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OXFORD
GERALD ABRAHAM
i
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2019 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation
https://archive.org/details/conciseoxfordhis0000abra_0
The Concise Oxford History of Music
Gerald Abraham
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way
of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise circulated
without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover
other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition
including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser
11 13 15 17 19 20 18 16 14 12
It has long been generally agreed that large-scale histories of music by single
authors are things of the past. Nevertheless it has seemed to me that a
chronological synoptic survey of the whole field in tolerably readable quasi¬
narrative form, a survey by one man who has for years been occupied in
scrutinizing the work of specialists, might still be useful to the intelligent
layman and non-specialist. It might even perhaps be useful to a specialist
who, finding himself ‘knowing more and more about less and less’, might
wish to stand back and consider the whole continuum of musical history.
It is the reality of this continuum that concerns me: music itself in so far
as and when we can grasp it. Not composers except as producers of it, not
instruments except as they help to make it; there are plenty of other books
which give that kind of information. Instead of attempting a general
valuation of X, I have tried to show what X contributed to the course, and
perhaps the evolution, of church music, of orchestral music, of opera. If his
creative career falls partly in one period, partly in another, I wish to show
each part of his output in the context of that of his contemporaries rather
than in that of what he himself had already achieved or was to achieve later.
Far from being a condensation of the New Oxford History of Music, which
would be impossible, this book is not even based on it. The New Oxford
History employs the microscope, the Concise the telescope. Through the
telescope one sees the broad lines and can also pick out details that reveal life
and reality - though not, unfortunately, the details which would fill out and
qualify simplified accounts of complex matters. In far distant time past the
telescope is useless; one sees mostly haze and mirage. In the recent and
immediate past it is again useless. One sees all too many figures close at hand
- some of them personal friends and acquaintances - among whom it is not
easy to pick out the really significant. Yet one must try to do so if the account
is not to degenerate into a meaningless list of names. Even with the telescope
there is a famous precedent for the use of the blind eye.
The choice is necessarily arbitrary, as many other decisions must be
arbitrary - choice of music examples (I have tried to avoid the familiar),
bibliographical references, and so on - though I have always had reasons for
my decisions. Some omissions have no doubt been accidental; but the
thinning out of references to bibliographical help and to complete editions
after the eighteenth century has been deliberate, not merely because the
bibliography is impossibly large and the complete editions are less necessary
to the probable reader - the intelligent layman or^student, not the mature
musicologist - but because the probable reader is likely to be much better
informed about music in the normal repertory. For the same reason I have
modified my general approach, giving over-familiar music of the nineteenth
century perhaps over-much space in order to avoid annotated lists of great
names and works, but at the same time drawing attention to the music of
secondary and tertiary masters so as to correct any impression that great
names make up the whole picture.
Since the area I have swept with my telescope is practically boundless, I
have directed it principally to what I conceive to be the main stream of
Western music which flowed initially from Western Asia and the East
Mediterranean lands. And not improperly, for in the long run it has spread
and flooded the greater part of the world. It is true that the serious
musicologist no longer regards ‘music’ as Euro-centred; he recognizes that
the vast majority of the world’s inhabitants have their own musics - some of
them ‘high’ cultures of great antiquity and sophistication. Even the widest
Euro-American musical public is aware of their existence and sometimes
enjoys superficially the musics of India, the Islamic world, and Eastern Asia,
although these can hardly convey to Western listeners what they convey to
natives of their own lands. All the same, Western music has developed more
richly than any other and when it has come into contact with these others it
has, regrettably, often tended to absorb or contaminate them without being
more than occasionally and superficially influenced in return. Writing for
the Western reader, I have tried to give at least brief aperfus of some
outstandingly important non-Western musical systems, interrupting my
main account at those points in history where the West became intelligently
conscious of them.
The relationship between ‘high art’ Western music and anonymous-
popular music presents another kind of difficulty. The relationship has been
mutually'beneficial and the gap that began to open between them during the
nineteenth century has been harmful to both. But here again I have
generally had to bypass the music of the ‘folk’ as I have the ‘high art’ of some
peripheral Western countries.
