focus and perspectives 415
21.3 Distribution and role of microalgal
bacterial
18.11 Conclusion 416
consortia in the wastewater treatment 481
References 416
21.4 Biofuel and bioproducts generation by
19. Harnessing solar radiation for potential microalgal
bacterial consortia 486
21.5 Reduction in CO2 emission and electricity
algal biomass production 421 generation 487
Imran Ahmad, Norhayati Abdullah, Mohd Danish Ahmad, 21.6 Role of lipase in wastewater treatment 488
Iwamoto Koji and Ali Yuzir
21.7 Conclusions 493
19.1 Introduction 421 Acknowledgments 494
19.2 Solar cells 423 References 494
19.3 Solar panel 426
19.4 Different applications of solar radiation 426 22. Process intensification for sustainable
19.5 Conversion of solar radiation to algal algal fuels production 503
biomass 430 Hector De la Hoz Siegler
19.6 Solar tracking system 433
19.7 Solar to heat for thermochemical conversion 22.1 Introduction 503
of algal biomass 438 22.2 Intensification of photobioreactors 506
 Contents ix
22.3 Harvesting 512 25.5 Top companies of algal products
22.4 Biomass conversion to biofuel 512 commercialization 573
22.5 Conclusion 517 25.6 Top companies of biofuel production from
References 517 algae 575
25.7 Biofuel production and its impact on
23. Life cycle assessment for environment 578
microalgae-derived biofuels 523 25.8 Challenges of biofuel commercialization from
algae 581
Elham Mahmoud Ali
25.9 Future prospective of biofuel 581
23.1 Introduction 523 References 583
23.2 Pros and cons of algal biofuel production 524 26. Biointelligent quotient house as an
23.3 Life cycle assessment approach 526
23.4 Benefits on application of life cycle assessment
algae-based green building 587
for microalgal biofuel commercial Anas Tallou, Khalid Aziz, Mounir El Achaby, Sbihi Karim and
Faissal Aziz
production 536
23.5 Current scenario on production and 26.1 Introduction 587
application of biofuels 538 26.2 Green buildings 589
23.6 Future prospective 539 26.3 Renewable energy applications in green
23.7 Conclusions 540 buildings 590
Acknowledgment 541 26.4 Biointelligent quotient in Hamburg,
References 541 Germany 593
26.5 University of technology Sydney green
24. An overview of the algal biofuel building case study 594
technology: key challenges and 26.6 Conclusion 595
References 597
future directions 547
Kushi Yadav, Reetu and Monika Prakash Rai 27. National Renewable Energy
Laboratory 599
24.1 Introduction 547
Sbihi Karim, Aziz Faissal and El Baraka Noureddine
24.2 Challenges 548
24.3 Lipid extraction 555 27.1 Introduction 599
24.4 Future perspectives 559 27.2 National Renewable Energy Laboratory 600
24.5 Conclusions 560 27.3 History of National Renewable Energy
Acknowledgment 560 Laboratory algal biofuels projects 603
References 560 27.4 Principal project 605
27.5 Microalgae isolation and characteristics during
25. History and recent advances of the project 606
27.6 Limitation of industrial application 610
algal biofuel commercialization 567 27.7 Conclusion of the project 610
Ali Noor and Fouzia Naseer References 612
25.1 Introduction and history of biofuel 28. Aquatic species program 615
production 567 Faissal Aziz, Anas Tallou, Karim Sbihi, Khalid Aziz and
25.2 Recent advancement in large-scale biofuel Nawal Hichami
production 568
25.3 Pilot-scale and large-scale trials of algal biofuel 28.1 Introduction 615
production 569 28.2 Introduction to US department of
25.4 Top companies of biofuel production from energy 616
different feedstocks 570 28.3 History of the algae species program 619
x Contents

28.4 Microalgal isolation and characteristics 623 29.2 Life cycle assessment toward microalgae
28.5 Relationship between National Renewable industrialization 636
Energy Laboratory and algae species 29.3 Operating conditions 639
program 627 29.4 Algal biodiesel 641
28.6 Limitations of industrial applications 628 29.5 Process simulation 644
28.7 Conclusions of the project 630 29.6 Process description 644
Acknowledgments 631 29.7 Economic assessment 646
References 632 References 650

29. Algal fuel production by industry: Index 653

process simulation and economic
assessment 635
Sayeda M. Abdo, Entesar Ahmed, Sanaa Abo El-Enin,
Guzine El Diwan, K.M. El-Khatib, Gamila H. Ali and
Rawheya A. Salah El Din

