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Stroke
Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management
SEVENTH EDITION
SCOTT E. KASNER, MD
Professor, Department of Neurology
University of Pennsylvania
Director, Comprehensive Stroke Center
University of Pennsylvania Health System
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Elsevier
1600 John F. Kennedy Blvd.
Ste 1600
Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
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permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notice
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. Because of rapid advances
in the medical sciences in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be
made. To the fullest extent of the law, no responsibility is assumed by Elsevier, authors, editors, or con-
tributors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence
or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in
the material herein.
Previous editions copyrighted © 2016 by Elsevier Inc; 2011 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc; 2004, 1998,
1992, 1986 by Churchill Livingstone.
Video 30.1 Important concepts regarding Video 32.9 TTE of large posterior mitral annular
angioarchitecture, classification, and risk calcification (MAC) with central echo lucency,
factors for arteriovenous malformations. suggesting caseous MAC.
Video 30.2 Endovascular embolization of a frontal Video 33.1 Large atherosclerotic plaque in the mid-portion
arteriovenous malformation. of the aortic arch with large superimposed,
Video 30.3 Endovascular and surgical techniques in the mobile thrombus (also Fig. 33.6).
treatment of dural arteriovenous fistulae. Video 33.2 Mobile aortic plaque in the superior aspect of
Video 32.1 Mobile atheroma: An intraoperative video 3D the aortic arch, just proximal to the takeoff of
TEE image of a mobile atheroma in the aortic the innominate artery (also Fig. 33.10A and B).
arch, visualized during a transcatheter aortic Video 35.1 3D reconstruction of carotid angiography
valve replacement (TAVR), consistent with in a 40-year-old woman with right-sided
grade 5 atheromatous disease. numbness. Anterior, posterior, and left lateral
Video 32.2 (A) Positive bubble study: Markedly positive rotational video of the left internal carotid
bubble study consistent with a large atrial artery demonstrates a web.
level shunt. (B) Negative bubble study: Video 60.1 Knee-ankle-foot-orthosis: A knee-ankle-foot
Agitated saline contrast (“bubble”) study orthosis enabled this hemiplegic person with
showing no evidence of an interatrial sensorimotor loss to prevent the knee from
communication. snapping back in the mid- to late stance phase
Video 32.3 TEE bubble study with intrapulmonary of gait, prevent catching the forefoot when
shunt: A bubble study on TEE with delayed initiating swing, and improved control of the
passage of bubbles into the left atrium via the stability of foot placement during the stance
right upper pulmonary vein, suggesting an phase.
intrapulmonary shunt, such as a pulmonary Video 72.1 Minimally invasive endoscopic ICH
atriovenous malformation. evacuation. The procedure begins with a
Video 32.4 Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: TTE revealing 1.5-cm incision, a 1-cm craniectomy, and
akinesis of mid- and apical left ventricular stereotactic placement of a 19F (6.3-mm)
segments with hypercontractile basal sheath into the hematoma. The introducer
segments, consistent with a stress-mediated is then removed from the sheath, and the
cardiomyopathy (Takotsubo cardiomyopathy). endoscope is placed down the sheath with
an adjunctive aspiration device inserted
Video 32.5 Mobile atrial septum with positive bubble in the working channel of the endoscope.
study: Mobile atrial septum, consistent with
Continuous irrigation with lactated Ringers is
an atrial septal aneurysm. Agitated saline
used throughout the procedure.
contrast (“bubble”) study reveals passage
of bubbles into the left heart after the atrial Video 72.2 Minimally invasive endoport-mediated ICH
septum bulges into the left atrium, suggesting evacuation. The procedure begins with a
a transient increase in right atrial pressure. 4-cm incision, a 2.5-cm craniotomy, and
This finding is consistent with the presence of stereotactic placement of a 13.5-cm endoport
a patent foramen ovale (PFO). into the hematoma. The introducer is
then removed from the endoport, and the
Video 32.6 TTE of a large left atrial myxoma, filling the
endoport is fixed in place. A microscope or
entire left atrium and resulting in obstruction
an exoscope is then positioned to provide
to left ventricular filling.
visibility down the endoport and into the
Video 32.7 Papillary fibroelastoma: TEE of the aortic cavity.
valve revealing a linear echo density on the
Video 75.1 Surgical management of a cerebral cavernous
ventricular surface of the valve, consistent
malformation.
with a papillary fibroelastoma.
Video 32.8 2D (A) and 3D (B) images of a large burden of Video 77.1 Superficial temporal artery to middle cerebral
artery bypass.
clot in the left atrium and left atrial appendage
in a patient with a cardiomyopathy and atrial Video 78.1 Decompressive craniectomy in a patient with
flutter, presenting with a stroke. malignant middle cerebral artery infarction.