Even so, the areas I have tried to cover are so extensive that, in contrast to
the specialist, I have found that I know less and less about more and more
and have called upon kindly experts to save me from grievous error: in
particular Professor Denis Arnold and Mrs. Arnold, Dr. E. J. Borthwick,
Dr. John Caldwell, Mr. W. V. Davies, Mr. T. C. Mitchell, Mr. Jeremy
Noble, Dr. Eaurence Picken, Dr. Richard Widdess, and Mr. Owen Wright.
I am infinitely grateful to them and, last but far from least, to Mr. Anthony
Mulgan of the Oxford University Press for his constant encouragement and
helpful advice.
Contents
Introduction 2
Interlude
IO. MUSIC IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 190
The origins of Islamic music 190 Safi al-DIn and the melodic modes 196
Music under the earlier caliphates 191 Muslim music in Spain and North
Classical practice and theory 191 Africa 197
Byzantine influence 192 Contemporary practice 197
Music under the divided caliphates 195
Verbal intelligibility in church music 207 New forms of secular polyphony 226
Church music of Josquin’s followers 207 The earlier sixteenth-century
New paraphrase techniques in the madrigal 228
Masses 21 I The church music of Willaert and his
The French chanson 213 circle 232
The chanson after Attaingnant 2l6 Cipriano de Rore and the madrigal 233
Parisian church music 219 Venetian instrumental music 234
Vernacular religious song: Calvinist Spanish church music 236
psalters 219 Instrumental music in Spain 236
Lutheran hymns 222 The lute in other countries 239
German secular song 224 English organ music 239
German and Polish keyboard Church music under Henry VIII and
tablatures 225 Mary 241
13. SECULAR SONG AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC (c. 1560-C. 1610) 264
The transformation of the madrigal 295 The north German and Saxon
Cantade and arte 297 composers 304
The cantata in Rome 299 The French air de cour 306
Italian influence on German song 303 English song 308
A cappella style and concertato style 344 Lutheran bible Historiae 353
Dramatic dialogue and oratorio 346 German Passion music 354
Concertato church music in Venice 347 Conservatism in France and England 355
Venetian influence in Germany 350 Vernacular psalms 356
Popularization in Venetian opera 358 Purcell’s music for the stage 369
Court opera at Naples and Vienna 359 Italian opera in London 370
‘Aria Opera’ 361 The general triumph of Italy 372
Italian opera in Germany 365 The beginnings of French opera 372
The Hamburg Opera 366 Quinault, Lully, and tragedte en
Handel in Italy 368 musique 373
Opera in Restoration England 369 Lully’s heirs and the opera-ballet 376
The later clavier music of Bach, The solo son^as of J. C. Bach and
Handel, and their German the young Haydn 520
contemporaries 5°9 Mozart and the pianoforte 521
Domenico Scarlatti and the Clementi and some contemporaries 522
harpsichord sonata 5" C. P. E. Bach’s influence on Haydn 524
‘The Scarlatti sect in London’ 5J2 The accompanied keyboard sonatas of
Italian harpsichord composers 5H Haydn and Mozart 526
The decline of organ music in Mozart’s piano quartets and trios 527
Germany 516 The ‘keyboard song’ 528
German keyboard music for amateurs 517 German domestic song 529
Keyboard music with optional North German ode settings 529
accompaniment 517 Lyrical song and narrative ballad 53i
Mozart’s Deutsche Arien 532
Interlude
26. THE MUSIC OF INDIA 558
The beginnings of Indian music 558 Differences of North and South 561
The musical system 559
Haydn’s last chamber works 617 Varied concepts of chamber music 622
Beethoven’s early chamber music 618 Chamber compositions of Schubert’s
Dussek and Louis Ferdinand 620 _youth 624
Beethoven’s middle-period chamber Chamber music during the 1820s 625
music 621 Beethoven’s last quartets 626
The piano sonata: 1794-1805 629 Dance music for piano 634
New piano textures 631 The piano sonata: 1816-26 635