29.1 Introduction 635

 List of contributors
Ali Samy Abdelaal Department of Genetics,
Faculty of Agriculture, Damietta University,
Damietta, Egypt
Mohamed S.M. Abdel-Kareem Botany and
Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science,
Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
Sayeda M. Abdo Water Pollution Research
Department, National Research Centre, Cairo,
Egypt
Norhayati Abdullah UTM International, Level
8, Menara Razak, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
Abd El-Fatah Abomohra Department of
Environmental Engineering, School of
Architecture and Civil Engineering, Chengdu
University, Chengdu, P.R. China; Botany and
Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science,
Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
Shadma Afzal Department of Biotechnology,
Motilal Nehru National Institute of
Technology Allahabad, Prayagra, India
Imran Ahmad Algae and Biomass, Research
Laboratory, Malaysia-Japan International
Institute of Technology (MJIIT), Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya
Petra, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Mohd Danish Ahmad Department of Post-
Harvest Engineering and Technology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
Muhammad Ahmad School of Chemistry and
Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Beijing, P.R. China
Entesar Ahmed Botany and Microbiology
Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar
University (Girls Branch), Cairo, Egypt
xi
İlknur Ak Faculty of Marine Science and
Technology, Department of Aquaculture,
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University,
Çanakkale, Turkey
Elham Mahmoud Ali Department of Aquatic
Environment, Suez University (SU), Suez,
Egypt; Department of Environmental Studies,
The National Authority for Remote Sensing
and Space Sciences (NARSS), Cairo, Egypt
Gamila H. Ali Water Pollution Research
Department, National Research Centre, Giza,
Egypt
Ahmed E. AlProl National Institute of
Oceanography and Fisheries, Hurghada,
Egypt
Faissal Aziz Laboratory of Water, Biodiversity,
and Climate Change, Faculty of Sciences
Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech,
Morocco; National Center for Research and
Studies on Water and Energy (CNEREE),
Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco
Khalid Aziz Materials, Catalysis and
Valorization of Natural Resources, Faculty of
Sciences, University Ibn Zohr, Agadir,
Morocco
Hagar Alm-Eldin Bastawissi Mechanical
Power Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
Narayanamoorthy Bhuvanendran Institute for
Energy Research, Jiangsu University,
Zhenjiang, P.R. China
Ekrem Cem Çankırılıgil Sheep Breeding
Research Institute, Bandırma, Balıkesir, Turkey
Marco Cantonati MUSE–Museo delle Scienze,
Limnology & Phycology Section, Corso del
Lavoro e della Scienza 3, Trento, Italy
xii List of contributors
Hector De la Hoz Siegler Department of
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering,
University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
Macide Güneş Dereli Faculty of Pharmacy,
Department of Pharmacology, Istanbul
University, Istanbul, Turkey; Graduate
School of Health Sciences, Istanbul
University, Istanbul, Turkey
Nalok Dutta Bioproducts Science and
Engineering Laboratory, Washington State
University, Richland, WA, United States
Mounir El Achaby Materials Science and
Nano-Engineering Department, Mohammed
VI Polytechnic University, Benguerir,
Morocco
Guzine El Diwan Chemical Engineering and
Pilot Plant Department, National Research
Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Ahmed El Nemr National Institute of
Oceanography and Fisheries, Cairo, Egypt
Sanaa Abo El-Enin Chemical Engineering and
Pilot Plant Department, National Research
Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Marwa R. Elkatory Advanced Technology and
New Materials Research Institute (ATNMRI),
City for Scientific Research and Technological
Applications (SRTA-City), Alexandria, Egypt
Medhat Elkelawy Mechanical Power
Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
K.M. El-Khatib Chemical Engineering and
Pilot Plant Department, National Research
Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Gihan M. El-Khodary Department of Zoology,
Faculty of Science, Damanhour University,
Damanhour, Egypt
Eithar El-Mohsnawy Botany and Microbiology
Department, Faulty of Science, Kafrelsheikh
University, Kafr Al Sheikh, Egypt
Ahmed A. El-Refaey Algae Lab, Botany and
Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science,
Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
Salwa A. El-Saidy Department of Zoology,
Faculty of Science, Damanhour University,
Damanhour, Egypt
Alaa A.F. ElSaied Botany and Microbiology
Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria
University, Alexandria, Egypt; Biology
Department, Unaizah College of Sciences and
Arts, Qassim University, Unaizah, Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia
Heba S. El-Sayed National Institute of
Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Cairo,
Egypt
Mahdy Elsayed Department of Agricultural
Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo
University, Giza, Egypt
Ahmed I. EL-Seesy Institute for Energy
Research, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, P.R.
China; Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Benha Faculty of Engineering,
Benha University, Benha, Egypt
Mostafa El-Sheekh Department of Botany,
Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta,
Egypt
Mostafa E. Elshobary School of Food and
Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University,
Zhenjiang, P.R. China; Department of Botany
and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Tanta
University, Tanta, Egypt
Sivakumar Esakkimuthu New Energy
Department, School of Energy and Power
Engineering, Jiangsu University, Jiangsu,
P. R. China
Aziz Faissal National Center for Research and
Study on Water and Energy (CNEREE),
University Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Morocco;
Laboratory of Water, Biodiversity and
Climate Changes, Semlalia Faculty of
Sciences, Marrakech, Morocco
Praveena Gangadharan Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Palakkad, India
Shristy Gautam Department of Molecular
Biology and Genetic Engineering, School of
Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely
Professional University, Phagwara, India
Mohamed A. Hassaan National Institute of
Oceanography and Fisheries, Cairo, Egypt
 List of contributors xiii
Zhixia He Institute for Energy Research, Muhammad Usman Khan Bioproducts
Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, P.R. China; Science and Engineering Laboratory,
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Washington State University, Richland, WA,
Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, P.R. China United States; Department of Energy Systems
Nawal Hichami Laboratory of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural
and Sustainable Development of Natural Engineering and Technology, University of
Resources, Sultan Moulay Slimane Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
University, Beni Mellal, Morocco Iwamoto Koji Algae and Biomass, Research
Mohamed Taha Ismail Mechanical Power Laboratory, Malaysia-Japan International
Engineering Department, Faculty of Institute of Technology (MJIIT), Universiti
Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya
Petra, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Mohammadhadi Jazini Department of
Chemical Engineering, Isfahan University of Edis Koru Faculty of Fisheries, Department of
Technology, Isfahan, Iran Aquaculture, Ege University, İzmir, Turkey
Khashti Ballabh Joshi School of Chemical Sanjay Kumar School of Biochemical
Science and Technology, Department of Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Chemistry, Dr. Harisingh Gour Central (BHU) Varanasi, Varanasi, India
University Sagar, Sagar, India Rehab H. Mahmoud Water Pollution Research
Yassine Kadmi LASIRE CNRS UMR 8516, Department, National Research Centre, Cairo,
Sciences and Technologies, University of Egypt
Lille, Lille, France Reda M. Moghazy Water Pollution Research
Sabariswaran Kandasamy Institute for Energy Department, National Research Centre, Cairo,
Research, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, P.R. Egypt
China Mathiyazhagan Narayanan PG and Research
Gaurav Kant Department of Biotechnology, Centre in Biotechnology, MGR College,
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Adhiyamaan Educational Research Institute,
Technology Allahabad, Prayagra, India Krishnagiri, India
Fouzia Naseer Department of Botany,
Dhriti Kapoor Department of Botany,
University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
School of Bioengineering and Biosciences,
Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Ali Noor Department of Biological Sciences,
India Karakoram International University, Gilgit-
Baltistan, Pakistan
Sbihi Karim Laboratory of Biotechnology,
Materials and Environment, Natural El Baraka Noureddine Laboratory of
Substances and Environment Unit, Faculty Biotechnology, Materials and Environment,
Polydisciplinary of Taroudant, University Ibn Physicochemistry of Natural Environments,
Zohr, Taroudant, Morocco; National Center Materials and Environment Team,
for Research and Study on Water and Energy Polydisciplinaire Faculty of Taroudant,
(CNEREE), University Cadi Ayyad, Taroudant, Morocco
Marrakech, Morocco Ashutosh Pandey Department of
Hanan M. Khairy National Institute of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National
Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Cairo, Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagra,
Egypt India; Department of Biotechnology, IMS
Engineering College (Affilliated to Dr. APJ
Mohd Jahir Khan Diatom Nanoengineering Abdul Kalam Technical University,
and Metabolism Laboratory (DNM), School Lucknow) Ghaziabad, India
of Applied Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour
Central University Sagar, Sagar, India Antonio Pantaleo Agriculture and
Environmental Sciences Department, Bari
University, Bari, Italy
xiv List of contributors
Ahmed Mohamed Radwan Mechanical Power
Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
Mohammadhosein Rahimi Department of
Chemical Engineering, Isfahan University of
Technology, Isfahan, Iran
Monika Prakash Rai Amity Institute of
Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida,
India
Reetu Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity
University, Noida, India
Fateme Saadatinavaz Department of Chemical
Engineering, Isfahan University of
Technology, Isfahan, Iran
Abdullah A. Saber Botany Department,
Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University,
Cairo, Egypt
Hani Saber Department of Botany and
Microbiology, Faculty of Science, South
Valley University, Qena, Egypt
Rawheya A. Salah El Din Botany and
Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science,
Al-Azhar University (Girls Branch), Cairo,
Egypt
Abid Sarwar Department of Irrigation and
Drainage, Faculty of Agricultural
Engineering and Technology, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Karim Sbihi Laboratory of Biotechnology,
Materials and Environment, Natural
Substances and Environment Unit, Faculty
Polydisciplinary of Taroudant, University Ibn
Zohr, Taroudant, Morocco
Mohammad Ali Shariati Kazakh Research
Institute of Processing and Food Industry
(Semey Branch), Semey, Kazakhstan
Manish Pratap Singh Department of
Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagra,
India
Nand Kumar Singh Department of
Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute
of Technology Allahabad, Prayagra, India
Prashant Singh Laboratory of Cyanobacterial
Systematics and Stress Biology, Department
of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi, India
Sameer Srivastava Department of
Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagra,
India
Vishal Janardan Suryavanshi School of
Chemical Science and Technology,
Department of Chemistry, Dr. Harisingh
Gour Central University Sagar, Sagar, India
Anas Tallou Polydisciplinary Laboratory of
Research and Development, Faculty of
Sciences and Techniques, Sultan Moulay
Slimane University of Beni Mellal, Beni-
Mellal, Morocco
Gülen Türker Department of Food
Technology, Çanakkale School of Applied
Sciences, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University,
Çanakkale, Turkey
Sanet Janse van Vuuren Unit for
Environmental Sciences and Management,
North-West University, Potchefstroom, South
Africa
Shrasti Vasistha Amity Institute of
Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida, India
Vandana Vinayak Diatom Nanoengineering
and Metabolism Laboratory (DNM), School
of Applied Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour
Central University Sagar, Sagar, India
Shuang Wang New Energy Department,
School of Energy and Power Engineering,
Jiangsu University, Jiangsu, P. R. China
Kushi Yadav Amity Institute of Biotechnology,
Amity University, Noida, India
Maryam Yousaf School of Chemistry and
Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Beijing, P.R. China; Department
of Chemistry, University of Agriculture
Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Ali Yuzir Department of Chemical and
Environmental Engineering (ChEE),
Malaysia-Japan International Institute of
Technology (MJIIT), Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
 About the editors
Mostafa El-Sheekh is a professor of
Phycology at Tanta University, Egypt. He
has nearly 38 years of experience of research
and teaching in the field of algae, microbiol-
ogy, and its applications. Dr. El-Sheekh
served as the Vice Dean and Dean Faculty
of Science, Tanta University, Egypt, and as a
Cultural counselor in the Egyptian Embassy
in Yemen and Uzbekistan. He also served as
Vice President of Tanta University for post-
graduate studies and research. He holds a
PhD in Phycology from Tanta University
and Göttingen University, Germany, as a
Chanel System fellowship. He is the recipi-
ent of fellowships in Germany, Hungary,
India, Sweden, the Czech Republic, and
Japan. He is the author of more than 210
papers, 13 book chapters, and four books.
He also serves as an editorial member and
reviewer for more than 92 peer-reviewed
journals. He has published several papers
on the production of biodiesel, ethanol, and
hydrogen from algae. He was included in
the World’s Top 2% of Scientists List pub-
lished by Stanford University in 2020 and
2021.
xv
Prof. Abd El-Fatah Abomohra is a profes-
sor of Environmental Engineering and has
been the Head of New Energy and
Environmental Laboratory (NEEL) at
Chengdu University, Chengdu, China,
since 2019. He received his PhD in 2012
through a cooperation program between
Tanta University (Egypt) and Hamburg
University (Germany) funded by Deutscher
Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD).
He has 20 years’ work experience at differ-
ent universities as a research assistant, lec-
turer, associate professor, and professor.
He has authored seven books and more
than 100 contributions published in SCI
index journals. He was included in the
World’s Top 2% of Scientists List published
by Stanford University in 2020 and 2021.
His research group primarily works on
bioenergy production from different bio-
mass feedstocks and waste.
This page intentionally left blank
 C H A P T E R