ix
Foreword to the Seventh Edition
This original editor continues to marvel at the advances in The growing participation in stroke management by
the field of stroke, justifying the seventh edition of this book. those in allied fields has done nothing to displace the role
Among other topics, the first edition had a mere 15 chap- of neurovascular clinicians, whose commitment includes
ters, and in 347 pages covered “Stroke Therapy.” The subjects studying how the brain works. Insights from modern basic
ranged from management of risk factors to rehabilitation. biology, increasingly sophisticated imaging, prospective
This edition has no less than 28 such chapters, clustered in clinically detailed databases, and even access to video Zoom
stand-alone sections for medical and interventional therapy. follow-ups are providing windows into what was formerly
The page length for all of subjects has steadily expanded by called semiology. Decades ago, the neurology literature was
editions: proof, if needed, of progress. Gone—and good rid- dotted with titles beginning with “The Neurology of…” by
dance!—are the days when those interested in stroke were which the author(s) implied how a clinical syndrome allowed
considered clinically irrelevant for lack of definitive therapies. insight into diagnosis or prognosis. Today, a surprising number
Instead, far from an arcane subspecialty, stroke prevention of outcomes for acute focal syndromes formerly considered
and management now has an impact on the clinical practice static, prevented from their full development, or deemed
of many medical and surgical fields whose training not long modified favorably by acute interventions, are yielding insights
ago scarcely touched on the subject. into the mysteries of functional reorganization. The increasing
Stroke clinicians now find their clinical judgment opportunities to understand this effect offers literature-
tested—sometimes to their vexation—by the application of oriented neurovascular clinicians the chance to be links in an
hyperacute management algorithms driven mainly by scor- unbroken chain of inquiry dating back to antiquity.
ing systems, meta-analyses, and outcomes from the wave of
clinical trials. Few can argue with the positive effect of rapid J.P. Mohr, MD
assessment and intervention, especially for acute ischemic Daniel Sciarra Professor of Neurology
strokes. Insights spanning genetics, basic biology, computer- Department of Neurology
driven population studies, web-based meta-analyses, and Director and Neurologist
increasingly common longitudinal outcome reports are wel- Doris and Stanley Tanenbaum Stroke Center
come signs of progress. Only novelists should designate their Columbia University Irving Medical Center
published work free from revision. The current contributors New York, New York
can expect further changes to justify an eighth edition in the
foreseeable future.
x
Preface
The seventh edition of the text has a number of important Other unsolved areas that receive substantial updating
changes. First, this edition has even more on-line features, include intracerebral hemorrhage by new author Dr. Anderson
making it easier to access its content in a digital-friendly for- and arteriovenous malformations by Drs. Samaniego, Roa,
mat. The eBook includes the entire book plus full reference Ortega-Gutierrez, and Derdeyn. In addition, the chapters
lists (as opposed to the Key References that appear in the chap- on the surgical management of different types of brain
ters) and a larger number of videos than the previous edition. hemorrhage have all been updated by new authors.
Access to the Expert Consult eBook version is included with The previous edition appeared just as the trials demonstrating
print purchase. This enhanced eBook experience allows you the benefit of endovascular thrombectomy were published, so
to search all of the text, figures, and references on a variety of the coverage of this revolution in treatment was incomplete.
devices. The content can also be downloaded to tablets and In this edition, Dr. Broderick’s section, Interventional Therapy,
smart phones for offline use. and in particular the chapter by Drs. Saver and Jahn on the
Another important change includes our new Surgical endovascular treatment of acute ischemic stroke, have been
Therapy section editor, Arthur Day, MD. Dr. Day is an substantially updated to include the results of all those pivotal
international authority on the surgical management of clinical trials, as well as the myriad studies that followed.
cerebral aneurysms, intracranial hemorrhage, and extracranial The final unresolved topic receiving increased coverage
vascular disease. He is the recipient of numerous neurosurgical in this edition is how best to deliver these effective new
leadership awards, and from first-hand experience I can attest treatments (e.g., stroke systems of care). We have added a new
to his passion for teaching and the wisdom that has grown chapter on this topic, written by Drs. Czap, Harmel, Audebert,
out of decades of skillfully managing the complexities of the and myself, that explores different models and approaches to
entire array of neurovascular surgical cases. Of particular value reorganizing our stroke centers, resources, and staffing. and
for his role as editor, Dr. Day has been an important leader In addition, first-time contributors to this title, Drs. Kircher
of the neurosurgical field as it has emerged from open to and Adeoye, have expanded the chapter on prehospital and
endovascular approaches and as it has partnered with vascular emergency care.
neurology in the conduct of clinical trials. As a result of his While I have focused my editorial spotlight on a few of the
intimate knowledge of the entire neurovascular landscape and major unresolved topics that are receiving substantial and well-
its leaders, you will see that the authors of almost all of the deserved increased attention, I want to emphasize that each and
chapters in the Surgical Therapy section have changed and the every chapter has been updated with new information. There
chapters have all been updated. I think that the readers will be is a new chapter on posterior reversible encephalopathy, which
impressed by the combined experience, fresh perspective, and replaces the old chapter on hypertensive encephalopathy with
new information in every chapter in the section. new authors (Drs. Balu and Fischer); the imaging chapters on
Other notable changes in this edition justified enlarging CT and MRI have been updated, with expanded discussion of
attention given to several underappreciated and yet unresolved the important role of imaging in patient selection for acute
problems in the field. In line with the increasing evidence of therapy; the chapters on cardiac disease, cryptogenic stroke,
vascular disease as the most important modifiable contributor and secondary prevention provide more information on
to dementia and much-needed attention to the biology atrial fibrillation detection, other possible causes of embolic-
underlying small vessel disease, a new chapter on this topic appearing stroke without known source, and their long
has been added to the Pathophysiology section, which has term management; the antiplatelet therapy chapter includes
been overseen by the senior editor, Dr. Lo. In addition, the updated data from recent trials of dual antiplatelet therapy;
chapters on the clinical aspects of vascular dementia and and the design of stroke clinical trials chapter has been
small vessel disease have been updated by new authors (Drs. rewritten by new authors (Drs. Perez, Elm, and Saver) and
Rundek, Seshadri, and Caunca) in the Epidemiology and Risk includes emerging novel approaches to figuring out if new
Factors section, and important new information is found in the treatments work.