The poetic miniature 632 The new generation 640
The symphonies of Berlioz 667 Defections from the Liszt camp 685
Spohr and the programme-symphony 669 Symphonic music in the 1860s 686
Mendelssohn’s orchestral forms 671 Liszt’s international proteges 688
Concert overtures of the 1830s 672 Renaissance in France after 1871 691
Changes in the orchestral brass 675 The advent of Brahms 693
Schumann and the symphony 675 The symphonies of Bruckner 695
The romantic concerto 677 Dvorak: heir of Schubert 696
‘Tone-pictures’, ‘overtures’, and ‘tone- Russian orchestral music: 1876-93 698
poems’ 680 Orchestral composition in the West 699
Innovations in concerto and The young Strauss and his
symphony 683 contemporaries 702
The ‘New German School’ 684
35- OPERA (1830-93) 705
Interlude
39- THE MUSIC OF BLACK AFRICA AND AMERICA 812
part I The Rise of West Asian and East Mediterranean Music 865
Index 913
Plates
■ * Page
1 Sumerian harp-players of c. 2650 B.C., represented on a vase from Bismaya
(Oriental Institute of Chicago University). 8
2 Harp with bull-headed soundbox on an inlaid panel from Ur (c. 2600 B.C.)
(London, British Musum). 9
3 Vertical angled harp on a clay plaque (2000-1800 B.c.) from Ishchali (Musee du
Louvre, Paris). 11
4 Babylonian terracotta plaque (early 2nd millennium b.c.) showing a long-necked
‘lute’ (London, British Museum). 11
5 Bedouin lyre-player: from the tomb of Khnum-hotep (12th Dynasty) at Beni
Hasan. 14
6 Egyptian angle-harp w'ith vertical soundbox, and lyre with curved arms, from
Tomb 22 at Thebes (18th Dynasty). 15
7 Musicians in a wall-painting at Thebes (Tomb 38) playing harp, ‘lute’, possibly
small castanets, double reed-pipes, and curved-arm lyre. 16
8 Fragment of an ivory unguent box, probably made in Phoenicia, possibly in
north Syria, found in Ashurnasirpal IPs palace at Nimrud. Women musicians
are playing a zither (or xylophone), frame-drum, and double reed-pipes (London,
British Museum). 19
9 Ninevite lyre-players of the Sennacherib period, possibly prisoners guarded by
an Assyrian soldier (from a relief in the British Museum). 19
10 Elamite court-singer squeezing her larynx, from Nineveh (London, British
Museum 124802). 20
11 Apollo, accompanied by two Muses (?), plays a seven-stringed lyre with a
plectrum, after his arrival on Delos. From a late 7th-centurv b.c. amphora from
Melos (Athens, National Archaeological Museum). 23
12 Players of barbiton, phorminx, krotala, and aulos: on the Mosaon amphora
(Staathche Antikensammlung, Munich). 25
13 Troops marching to the aulos: from a 7th-century black-figure pot (Rome, Villa
Giulia). 26
14 Procession of auloi and kitharas from the north frieze of the Parthenon (17th-
century drawing by James Carey. Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale). 27
15 First of two hymns to Apollo on the wall of the Treasury of the Athenians at
Delphi (c. 138 B.C.) 36
16 Cup-bearer, tibicen, and lyra-player (fresco in the ‘ Tomb of the Leopards', c. 480-70
B.C., Tarquinia). 40
17 Etruscan musicians, wearing the long robes of their guild, in a relief on a 5th-
century b.c. sarcophagus from Caere (Rome, Museo Etrusco Gregoriano). 41
18 Relief on a ist-century B.c. Roman sarcophagus from Amiternum (Museo Civico,
Aquileia) showing two cornicines, a liticen, and four tibicines taking part in a
funeral procession. 41
19 (a) Pipes of the 3rd-century organ at Aquincum near Budapest, (b) sliders
admitting wind to the pipes, and (c) the sliders in position. 46
20 Papyrus of the 2nd century a.d. from Contrapollinopolis in the Thebaid: a paean
to Apollo and a funeral song for a hero, with instrumental interludes (indented), in
notation denoting note-values and rests (Berlin, Staatliche Museen). 49
21 Gloria in a St. Amand manuscript of c. 871, with transliterated Greek text and
Latin translation in parallel columns {Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, ms. lat.