1
Cyanoprokaryotes and algae:
classification and habitats
Abdullah A. Saber1, Ahmed A. El-Refaey2, Hani Saber3,
Prashant Singh4, Sanet Janse van Vuuren5 and
Marco Cantonati6
1
Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt 2Algae Lab,
Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
3
Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, South Valley University, Qena,
Egypt 4Laboratory of Cyanobacterial Systematics and Stress Biology, Department of Botany,
Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India 5Unit for Environmental
Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
6
MUSE
Museo delle Scienze, Limnology & Phycology Section,
Corso del Lavoro e della Scienza 3, Trento, Italy

1.1 Introduction

Algae, including the evolutionarily primitive photoautotrophic cyanoprokaryotes, colo-

nize all abiotic components of planet Earth, namely, air, land, and water. This highly het-
erogeneous group of organisms is indeed of universal distribution. Most species are
morphologically and physiologically adapted to the biomes in which they live. Although
many species can live in aerial and terrestrial environments, they are by far the most abun-
dant in aquatic habitats [1]. Starting from the late nineteenth century onwards, the taxon-
omy of cyanobacteria and algae has been punctuated by a series of major breakthroughs.
Great progress during the last century has been fostered by the advent of the electron
microscope technique, which led to many new discoveries such as detailed structures of
plastids and flagella [2,3]. The development of molecular and phylogenetic tools through-
out recent decades not only refined our understanding of the immense diversity of cyano-
bacteria and algae but also enabled a revolution of ideas with regard to their taxonomy

Handbook of Algal Biofuels

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823764-9.00024-8 1 © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. Cyanoprokaryotes and algae: classification and habitats

and classification [4
7]. In other words, the discrimination of morphologically similar

species and genera has nowadays become much easier in the context of applying the inte-
grative polyphasic approach.
Throughout this chapter, we present an overview of the key taxonomic characteristics
of cyanoprokaryotes and algae. We also present exhaustive insights into the history and
modern classification systems, particularly for the blue
green algae. The diverse habitats
and global distribution of these intriguing microorganisms have also been our interest and
we outline and briefly discuss them across all biomes and also provide some details on
the species inhabiting the hot and cool spring habitats.