chapters on genetics and CADASIL. Somewhat linked to this All in all, I hope that the exciting relevant new data that fill
topic and also reflecting a maturing interest in non-imaging the pages of our journals and make stroke such a dynamic and
stroke biomarkers in general is an entirely new chapter on interesting field are distilled into these pages in a readable and
“OMICs,” written by Drs. Jickling and Sharp. authoritative format that will help the reader understand their
Disparities in stroke incidence and outcomes has become patients and their underlying disease, which they see every
a hot topic, accentuated recently by the spotlight cast on this day, and also provide the foundation for new knowledge that
issue during the COVID-19 pandemic and the racial unrest in will be the substrate for the next edition.
the United States. The already outstanding chapter on stroke
disparities by Drs. Howard, Howard, and McCullough has James C. Grotta, MD
been updated, and this topic has also been woven through
other chapters where relevant.
xi
Contributors
xii
Contributors xiii
Sook-Lei Liew, PhD, OTR/L Jason M. Meckler, MD Maiken Nedergaard, MD, PhD
Assistant Professor Neurologist Professor and Director
Chan Division of Occupational Science Norton Neurology Services Center for Translational Neuromedicine
and Occupational Health Louisville, Kentucky University of Rochester Medical Center
Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Rochester, New York
James Frederick Meschia, MD
Therapy Professor and Director
Professor
Department of Neurology Center for Basic and Translational
Department of Neurology
Keck School of Medicine Neuroscience
Mayo Clinic
University of Southern California University of Copenhagen
Jacksonville, Florida
Los Angeles, California Copenhagen, Denmark
Steven R. Messé, MD
David J. Lin, MD Justin A. Neira, MD
Professor
Clinical Fellow Resident
Department of Neurology
Center for Neurotechnology and Department of Neurological Surgery
Perelman School of Medicine at the
Neurorecovery Columbia University Medical Center
University Hospital of Pennsylvania
Department of Neurology NY-Presbyterian Hospital
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Massachusetts General Hospital New York, New York
Boston, Massachusetts J Mocco, MD
Sarah Newman, NP
Professor
Benjamin Lisle, PM, PhD Beth Israel Lahey Health
Department of Neurosurgery
Department of Neurology Lahey Hospital and Medical Center
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount
University of Missouri Medical School Burlington, Massachusetts
Sinai
and Cox Health
New York, New York Patrick J. Nicholson, MB, BCh, BAO
Springfield, Missouri
Diagnostic and Interventional
Maxim Mokin, MD, PhD
Eng H. Lo, PhD Neuroradiologist
Associate Professor
Professor of Neurology and Radiology Toronto Western Hospital and
Department of Neurosurgery
Harvard Medical School University Health Network
University of South Florida College of
Boston, Massachusetts University of Toronto
Medicine
Director, Neuroprotection Research Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Vascular Neurologist
Laboratories
Neurosciences Center Bo Norrving, MD, PhD
Massachusetts General Hospital
Tampa General Hospital Professor
Charlestown, Massachusetts
Tampa, Florida Department of Clinical Sciences
Patrick D. Lyden, MD Neurology Division
Michael A. Mooney, MD
Professor Lund University
Instructor
Department of Neurology Lund, Sweden
Department of Neurosurgery
Cedars-Sinai Medical Center
Brigham and Women’s Hospital Martin O’Donnell, MB, PhD
Los Angeles, California
Harvard Medical School Department of Medicine
Takakuni Maki, MD Boston, Massachusetts NUI Galway and Saolta University
Neuroprotection Research Laboratory Healthcare Group
Lewis B. Morgenstern, MD
Departments of Radiology and Galway, Ireland
Professor
Neurology
Department of Neurology Dimitry Ofengeim, PhD
Massachusetts General Hospital
Director, Stroke Program Department of Cell Biology
Harvard Medical School
University of Michigan Medical School Harvard Medical School
Boston, Massachusetts
Ann Arbor, Michigan Boston, Massachusetts
Department of Neurology
Kyoto University Graduate School of Michael A. Moskowitz, MD Jun Ogata, MD, PhD
Medicine Professor of Neurology Internal Medicine
Kyoto, Japan Harvard Medical School Hirakata General Hospital for
Senior Neuroscientist Developmental Disorders
Georgios A. Maragkos, MD
Departments of Radiology and Hirakata-shi, Osaka, Japan
Post-Doctoral Research Fellow
Neurology
Department of Neurosurgery Christopher S. Ogilvy, MD
Massachusetts General Hospital
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Professor
Boston, Massachusetts
Harvard Medical School Department of Neurosurgery
Boston, Massachusetts Michael T. Mullen, MD Harvard Medical School
Assistant Professor Director, Brain Aneurysm Institute
Miklos Marosfoi, MD
Department of Neurology Director, Endovascular and Operative
Assistant Professor of Radiology
Perelman School of Medicine at the Neurovascular Surgery
Tufts University School of Medicine
University Hospital of Pennsylvania Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
Beth Israel Lahey Health
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Boston, Massachusetts
Lahey Hospital and Medical Center
Burlington, Massachusetts Steffen Nägel, MD Emanuele Orrù, MD
Departement of Neurology Assistant Professor of Radiology
Louise D. McCullough, MD, PhD
Martin-Luther-University Tufts University School of Medicine
Professor and Chair
Halle-Wittenberg Beth Israel Lahey Health
Department of Neurology
University Hospital Halle Lahey Hospital and Medical Center
McGovern Medical School
Halle, Germany Burlington, Massachusetts
University of Texas Health Science
Center at Houston
Houston, Texas
Contributors xvii
Reprinted with permission Circulation. 2010;121:1544–1579 ©2010, American Heart Association, Inc.
xx
AHA Evidence-Based Classifications xxi
Adapted from Sacco RL, Adams R, Albers G, et al. Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement
for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke. Stroke. 2006;37:577–617.
SECTION
I Pathophysiology
Eng H. Lo
The first section in this new edition of Stroke provides an immune cells. New sections describe emerging opportunities
updated and comprehensive survey of the molecular, cellular, in tolerance and preconditioning, as well as interactions
and pathophysiologic mechanisms that underlie the brain’s between the immune system and the microbiome. The
reaction to ischemia and hemorrhage. At the cellular level, chapter on stroke recovery reviews a complex spectrum of
stroke affects pathways of hemostasis and perturbs interac compensatory response in resident precursor and circulating
tions between circulating blood elements, the blood vessel progenitor cells. New insights have been added to explore
itself, and brain parenchyma. At the functional level, the regu the role of exosomes and micro-RNA that may transfer and
lation and dysregulation of hemodynamics and metabolism coordinate signals between all cell types in the remodeling
mediates an integrated neurologic response. At the organ level, neurovascular unit. The chapter on white matter has also
stroke induces histopathologic reactions in all neural, glial, been expanded, with added material that links exercise to
and vascular cells. Hence this section begins with three chap oligodendrocyte homeostasis and resilience. The chapter
ters that define basic principles of vascular biology, cerebral on cerebral hemorrhage surveys advances in molecular and
blood flow and metabolism, and brain tissue injury. Updates cellular phenomena with new ideas that may link ferroptosis
include new information on hemodynamic responses to to translational opportunities and clinical trials. The chapter
thrombectomy and reperfusion, as well as new sections that on vascular malformations has been updated to link signaling
discuss correlations between experimental animal models and cascades in advanced zebrafish and mouse models with genes
clinical pathology. that are implicated in clinical disease. Finally, this section ends
Building on these fundamental principles, the next few with the addition of a new chapter that defines novel pathways
chapters then explore the molecular mechanisms of cell death in the neurovascular unit that mediate vascular contributions
and survival. Genes and pathways underlying necrosis and to cognitive impairment and dementia.
programmed cell death are balanced against an expanding Optimal translation for cerebrovascular disease cannot
family of endogenous neuroprotection mediators. The neuro occur without a rigorous dissection of the molecular and
vascular unit chapter remains a centerpiece for the overall cellular fundamentals in neurovascular and gliovascular
concept of cell-cell signaling. However, beyond the brain biology. The basic principles established in this section should
itself, interactions with other organ systems are also discussed provide not only mechanistic foundations but also a rational
in terms of crosstalk with neuroinflammatory cascades and basis for pursuing therapeutics and diagnostics in stroke.
1
SECTION
I Pathophysiology
3
4 SECTION I Pathophysiology
Endothelial dysfunction, manifested as diminished NO Recent evidence of the importance of Ca2+ spark activity
bioavailability experimentally by impaired endothelium- and BKCa channels as mediators of vasodilators has emerged,
dependent vasodilation, or reduced vasoconstriction in as TEA and iberiotoxin inhibit vasodilator responses in
response to a NOS inhibitor, is a common feature of many response to vasodilators that activate adenylate cyclase and
cerebrovascular-related diseases (discussed in the Alterations guanylate cyclase.12 Acidosis markedly increased Ca2+ spark
in Cerebral Vascular Function During Hypertension and activity and caused dilatation of brain parenchymal arterioles.