1.2 Key taxonomic characteristics of cyanoprokaryotes and algae

Algae are a highly heterogeneous group comprising cyanoprokaryotes, characterized by

cells mainly lacking membrane-bound organelles, and eukaryotic algae, with cells contain-
ing true-shaped organelles [8]. They have representatives in all inland waters and are dis-
tributed between eight and 12 major evolutionary lineages [9]. They are classified based
on different taxonomic criteria, namely, cell structures (such as plastids, nucleus, composi-
tion of cell walls, etc.), physiological characteristics (such as types of pigments, storage
products, etc.), or morphological features such as number and position of flagella. The
nature of photosynthetic pigments was the primary base for algal classification into differ-
ent divisions. However, more ultrastructural cellular details, with keystone taxonomic
value, have been unveiled with the advent of the electron microscope [8]. For a description
of the taxonomic features of the major algal groups treated in this section, we follow and
recommend recent phycology texts [9,10]. In general, there is little consensus among taxo-
nomists about the exact number of algal divisions, and the rapidly growing polyphasic
approaches are most likely to change our understanding with regard to the classification
systems of algae.
The key taxonomic features of the main algal groups in this chapter are summarized in
Table 1.1.

1.3 Cyanoprokaryotes: taxonomic classification history,

modern age, and perspectives

1.3.1 History of cyanobacterial taxonomy

Cyanobacterial taxonomy has been a challenging field, with numerous criteria being devel-
oped and revised in order to attain a system that is stable and consistent. The latter decades
of the 19th century were characterized by the documentation of two tribes of blue
green
algae, the Coccogoneae (having unicellular reproductive bodies) and Hormogoneae (having
few short fragments, like hormogones) [12]. The taxonomy of the Coccogoneae was further
elaborated in other works [13]. Interestingly, even before all these developments, Nägeli had
documented the unicellular Chroococcaceae already in 1849 [14]. The Hormogoneae tribe was

Handbook of Algal Biofuels

 1.3 Cyanoprokaryotes: taxonomic classification history, modern age, and perspectives 3
TABLE 1.1 Major taxonomic characteristics of cyanoprokaryotes and algae presented in this chapter [10], [11].
Algal groups Photosynthetic Plastid Storage Cell wall Flagella (number
pigments outer product structure and insertion)
membranes

Cyanoprokaryotes Chl a, c-phycocyanin, 0 Cyanophycean Peptidoglycan Absent

c-phycoerythrin, starch matrices
myxoxanthin,
myxoxanthophyll,
carotenes, flavacene
Red algae Chl a, r-phycoerythrin, 2 Floridean starch Galactose Absent
r-phycocyanin, in cytoplasm polymer
α/β-carotenes, lutein, outside the matrix, in
zeaxanthin, chromatophores addition to
violaxanthin cellulose and
pectin
Diatoms Chl a, c, fucoxanthin, 4 Chrysolaminarin Siliceous One (only rarely),
diatoxanthin, and oils frustules anterior
diadinoxanthin

Xanthophytes and Chl a, c, heteroxanthin, 4 Chrysolaminarin Mostly Two unequal,

Raphidophytes diadinoxanthin, cellulosic tinsel and
vaucheriaxanthin walls, some whiplash, apically
naked inserted
Eustigmatophytes Chl a, 4 Chrysolaminarin Mostly One to two
vaucheriaxanthin, cellulosic unequal, long
violaxanthin walls forward-directed
tinsel flagellum
and a shorter
backward-directed
smooth flagellum

Chrysophytes Chl a, c, β-carotenes, 4 Chrysolaminarin None, scales, Two unequal, one

fucoxanthin, lutein and lorica short smooth and
neofucoxanthin directed laterally
or posteriorly, and
the other long,
directed anteriorly,
and pleuronematic
(tinsel, hairy, or
flimmer flagellum)
bearing two rows
of tripartite hairs
attached through
the flagellar
membrane to
specific outer
doublets
(Continued)

Handbook of Algal Biofuels

Another random document with
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 By means of the index finger or the index and middle fingers of the
right hand the mediastinal space is explored, and the fatty masses
round the base of the heart broken through. If the pericardium is
greatly distended, the point of the sac can be felt with the tip of the
finger, or its position can be recognised, even from a little distance,
on account of the fluid contents transmitting the impulse of the
heart. The sensation conveyed to the finger is very clear.
The right index finger is then replaced by the left, and, a trocar
about 10 inches long and ¼ inch in diameter being introduced along
the index finger used as a director, the pericardial sac is reached. The
exudative fluid transmits the impulse due to the beating of the heart,
and the pulsations can be clearly distinguished when grasping the
handle of the trocar.
Third stage. Digital exploration of the course of the puncture and
fatty cushion at the base of the heart, with the object of discovering
the position of the pericardium.
Fourth stage. Puncture with a trocar about 10 to 12 inches in
length, puncture of the pericardium, irrigation and dressing.
 Fig. 179.—Photograph of a patient immediately after operation. Extensive
œdema of the dewlap and neck.

The trocar is inclined in a slightly oblique direction from without

inwards and forwards towards the median plane, in order that the
point may not deviate towards the left pleural sac; the left index
finger is then withdrawn, and by a sharp thrust of the right hand the
trocar is pushed forward about 1 to 1½ inches and the pericardial sac
is entered.
The position of the canula should not be altered whilst liquid is
escaping, for if it is thrust in too far a considerable quantity of fluid
may remain in the deepest portion of the sac.
The cavity having been drained, a long strip of iodoform gauze is
introduced into the track and a protective surgical dressing applied
over the incision in order to prevent infection by the litter.
In consequence of the introduction of the fingers into the track
caused by puncture and the escape of pericardial liquid along the
canula or after removal of the canula, the operative wound is
necessarily infected; but this is of little importance, because the
opening is inclined downwards, and also because it is impossible to
hope for aseptic healing.
The dressing is renewed after forty-eight hours, and every three or
four days afterwards.
The œdematous infiltration about the front portion of the body
disappears rapidly in two to three days, and should the animal be
slaughtered the meat is quite sound in appearance.
This operation does not aim at effecting a cure, but is simply for
the purpose of allowing animals which would otherwise be valueless
to be slaughtered and sold.

Fig. 180.—Photograph of the same subject as Fig. 179, taken six days later.

CHRONIC PERICARDITIS.