Atherosclerosis section). Such exogenously applied agonists Dilatation was inhibited by inhibitors of ryanodine receptors
are often useful in this way experimentally, and they may (ryanodine) and BKCa channels (paxilline), as well as in mice
also be important endogenously. For example, neurovascular lacking the BKCa channel.13 Hydrogen sulfide (an important
coupling in some brain regions is mediated by neuronally signaling molecule in the regulation of vascular tone and
released acetylcholine acting on the endothelium to blood pressure) also increased Ca2+ spark and BKCa current
stimulate eNOS.7 frequency, as well as causing dilatation in cerebral arterioles—
the vasodilatation was inhibited by ryanodine and iberiotoxin,
suggesting Ca2+ spark activity is important in the response.14
K+ Channels Intermittent hypoxia increased myogenic tone through loss of
The activity of K+ channels is a major regulator of smooth hydrogen sulfide activation of KCa channels.15 Hypoxia had
muscle cell membrane potential and, as such, is an important no effect on Ca2+ spark frequency but reduced KCa channel
regulator of vascular tone. This is because vessel diameter is in activity.16 Protein expression of KCa2.2, 2.3, and 3.1,16 as well
large part dependent on cytosolic Ca2+ concentration, which as α- and β1-subunits of BKCa channels17 in cerebral arteries,
in turn is dependent on membrane potential. There are five have been reported.
major types of K+ channels known to be expressed in cerebral
blood vessels: calcium (Ca2+)-activated (KCa) K+ channels, ATP
sensitive K+ (KATP) channels, voltage-sensitive K+ (KV) chan-
KATP Channels
nels, inwardly rectifying K+ (KIR) channels, and tandem-pore KATP channels are defined by their sensitivity to intracellular
(TREK-1) channels, and all are regulators of vascular tone. ATP, with their activity being inhibited by intracellular ATP.18
This is supported by the wealth of information using both Generally, the intracellular concentration of ATP is normally
pharmacologic inhibitors and gene-targeted mice to study sufficient that these channels have a low open probability
the regulation of membrane potential and vascular function. in most vascular smooth muscle cells under normal condi-
Potassium channels are also important mediators of vasodi- tions,19 and this appears to also be the case in the cerebral
lator responses to several vasodilators that regulate vascular circulation, where glibenclamide, a selective inhibitor of KATP
tone, and this will be also be discussed. channels, has no effect on cerebral vascular tone.20 However,
KATP channels appear to be present and functional in cerebral
vessels based on direct evidence for their expression (discussed
KCa-Activated K+ Channels as follows) and a wealth of evidence reporting glibenclamide-
There are three subtypes of KCa channels present in the vascu- sensitive relaxation of cerebral arteries in response to KATP
lature: large-conductance KCa (BKCa) channels, intermediate- channel activators.18
conductance (IKCa) channels, and small-conductance (SKCa) Several more recent studies have investigated the expression
channels. Most research regarding the functional importance of KATP in cerebral vessels. KATP channels are thought to be a
of this channel, especially in cerebral arteries, has centered hetero-multimeric complex of two subunits: one is a pore-
around the BKCa channel. forming inward-rectifying K+ channel type 6 (i.e., 6.1 or 6.2),
As the name suggests, these channels are activated in and the other is a sulfonylurea receptor (SUR), either SUR1 and
response to increases in intracellular Ca2+. Membrane SUR2, with the SUR2 gene generating the two splice variants
depolarization, myogenic responses (i.e., pressure-induced SUR2A and SUR2B.21 Messenger RNA (mRNA) expression for
vasoconstriction, important in development and maintenance both the pore-forming subunits (KIR6.1 and 6.2) and SUR1,
of basal vascular tone), and elevations in arterial pressure are 2A, and 2B has been demonstrated in cerebral arteries,21,22
associated with elevations in intracellular Ca2+ concentration although another study investigating SUR expression found
in cells of the vasculature.8 Thus an important function of no expression of SUR1 and reported only SUR2B expression.23
these channels appears to be to act as a negative feedback Protein expression of KIR6.1 and 6.2, as well as SUR1 and 2B,
mechanism during increases in Ca2+ to limit vasoconstriction. was also reported.22 Cerebral arterioles were found to express
A major mechanism of elevations in intracellular Ca2+ appears KIR6.1 and SUR2B,24 with human cerebral arteries found to
to be via Ca2+ sparks, which are localized elevations in express SUR2B.23
cytosolic Ca2+, due to the opening of ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+ Acidosis and reductions in intracellular pO2 are known
release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to KCa channels to produce cerebral vasodilatation. KATP channels have been
located on the plasma membrane. shown to be involved in cerebral vasodilatation in response
These channels are important in modulating the basal to acidosis,25,26 as well as in vasodilatation to NMDA, which
tone of cerebral arteries, as selective inhibition of BKCa may be important in the coupling of cerebral metabolism
channels with tetraethylammonium ion (TEA) produces and blood flow.27 More direct evidence for a role of KATP
vasoconstriction.8–10 In mice deficient in the β1 subunit of channels in mediating vasodilatation in response to oxygen/
BKCa channels, increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration glucose deprivation was reported in that vasodilatation was
in response to ryanodine (which at low concentrations impaired in SUR-deficient compared with wild-type mice.23
depletes Ca2+ stores from the sarcoplasmic reticulum so Myogenic tone, and vasodilatation in response to hypoxia, are