Pericarditis when due to tuberculosis may assume the chronic

form. Tuberculous pericarditis, at least in a large number of cases, is
only accompanied by slight exudation, which might remain
unnoticed unless the animals were carefully examined; but it causes
the internal surface of the pericardial sac and the surface of the
myocardium to become covered with exuberant vascular growths,
which by setting up adhesions lead to partial or generalised union of
the heart and pericardial sac. Between these adhesions, which form
partitions, are found little cavities filled with sero-sanguinolent,
grumous, or caseous liquid. In time the adhesions increase in
number, pericarditis obliterates the free space, and the heart
becomes wholly adherent to the pericardium.
As in acute pericarditis, the fibrous layer undergoes thickening and
hardening processes. The superficial layers of the myocardium
undergo sclerous transformation, and the tissues forming the
adhesions themselves may assume the characters of fibrous tissue.
In one solitary case Moussu saw another form of chronic
pericarditis with complete adhesion of the heart and pericardial sac,
without any exudation and almost without any false membranes. He
was unable to determine the exact cause, but was strongly inclined to
regard the disease as having followed pericarditis à frigore or
pericarditis of a rheumatic character.
Adhesions between the heart and pericardial sac are also said to be
the inevitable though delayed result of all punctures of the
pericardium through the ensiform cartilage in cases of pericarditis
due to a foreign body.
Symptoms. If the chronic pericarditis is limited to a few partial
adhesions, it remains unnoticed; but when it is more marked it offers
certain signs of acute pericarditis, such as partial dulness of the
cardiac area, which is more extensive than usual, disappearance of
the cardiac shock, weakening of the sounds, feebleness of the pulse,
very marked venous pulse, moderate stasis, extremely rapid and
aggravated dyspnœa when the animal is forced to walk, threatened
asphyxia if exercise is prolonged, and complete asystole.
All these symptoms are due to the existence of adhesions between
the heart and pericardium, which, by destroying the interpericardial
space, interfere with diastole while preventing regular systole.
Sudden death is a frequent consequence.
The diagnosis of chronic pericarditis is very difficult. The
prognosis is extremely grave, and we do not possess any means of
 dealing with the
condition.

PSEUDO-
PERICARDITIS.

Under this title we

purpose grouping a
certain number of
pathological accidents
due to different causes,
but manifesting
themselves by identical
symptoms, which
symptoms offer so
marked a resemblance
to those of pericarditis
produced by foreign
bodies as to suggest
the presence of that
disease. This refers to
Fig. 181.—Schema of a subpleural abscess accidents by which the
on the right side which produced foreign body closely
symptoms of pericarditis (pseudo- approaches, without
pericarditis). Po, Right lung, partly actually touching, the
splenised and thrust upwards; Pl, parietal pericardium, the lung
pleura separated from the wall of the lower or the pleural sacs, but
half of the chest; A, cavity of the subpleural in which it causes
abscess. purulent collections
which displace the
pericardium, indirectly compress the heart, and finally cause
symptoms of an apparently pericardial character.
Causation. During the development of pericarditis the foreign
body perforates the reticulum and diaphragm, passing along the
middle line of the body, without which it would not come in contact
with the pericardium. If the perforation, however, occurs to the right
or left of the median plane, the foreign body moves forward just as
easily, but it misses the pericardium and passes either into the lung,
where it causes fatal pneumonia; or the pleura, where either it sets
up septic pleurisy in the subpleural connective tissue or produces an
abscess.
The abscess is generally lateral, situated in the right subpleural
region, or it may develop below the pericardium. These are the two
varieties of pseudo-pericarditis seen by Moussu.
There is, however, a third variety, which might be called “parasitic
pseudo-pericarditis.” It is extremely rare, and Moussu has only seen
one case. It was due to the presence of an enormous hydatid cyst of
the right lung as large as a man’s head, which was situated towards
the mediastinal plane of the lung and pressed on the supero-
posterior surface of the heart and pericardium. In consequence of the
permanent downward pressure which it exercised it interfered
seriously with the heart’s action and caused symptoms of pseudo-
pericarditis.
Symptoms. The general and external symptoms are those of
pericarditis—viz., dulness, diminution in appetite, irregular
rumination, wasting, œdema of the dewlap, distension of the
jugulars, marked venous pulse, great anxiety and dyspnœa when the
patients are forced to move, etc.
But the cardiac symptoms differ notably, and moreover vary,
according to the nature of the lesions. Speaking generally percussion
reveals complete dulness on one or both sides, and auscultation
always indicates the absence of sounds due to extravasated fluid in
the pericardial sac.
When the abscess is situated below the pericardium, a condition
difficult to diagnose, the dulness seldom extends very high on either
side of the chest, and the sounds heard over the cardiac area, while
much weaker than usual, are audible above the normal points.
An abscess developing beneath the pleura on one side displaces
the heart in the opposite direction. The cardiac beat is weakened by
the compression, but, nevertheless, transmits an impulse to the
purulent fluid, which in its turn conveys it outwards through the
intercostal spaces in the form of movements corresponding in
rhythm with the beating of the heart, so that at first glance one might
imagine an aneurism existed at the base of the large arterial trunks.
The lower pulmonary lobe is thrust upwards, and over the area of
dulness pulmonary sounds completely disappear.
When the heart is compressed by a large hydatid cyst or other
lesion, the general and external symptoms are similar to those above
described.
Finally, one last symptom, which appears of some importance,
may be mentioned. When animals suffering from pericarditis due to
a foreign body are forced to move, the heating of the heart becomes
so tumultuous that it can no longer be counted, and even in a state of
rest it may rise to 140 or 150 beats per minute. In cases of pseudo-
pericarditis it rarely rises above 90 or 110.

Fig. 182.—Appearance of an animal suffering from pseudo-pericarditis (infra-

pericardial abscess). The dotted outline indicates the space occupied by the heart,
which is thrust upwards.

Diagnosis. The attempt to diagnose this condition accurately

must not be regarded merely as a result of scientific curiosity. Under
certain circumstances the diagnosis may be of very great importance.
While the patient affected with pericarditis due to a foreign body is
beyond all hope of recovery, certain cases of pseudo-pericarditis
appear amenable to treatment.
The diagnosis, therefore, is of great importance, and the
practitioner should spare no effort to confirm it, bearing in mind the
symptoms enumerated, and remembering that the normal sounds of
the heart never completely disappear.
An aseptic exploratory puncture with a long, fine needle will
sometimes prove of great assistance.
Prognosis. Although grave, the prognosis is less so than in true
pericarditis.
Treatment. If clearly recognised, both subpleural and
subpericardial abscesses seem curable. By freely puncturing the pus-
filled cavity through an intercostal space, the liquid may be
evacuated and recovery may occur. Healing is favoured by carefully
washing out the cavity with a non-irritant disinfectant.
The only precaution required in making such punctures is to avoid
the internal thoracic artery and vein, the intercostal artery, and the
lower cul-de-sac of the pleura.
 CHAPTER III.
ENDOCARDITIS.

If the symptoms of pericardial diseases are well defined, we cannot

say the same of diseases of the heart, properly so-called. Such
affections often pass unnoticed, being detected only on post-mortem
examination. Moreover, cardiac diseases are rare. Very frequently
they are only of a secondary nature, accompanying or following
better recognised conditions, such as infectious diseases, post-
partum infections, etc.
Causation. Endocarditis, i.e., inflammation of the endocardium
and valves, is rarely primary, simple and benign. It was formerly
thought to be the result of chills or of the rheumatic diathesis. These
simple forms of endocarditis usually escape observation, though
careful examination in the first instance reveals them.
Much more frequently, however, endocarditis is secondary,
malignant, infectious and infecting. This variety occurs as a
complication of post-partum infection or of very serious general
conditions, such as peripneumonia, gangrenous coryza, aphthous
fever, tuberculosis, etc. To detect it, not only must the original
disease be accurately diagnosed, but all the changes the disease is
producing in important organs must be followed.
While it is generally admitted that all forms of endocarditis, even
of the most benign character, are originally due to infection, it is
certain that in those of the second group the organisms which have
entered the bloodstream through a lesion of the uterus, lung or other
tissue, are endowed with very great virulence. They attack some
point on the endocardium, and produce either ulcerations which
become covered with fibrous clots, or exuberant new growths of a
pathological nature, which generally are papilliform, fragile, and
prone to become detached by rupture of their pedicle and thus to be
launched into the general circulation and to form emboli. The
surface of these infected vegetations, like that of the ulcerations,
becomes covered with fibrinous clots, which are readily loosened,
form emboli in their turn, and infect distant organs.
 Symptoms. The general symptoms of infectious endocarditis are
by far the most important. They consist of prostration, loss of
appetite, severe thirst, and high temperature. The local symptoms
consist principally of murmurs: soft murmurs due to insufficiency of
the auriculo-ventricular valves, heard during systole, particularly
opposite the point of the heart where the cardiac shock is most
clearly felt. This fact differentiates them from the murmurs of
chronic endocarditis, which are usually due to aortic contraction, and
are accompanied by a systolic sound heard at the base of the heart,
more in advance and at a higher point than those now under
consideration.
These murmurs or souffles furthermore vary in intensity and in
character, according to whether the endocarditis results from post-
partum infection, pyæmic disease, or some other cause.
Diagnosis. The diagnosis of endocarditis has not yet been the
object of really careful study in bovine pathology, but there is no
doubt that it can often be detected by patient examination.
Prognosis. The prognosis is very grave, and patients may die in a
few days.
Treatment comprises vigorous local stimulation over the cardiac
area, the administration of antithermic and antiseptic drugs, such as
salicylate of soda, or of digitalis, sparteine or other cardiac tonics.
Pathologists have also described, chiefly as post-mortem
curiosities of interest to pathological anatomists, various diseases
and lesions due to insufficiency or contraction of the auriculo-
ventricular, aortic, and pulmonary openings, lesions due to
infectious myocarditis, to the presence of parasites and to other
causes.
The symptoms of these various diseases or lesions in bovine
animals are still too imperfectly understood to permit of more than a
very limited description.
In the present state of our knowledge, diagnosis would always be
of an uncertain character, and for this reason we do not propose to
deal with them at present.
 CHAPTER IV.
DISEASES OF BLOOD-VESSELS.

Diseases of vessels, arteries or veins, in animals of the bovine and

ovine species are frequently nothing more than localisations of grave
general disorders, and rarely admit of treatment. This is specially the
case in regard to arteries, but a study of the diseases of veins has
some practical importance.

PHLEBITIS.

Phlebitis, i.e., inflammation of a vein, is of interest only in the case

of bovine animals. In them certain conditions may occur which the
practitioner should understand, with a view either to prevention or
treatment. Inflammation of the veins may be due to external causes,
such as surgical or accidental wounds (phlebotomy wounds,
accidental wounds, local inflammations, etc.), or to internal causes of
infectious origin (general infection, puerperal infection, etc.).

ACCIDENTAL PHLEBITIS.

The jugular vein may become inflamed as a result of accidental

wounds or of phlebotomy, but the mammary vein in cows is much
more frequently affected. In both cases the disease is due to infection
of the clot which seals the vessel; it may assume the form of either
adhesive phlebitis or suppurative phlebitis. Whether produced
directly by the use of infected instruments or whether it is of a
secondary character, traceable to the clot being infected by germs
entering from without being conveyed to the wounds by the head-
stall chains, by litter, manure, etc., the result is the same. The
inflammation, at first confined to the endothelium, extends to the
wall of the vein and causes fibrin to be precipitated over the inner
wall of the inflamed vein for a distance varying with each case.
If the microorganisms do not produce suppuration, the vein
appears simply thrombosed and inflamed, the phlebitis remains of
an adhesive character, and may disappear spontaneously, provided
the animal be kept quiet. If, on the other hand, suppuration is set up,
the clot gradually breaks down, the internal surface of the vein
develops granulations and undergoes suppuration, and the phlebitis
is then said to become suppurative. The clot may even become
entirely detached, transforming the suppurative phlebitis into a very
grave form of hæmorrhagic phlebitis.
The jugular is the commonest seat of adhesive phlebitis, the
mammary vein of suppurative phlebitis.
Symptoms. The symptoms are easy to recognise. The accidental
or instrumental wound is the seat of a painful œdematous swelling.
It discharges a reddish offensive serosity, or exhibits blackish-violet
bleeding granulations surrounding a little central sinus.
The affected vein, whether the jugular or mammary, soon becomes
swollen, is sensitive to the touch and very rapidly becomes indurated
in the direction of its origin for a greater or less distance.
Phlebitis has then set in, and according as one or other
complication predominates, it is described as suppurative or
hæmorrhagic.
Diagnosis and prognosis. The diagnosis presents no difficulty.
In phlebitis of the jugular the neck is held stiffly, and the jugular
furrow is partly obliterated.
The prognosis is somewhat serious, particularly in phlebitis of the
mammary vein, for obliteration of the vein interferes with the
function of the venous plexus from which it springs, and, although
there may be a limited vicarious circulation, the secretion of milk is
indirectly and secondarily checked owing to difficulty of irrigation.
The extension of phlebitis of the jugular towards the head and the
venous sinuses of the cranial cavity, is quite exceptional.
When the mammary vein is inflamed it appears collapsed in the
direction of the heart and swollen, indurated, and painful in that of
its origin in the mammary gland.
Treatment. The first point requiring attention is so to fix the
animal as to prevent the clot from being pressed upon or crushed,
though, unfortunately, this cannot always be properly done. The
difficulty is obviated by applying vesicants, which cause swelling and
pain, and so reduce natural movement of the parts to a minimum.
 At first, when the parts surrounding the operative wound are
simply swollen and phlebitis is threatened, repeated application of
tincture of iodine or a liquid vesicant is useful, and may prevent the
disease developing.
In existing cases a blister applied over and around the whole of the
hardened tract may prevent the mischief from proceeding beyond
the adhesive stage. In such case the clot becomes organised, the vein
remains obliterated, and recovery follows.
Similar treatment may also be employed in suppurative phlebitis,
but as the clot gradually breaks down in consequence of the action of
bacteria it is useful and almost indispensable to disinfect the vessel.
For this purpose the opening of the sinus must be enlarged, and, by
means of a sterilised or very clean syringe with a curved nozzle, the
parts washed out daily with warm boiled water, followed by an
antiseptic injection containing 2 per thousand of iodine, 3 per cent.
of carbolic acid, or, better still, glycerine containing 1 per thousand of
sublimate.
If in spite of this treatment the phlebitis extends towards the
origin of the jugular or mammary vein, a counter-opening may be
made at the point where the clot still remains adherent, and a strip of
iodoform gauze saturated with tincture of iodine or with blistering
ointment diluted to one-eighth with oil may be passed. Needle firing
is also of value. Finally, as a last resource, a ligature may be applied
to the vein above or beyond the clot.
This operation, which in the horse is confined to hæmorrhagic
phlebitis, is especially applicable to phlebitis of the mammary vein in
the cow. As the vein is subcutaneous, the operation may easily be
performed in the standing position; the successive stages are as
follows:—
The patient is firmly secured and its hind limbs hobbled by passing
a rope around the hocks in a figure of eight. It is steadied on one side
by an assistant who presses on the quarter.
One cubic centimètre of a 10 per cent. solution of cocaine is
subcutaneously injected on each side of the vein at the point chosen.
Ten minutes later a button-hole incision is made through the skin
and a loop of thick catgut passed around the vein by means of a
curved needle. The ligature is tied firmly with a surgical knot and the
little wound afterwards covered with a mass of cotton wool secured
by collodion.