that intracellular Ca2+ concentration increases) and cerebral not dependent on SUR2 expression,23 although relaxation to
vascular constriction to iberiotoxin (selective inhibitor of BKCa hypoxia is inhibited by glibenclamide,18,28 suggesting a role
channels) was reduced, suggesting that Ca2+ spark activity for KATP channels in hypoxia-induced vasodilatation where the
modulates myogenic tone through BKCa channel activation.11 KATP subunit composition does not involve SUR2. Hydrogen
These channels may be more important in the modulation of sulfide also dilates cerebral arteries, an effect that is inhibited
basal tone in larger cerebral arteries.8 by glibenclamide and in SUR2-deficient mice.24
Cerebral Vascular Biology in Health and Disease 5
KV Channels RhoA/Rho-Kinase 1
KV channels are activated in response to increases in pressure Smooth muscle cell contractility is ultimately governed by the
in cerebral arteries and modulate cerebral vascular tone, in that phosphorylation state of myosin light chain (MLC), vascular
pharmacologic inhibition of KV channels with 4-aminopyri- smooth muscle tone occurring in association with increasing
dine causes cerebral artery depolarization and constriction.29,30 levels of MLC phosphorylation. MLC is phosphorylated by
KV channels are also known to mediate cerebral artery dila- MLC-kinase—a Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent enzyme—and is
tions, including in response to NO.29,31 KV channel subunits dephosphorylated by MLC phosphatase (MLCP). MLC phos-
are expressed in cerebral vessels (e.g., KV1.2 and 1.5,32–34 and phorylation and smooth muscle contractility are not always
KV2.1 and 2.235,36)—including in humans.37 KV2-mediated directly proportional to intracellular Ca2+ concentration.
current is proposed to underlie KV-dependent modulation of Other mechanisms can regulate smooth muscle contractility
cerebral artery tone in that inhibition of the KV2 channel with independent of changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration, a
stromatoxin-caused cerebral artery constriction.36 phenomenon known as Ca2+-sensitization. Ca2+-sensitization
can occur through several pathways and ultimately results
in inhibition of MLCP. One such pathway is the RhoA/Rho-
KIR Channels kinase (ROCK) pathway. When ROCK is activated, it phos-
This channel is so named since it conducts K+ current more phorylates the myosin-binding (i.e., regulatory) subunit of
readily into than out of the cell over a wide range of mem- MLCP, and thus inhibits MLCP activity, which ultimately leads
brane potentials. However, at membrane potentials within to smooth muscle (and thus vascular) contractility.67,68
the physiologic range, these channels actually conduct a small In vascular muscle, RhoA can be activated by stretch.
outward current. Consequently, when this channel is inhibited This is important since myogenic tone is characterized by
with the pharmacologic blocker, barium ion (Ba2+), depolar- pressure-induced vasoconstriction, making it important for
ization and constriction of cerebral arteries are observed.38–44 the development of basal vascular tone. The contribution of
Furthermore, in mice lacking the KIR2.1 subunit—the subunit ROCK activity to the cerebral artery myogenic response has
thought to be important in mediating vascular KIR current— been studied through the use of Y-27632 and fasudil (HA-
cerebral artery KIR channel currents are absent.45 1077), pharmacologic inhibitors of Rho-kinase.69 For example,
In the cerebral circulation, K+ is released during neuronal Y-27632 relaxes cerebral artery segments following pressure-
activity and may be siphoned to cerebral vessels directly by induced constriction,70 and pressure-induced cerebral artery
astrocytes after neuronal activation.46 Basal concentration of K+ constriction is inhibited by Y-27632 and fasudil.71–73 In vivo,
in cerebrospinal fluid is ∼3 mM and may increase to between where myogenic tone is present, several studies have reported
4 and 7 mM during neuronal activity. In this concentration that Y-27632 and fasudil cause the dilatation of cerebral
range (i.e., from 3 to 10 mM), K+ causes dilatation of cerebral arteries74–78 and arterioles.79 Recent work has begun to define
arteries38,40–42,47,48 and arterioles.39,43,44,49–56 Moreover, the role of ROCK isoforms in the cerebral vasculature. The use
K+-induced hyperpolarization and vasodilatation in this of the selective ROCK2 inhibitor SLX-2119 (also known as
concentration range are inhibited by Ba2+,38–42,48,53–55,57–59 KD025) has revealed that myogenic tone in brain parenchymal
suggesting KIR-mediated K+-induced vasodilation may be an arterioles is ROCK2-dependent.80 In addition, SLX-2119 dilates
important mechanism in the coupling of cerebral metabolism pial arterioles in vivo.80
and blood flow (neurovascular coupling). Furthermore, cerebral ROCK is also important in the regulation of endothelial
vascular relaxation responses to K+ are absent in mice lacking cell function via effects on NO signaling. ROCK has been
the KIR2.1 subunit.45 There have been reports of KIR2.1 channel shown to reduce NO bioavailability, which occurs via
expression in cerebral arteries.38,58 Regarding the role for KIR2.1 reducing NO production via reducing phosphorylation of the
channels in neurovascular coupling, recent work identified stimulatory Ser,11, 77 direct phosphorylation of the inhibitory
KIR2.1 channel on capillaries as critical for sensing neuronal Thr495 residue on endothelial NOS, and/or reducing eNOS
activity (via K+ release) and initiating a retrograde signal to mRNA stability. These findings, in combination with the role
dilate upstream arterioles, thereby increasing local blood flow.60 of ROCK in vascular muscle, provide good evidence that the
RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway is a major mechanism contributing
to cerebral vascular tone.