INTERNAL INFECTIOUS PHLEBITIS (UTERO-OVARIAN

PHLEBITIS).

The internal forms of phlebitis of parasitic or infectious origin are

as yet little understood, but mention may be made of phlebitis of the
utero-ovarian veins which frequently follows parturition and post-
partum infection. This is probably in many instances the real cause
of the post-partum paraplegia without gross or apparent material
lesions.
This form of infectious phlebitis may extend to the large internal
and external iliac veins and produce embolism and septicæmia, as is
shown by recorded cases.
The mechanism of the disease is easily understood. The infective
agents penetrate the veins of the uterine mucous membrane and pass
from the lumen into the wall of the vein. Here they cause
inflammation of the vascular endothelium, followed by the deposit of
a fibrous clot of cylindrical form, which sets up partial thrombosis of
the vein. This thrombosis becomes complete by the formation of a
central clot due to venous stasis.
It is not necessary for the germs to penetrate at a number of
points. The thrombosis progresses until it gains a large trunk beyond
the original point of infection.
Symptoms. Phlebitis of the veins of the pelvis is frequently
misunderstood or overlooked, because the practitioner is apt to
confine his attention to external signs, the paresis and paraplegia of
the hind quarters.
The symptoms usually appear from five to eight days after normal
parturition or parturition in which there is retention of the after-
birth followed by metritis. The animals show fever and lose appetite,
signs which may be due to metritis, but soon after they experience
difficulty in rising, and some days later remain permanently
recumbent.
 The circulation is weak, and the entire intra-pelvic region painful;
the large nervous trunks are affected, exertion becomes difficult, and
the animals refuse to rise. At this stage they should not be forced to
do so.
In two to three weeks improvement may occur and lead to
recovery but in many instances various complications in the nature
of purulent infection or septicæmia set in, or the animals are
previously slaughtered.
Diagnosis. The diagnosis can only be determined after the
symptoms develop. Confirmation might in some cases be obtained by
rectal exploration made methodically and gently.
Prognosis. The prognosis is grave.
Treatment. Treatment should be based on disinfection of the
uterus by injections of boiled water or warm iodised solutions and
drainage by means of strips of iodoform gauze. The animals should
be placed on a thick and scrupulously clean bed, and as far as
possible be spared any considerable exertion for a fortnight. By
changing their position once or twice a day complications may be
avoided.

UMBILICAL PHLEBITIS OF NEW-BORN ANIMALS.

One of the most serious conditions met with in practice is that

known as umbilical phlebitis of new-born animals. Whilst in fact it is
easy to deal with phlebitis of the jugular or mammary vein, surgical
or medical assistance becomes extremely difficult in this case,
because the inflamed vein is deeply situated in the abdomen and
passes through one of the most important internal organs, viz., the
liver. When it is added that umbilical phlebitis is in 95 per cent. of
cases of a suppurative character, the reader may form some idea of
its gravity.
Unless the condition is early diagnosed and measures are at once
taken, such complications as infectious hepatitis, purulent infection,
and septicæmia cannot be avoided. Death is then inevitable.
In order clearly to understand this phlebitis, however, it is
necessary to recall the anatomical formation of the umbilical region
in the new-born animal.
At birth the umbilical cord is represented by a cylindrical mass,
surrounded by the terminal portion of the amnion. It enters the
abdomen through a circular perforation in the abdominal wall
known as the umbilical ring. This ring may be divided into two parts,
one deeply seated, the fibro-aponeurotic ring, consisting of an
aperture in the white line; the other the superficial or cutaneous ring,
formed by the skin, which is wrinkled all round it, and constitutes a
kind of sleeve about an inch in length. This cutaneous sleeve is
continuous with the amniotic tissues. The entire umbilical cord is
therefore enveloped in an amniotic-cutaneous sheath.

Fig. 183.—Position of the abdominal viscera in a new-born animal: Ru,

rumen; E, epiploon; Rg, left kidney; Ig, small intestine; C, abomasum; U,
ureter; O, urachus; R, rectum. Umbilical cord: Vo, Umbilical vein; Aa,
allantoid arteries; Va, allantoid veins; O, the urachus.
 It is composed of four principal structures—the umbilical arteries,
the umbilical vein, the urachus, and the interstitial mucous tissue.
The umbilical arteries and vein consist of two parts—the extra-
fœtal part, which co-operates in forming the cord, and the intra-fœtal
part.
The first is formed of two arteries and two veins, in contra-
distinction to the condition in solipeds, where the cord only contains
one vein. In the second, the arrangement is as follows: The two
umbilical allantoid arteries on entering the abdomen curve
backwards towards the entry of the pelvis, passing over the sides of
the bladder enveloped in the lateral ligaments, and extend upwards
towards the bifurcation of the aorta, finally pouring their contents
into the internal iliac arteries. In the adult they may still be traced as
annexes of these latter vessels. The two umbilical veins on passing
through the ring unite to form one within the abdomen. This vessel
passes forwards, rising along the lower abdominal wall, then
becomes lodged in the thickness of the inferior middle ligament of
the liver, and finally penetrates that organ where it unites with the
portal vein. It is also connected with a vessel known as “the vein of
Arantius,” which places it in communication with the posterior vena
cava, a vein not found in solipeds.
The fœtal blood is purified by exchanges between it and that
circulating in the maternal placenta, and when re-arterialised it
returns by the umbilical vein.
The urachus, found in the embryo and fœtus, eventually gives rise
to the bladder. In new-born animals this viscus is therefore open at
its base, and communicates with the allantoid cavity through the
urachus. The urachus starts from the base of the bladder, and,
extending along the median plane of the lower abdominal wall
between the two umbilical arteries as far as the umbilical opening,
takes its place in the cord alongside the vessels. Through it the
secretions of the fœtal kidneys drain into the allantoid cavity. The
interstitial mucous tissue, also called “Wharton’s jelly,” is a
gelatinous material which unites these different vessels and helps to
support and protect them in the umbilical cord. It is particularly
abundant opposite the umbilicus.
Immediately after birth the umbilical cord ruptures of itself as a
result of the fall which the young animal experiences or of
movements made by the mother, as for instance when she attempts
to rise. In certain other cases it is divided by the mother biting it, or
it may be ligatured by some person present. However the rupture
may be brought about, it always occurs at a distance of 2 to 4 inches
from the umbilicus. The immediate result is to produce thrombosis
of the umbilical vessels and obstruction of the urachus. The two
umbilical arteries rarely bleed, for hæmostasis is brought about by
stretching, and these arteries, being very elastic, almost immediately
retract and close. The umbilical veins simultaneously become
blocked, and the single intra-abdominal vein having no further
raison d’être, gradually becomes obliterated. The urachus should
normally be obliterated at the moment of delivery (Colin and Saint-
Cyr), or at any rate soon afterwards, as a consequence of rupture of
the cord (Chauveau and Zundel).
Immediately after delivery another change sets in. The extra-fœtal
portion of the cord, which remains attached to the umbilicus, dries
on contact with the air, the Wharton’s jelly retracts, the whole
undergoes a kind of necrosis, assumes the appearance of a dry scab,
and in eight or ten days falls away, leaving in its place the umbilicus,
which should be half cicatrised on the fall of the cord. Thus the
umbilical cord presents an extra-fœtal degenerated portion and a
persistent portion about ½ to 1 inch only in length, buried in the
cutaneous ring of the umbilical region.
If all the changes indicated occur normally and physiologically, the
little wound in the region of the umbilicus cicatrises in a perfectly
regular way. But unfortunately this is not always the case. At times
the cicatrix becomes contaminated by manure, urine or dust,
suppurates, and may then become the seat of various complications,
such as umbilical phlebitis, omphalitis or persistence of the canal of
the urachus.

UMBILICAL PHLEBITIS OR OMPHALO-PHLEBITIS.

History. Umbilical phlebitis, and in a more general sense all

pathological conditions of the umbilicus, in new-born animals have
been the object of numerous investigations by Lecoq, Bénard, Loiset
(1843), Bollinger (1874); and more recently by Morot (1884),
Uffredizzi (1884), Chassaing (1886), etc.
Omphalo-phlebitis may occur as a primary condition or may
appear as a complication of omphalitis and of persistence of the
urachus. It consists essentially in suppurating inflammation of the
umbilical vein, but is not infrequently accompanied by omphalitis,
arteritis, peritonitis, and cystitis.
Causation. The disease results from infection of the (normal) clot
and of the wound resulting from severance of the cord. The infection
may only cause simple phlebitis of the umbilical vein, but if the
organisms are virulent the phlebitis almost inevitably degenerates
into suppurative phlebitis.
Formerly omphalo-phlebitis was thought to be caused by the
mother licking the foal, by irregular tearing of the cord, by crushing
and separation of the obliterating clot, etc. The truth is that all these
causes favour infection of the umbilical wound, which is the primary
cause, suppurative phlebitis being secondary only.
When the cord is ruptured both the veins and arteries become
plugged, and bleeding ceases. This plugging should end in
organisation of the clot and obliteration of the vessels. If, however,
the wound is infected, microorganisms make their way between the
clot and walls, and extend along the inner surface of the vein,
infecting first the clot and then the vein, and thus setting up
suppurative phlebitis.
If suppuration does not continue, recovery may occur
spontaneously. Infection may be confined to the clot, producing
simple phlebitis, but it often extends along the umbilical vein to the
liver, causes infectious hepatitis and purulent infection or
septicæmia. Similar results may be produced by infection of the
arteries, the organisms making their way as far as the bifurcation of
the aorta, and thus gaining the general circulation. Moussu believes
that this is the commonest method by which septicæmia is produced
in calves.
Symptoms. In these cases it is usually the general symptoms
which first attract attention, the local lesion passing unnoticed for a
greater or less time.
 The animal shows intense fever, due to either suppurative
phlebitis, infectious hepatitis, or, as often happens, to generalised
infection. Appetite is lost, diarrhœa is abundant, the respiration and
circulation are accelerated, and the temperature rises to 104° Fahr.,
or even 105° Fahr.
The local symptoms are those usually associated with omphalitis
or phlebitis. An examination of the umbilical ring reveals an
œdematous, hot, sensitive swelling, the lower part of which exhibits a
chronic, suppurating, fungoid, blackish wound of unhealthy
appearance.
This wound is the seat of one or more sinuses which penetrate the
vein, arteries, or urachus. If only one sinus exists, it always passes
upward and forward into the umbilical vein. The utmost precaution
should be employed in examining the parts. Should it be thought
desirable to probe the sinus in order to discover its direction, the
probe must be very cautiously introduced, and only for a short
distance, because rough handling would tear the tissues and carry
infective material to deeper seated points.
Complications. These are numerous and very grave. Long ago
Lecoq described a disease suggestive of laminitis, which beyond
doubt was only a form of purulent infection. At a later date Loiset
studied a disease following omphalitis, in which interstitial abscesses
developed in the cord. This also was simply purulent infection.
More recently complications such as pleurisy, pneumonia,
infectious endocarditis, diarrhœic enteritis, and especially
suppurative polyarthritis of young animals have been referred to
omphalo-phlebitis. All these complications result from infection. The
microorganisms themselves or the toxins they secrete appear to have
a particularly injurious action on the serous membranes, a fact which
throws light on the frequency of such complications as pleurisy,
peritonitis, endocarditis and arthritis.
Intoxication also plays a certain part, and microbic toxins are
responsible, at least at first, for the uncontrollable diarrhœa, arthritis
with sterile exudations, etc.
Diagnosis. This presents no difficulty. The alarming general
symptoms seen at the outset immediately suggest in the case of
young animals the possibility of disease in the umbilical region.