K2P Channels
A new family of channels—two pore domain K+ (K2P) chan-
nels—have recently been characterized.61 These channels
Reactive Oxygen Species
require two protein subunits, each contributing two pore ROS are known to influence cerebral vascular tone, and this
domains, to form a functional channel. There are several is reviewed extensively elsewhere.81 These ROS include the
members of the K2P family expressed in the vasculature, with parent molecule superoxide (O2−), as well as hydroxyl radical
some reported to be functionally important in the cerebral (OH) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The closely related reac-
vasculature. Expression of TREK-1, TREK-2, TASK-1, TWIK-2, tive nitrogen species (RNS)—peroxynitrite—is also commonly
TRAAK, and THIK-1 has been reported in cerebral arteries, involved in such effects.
with TREK-1 being the most abundant.62,63 Protein and mRNA Superoxide, a negatively charged anion, can elicit either
expression of TREK-1 in the basilar artery was associated with dilatation82–85 or constriction82,86 of cerebral arteries.
vasodilatation induced by polyunsaturated fatty acids (which Superoxide reacts extremely efficiently with NO. As has
are important, as they improve brain resistance against cere- been discussed, NO is a major regulator of cerebral vascular
bral ischemia), such as α-linolenic acid in wild-type mice; tone; thus reduced NO bioavailability following increased
vasodilatation in response to linolenic acid was absent in mice superoxide levels will likely result in vasoconstriction,
deficient in TREK-1.64 Nevertheless, another study reported with vasoconstriction being reported in response to higher
similar vasodilator responses of the basilar artery to α-linolenic concentrations of superoxide82,83 and vasorelaxation at low
acid in wild-type and TREK-1-deficient mice.65 Cerebral artery concentrations.82
expression of TRAAK was associated with an important role in H2O2 is a chemically more stable species than superoxide,
mediating endothelium-independent vasodilatation.66 and it diffuses much more readily across cell membranes, thus
6 SECTION I Pathophysiology
potentially being important as a signaling molecule. Many stress110 and uridine triphosphate.111 TRPV1, TRPV5, and
studies have reported that H2O2 acts as a cerebral vasodilator, TRPV6 channels do not appear to be expressed in cerebral
both in vivo and in vitro,85,87–94 although vasoconstriction has arteries.112 The melastatin TRP channel 4 (TRPM 4) is
also been reported.95 activated by high levels of intracellular Ca2+ and is known
Peroxynitrite, formed from the rapid chemical reaction of to be expressed in cerebral arteries.113 Expression in smooth
superoxide with NO, can also affect cerebral vascular tone, muscle cells is consistent with a role in the myogenic response,
with both dilatation96,97 and constriction97–99 of cerebral in that myogenic vasoconstriction was attenuated in cerebral
arteries reported. Lower concentrations of peroxynitrite appear arteries administered TRPM4 antisense.114 Pharmacologic
to cause cerebral vasoconstriction, with higher concentrations inhibition of the TRPM4 channel with 9-phenanthrol was
typically causing vasodilatation.97,100 able to cause hyperpolarization and prevent the development
and maintenance of myogenic tone, further underlining
its importance in the maintenance of myogenic tone in the
Transient Receptor Potential Channels cerebral circulation.115 Another study also reported cerebral
TRP channels are a superfamily of cation channels compris- vascular expression of TRPM4 protein, which, once inactivated,
ing at least 28 members and are assigned to 6 subfamilies results in reduced myogenic vasoconstriction in response to a
based on their sequence homology.101 These are TRPC (clas- PKC activator.116 TRPA1 channels are known to be expressed
sical), TRPV (vanilloid), TRPM (melastatin), TRPA (ankyrin), in cerebral vessels, specifically in endothelium, and mediate
TRPP (polycystin), and TRPML (mucolipin).102 The structure, endothelium-dependent vasodilatation.117 Finally, TRPP2
expression profile, and function of TRP channels have been channels have been shown to contribute to myogenic tone
reviewed in detail.103 generation in cerebral arteries.118 The role, if any, of other TRP
Depending on the specific TRP channel in question, channels in the cerebral vasculature is presently unknown.
activation can result in constriction or dilation of cerebral
arteries. TRPC1 channels have been shown to mediate
constriction of cerebral arteries via facilitating receptor- ALTERATIONS IN CEREBRAL VASCULAR FUNCTION
operated calcium entry in response to endothelin-1.104 TRPC3 DURING HYPERTENSION AND ATHEROSCLEROSIS
channels also facilitates vasoconstriction to endothelin-1,105
but this does not occur via receptor-operated calcium entry.
Atherosclerosis
TRPC3 has also been shown to mediate constriction to the Atherosclerosis is the underlying pathologic process for both
nucleotide, uridine triphosphate.106 Myogenic tone in cerebral coronary and cerebral artery disease.1 However, atheroscle-
arteries isolated from hypertensive mice was inhibited by rotic lesions progress at a slower rate in intracranial arteries
treatment with SKF93635 (a specific inhibitor of TRPC6 compared with extracranial arteries in both animal models
channels at the concentration used in that study). SKF93635 and humans.119 Atherosclerosis is thought to be initiated by
was without effect in arteries from aged mice, suggesting trapping of lipids in the subendothelial layer, leading to the
TRP channel function is disrupted in cerebral arteries from generation of biologically active oxidized species (i.e., oxi-
aged mice.107 Some TRP channels, such as the vanilloid TRP dized low-density lipoprotein [LDL]), ultimately leading
channel (TRPV3), are chemosensitive. The TRPV3 channel to recruitment of leukocytes to the artery wall.120 Oxidative
is expressed in the endothelium of cerebral arteries, and the modification of LDL present in the intima by ROS may thus
dietary agonist carvacrol, which may be cardioprotective, be a key initiating step in atherosclerosis.121 Endothelial dys-
mediates endothelium-dependent cerebral vasodilatation function is an early step in the development of atherosclerosis,
that is inhibited by a pharmacologic inhibitor of TRPV1-4 and traditional cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., dyslipidemia,
channels.108 TRPV4 channels are expressed in endothelium hypertension) are associated with endothelial dysfunction.122
and vascular muscle cells and appear to mediate vasodilation. Furthermore, atherosclerosis is characterized by chronic
While activation of TRPV4 channels results in calcium entry inflammation of the vasculature; thus these three key pro-
in vascular muscle cells, the resulting calcium sparks activate cesses characteristic of atherosclerosis—oxidative stress, endo-
BK channels and thus hyperpolarization and dilation of the thelial dysfunction, and inflammation—will be discussed here
artery.109 Endothelial TRPV4 channels are activated (resulting (also summarized in Fig. 1.1), with much of the discussion
in calcium influx) and mediate dilation in response to shear referring to data from the apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE−/−)
VII luku.
Mutta vihdoin tuntui tie nousevan hänelle pystyyn, kun vastaan tuli
sisämaasta mereen purkautuva leveä virta, josta ei päässyt yli eikä
ympäri. Hän kiersi sen rantaa pitkän matkaa ylöspäin, mutta se pysyi
aina niin leveänä ja vuolaana, ettei voinut ajatellakaan kahlata sen
poikki. Miesparka ei osannut uidakaan, eikä hänellä ollut enää
mukanaan noita ruukkuja, joiden turvissa kelluen hänen oli
onnistunut päästä laivasta maihin. Mutta hänen asemassaan oleva
mies ei saanut säikähtää edes tästäkään; hän oli jo uskaltanut ja
kestänyt niin paljon, että hänen oli pakko uskaltaa edelleenkin; ja
takaisin palaaminen olisi hänelle ollut varma tuho.
VIII luku.
IX luku.
SISSI-KIRJAILIJA.
X luku.
Hän oli mies, joka vaati kaikilta ehdotonta alistumista, ja jos hänen
väestään joku olisi osoittautunut tottelemattomaksi tahi vaikkapa vain
hidastelevaksi, olisi hän paikalla iskenyt hänet hengiltä. Mutta vaikka
hän olikin niin tuima ja tulitappurainen virkatoimissaan — tarkoitan,
etsiessään saalista mereltä selälliseltä — niin oli hän joutohetkinään
vielä hankalampi muita kohtaan. Palatessaan pyyntiretkiltään
Jamaikaan heittäytyi hän suin päin etsimään vaihetusta ja virkistystä
kestämistään vaaroista ja vaivoista, ja hänen pääasiallisena
virkistyksenään oli ylenmääräinen juopottelu. Paljas tappara kädessä
hän juovuttuaan riehui villinä katuja pitkin, tavoittaen aseellaan
jokaista vastaansattuvaa. Kaupunkilaiset jättivät mikäli mahdollista
kadut tykkänään hänen hoteisiinsa, ja varmaa on, että näitä hänen
vierailultaan Jamaikassa aina harmilla ja pelolla odotettiin.
Mutta Roc ei ollut vain verinen merirosvo, hän oli myöskin peräti
puhdasverinen sissi. Siitä alkaen kun hän kykeni itse määräämään
yksilöllisen uransa, oli hän ollut merirosvo, eikä ollut syytä otaksua,
että hän milloinkaan vaihtaisi tätä uraa toiseen. Hänen
luonteeseensa ei kuulunut maltillinen harkinta eikä pidättyväisyys.
Tyyniluontoinen Esquemeling lienee tuskin koskaan nähnyt Roc-
sankariaan laukkaamassa täydessä hirtehisen raivossa katuja pitkin,
sillä jos hän olisi tälle silloin vastaan sattunut, olisi hänen kirjansa
arvatenkin jäänyt keskeneräiseksi. Hän vakuuttaa meille, että silloin
kun Roc ei ollut juovuksissa, oli hän yhtä arvossapidetty kuin pelätty;
mutta arvonantoakin on monenlaista, ja Rocin nauttima varmaankin
sisälsi enemmän pelkoa kuin persoonallista kunnioitusta.