2291). 62
22 Two details from Hucbald, De Institution Harmonica (Brussels, Bibl. Royale
Belgique, Codex Bruxell. 10078-95, fo. 87). 7$
23 Two-part composition on the melody ‘Benedicta sit’ {Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale, lat. 7202, fo. 56). 79
24 Neumes written at varying heights above the words in the Laon Gradual of c. 930
{Laon, Ms. 259, fo. 12). 81
25 Vox principalis (i) and vox organalis (ii) of a Gloria in the 11th-century
Winchester troper {Cambridge, Corpus Christi 475, fo. 6 4 and fo. 142). 83
26 ‘Boethian’ letter-notation used to clarify pitch of neumes in an 11th-century
Antiphonarium from the abbey of St. Benigne, Dijon {Montpellier, Bibl. de l'E cole
de Medecine, fo. 30). — 83
27 Two-part setting of‘Ut tuo propitiatus’ (nth-century), notated in letters only
{Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodl. 572). 83
28 The earliest source of ‘Per partum virginis’ {c. 1150) {Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale lat. 3719, fo. 64). 86
29 Miniatures in the Cantigas de Santa Maria of Alfonso X of Castile, showing
players of guitarra morisca, rabab and lute, pipe and tabor, and tuned bells
{Biblioteca del Monastirio del El Escorial). 99
30 Ballade with instrumental accompaniment in the Chansonnier Cange (Paris,
Bibliotheque Nationale, fr. 846). 101
31 (i) (a) Triplum, (b) motet us, and (c) tenor of Philippe de Vitry’s Fauvel motet
‘Firmissime/Adesto, sancta trinitas/Alleluya, Benedictus’ (Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale, fr. 146, Jos. 45-45). 120
31 (ii) Detail from the Robertsbridge Codex, the earliest known collection of keyboard
music, showing the end of an instrumental piece and the beginning of a
transcription of the Fauvel motet (London, British Library, Add. 28550^0. 43v). 120
32(i) Landini’s ballata ‘Questa fanciulla’ in the Squarcialupi Codex. (Florence,
Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana, Pal. 87, fo. 138).
(ii) Keyboard transcription in the Codex Reina (Pans, Bibliotheque Nationale, nouv.
acq.fr. 6771, fo. 85). 132
33 Players of slide trumpet and two shawms in ‘The Hunt of Philip the Good’: 16th-
century copy of a painting (destroyed in 1608) by a follower of Jan van Eyck (Paris,
Musee de Versailles). 150
34 Part of an organ composition of the Kyrie ‘Cunctipotens genitor Deus’ (played by
the left hand) in the Faenza Codex of c. 1420. (Faenza, Biblioteca Comunale). 157
35 Two of the earliest known examples of free preludial composition for keyboard:
praeambula in the tablature compiled in 1448 by Adam Ileborgh of Stendal in
Brandenburg (Philadelphia, Curtis Institute of Music). 158
36 Florentine carnival singers: woodcut from Canzone per andare in maschera per
carnesciale (Florence, 1485), a collection of song-texts w ithout music (Florence,
Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale). 172
37(i) 'Ud (lute) in an early fourteenth-century copy of the Kitab al-adwdr (Book of
Modes) of the Baghdad musician $afi al-DTn (Oxford, Bodleian Library, Ms.
Marsh 521, fo. 157F). 196
37(h) The big 64-stringed qanun (psaltery), invented by Safi who called it nuzha (from
the same manuscript, fo. 158). 196
38 Three ladies painted by the so-called ‘Master of the female half-lengths’, a
Franco-Fleming of the early 16th century, about to play Sermisy’s ‘Jouyssance
vous donneray’. 214
39 Romance, ‘Toda mi vida’, for voice with vihuela accompaniment, from Luis
Milan’s Libro de musica de vihuela de rnano, intitulado El Maestro (Valencia, 1535
or 1536). 238
40 The title-page of Marbeck’s The Booke of Common Praier noted (1550). 262
41 Bernardo Buontalenti’s design for ‘La gara fra Muse e Pieridi’, the second of the
intermedii performed in Florence in 1589 at the wedding of Ferdinando de’
Medici and Cristina of Lorraine. (Crown copyright, Victoria and Albert Museum). 270
42 Dowland’s ‘Awake sweet love’ in his First Booke of Songs or Ayres of four e partes
(London, 1597). 279
43 The standard Elizabethan mixed consort, shown in a detail from the Unton
memorial painting of c. 1596 (London, National Portrait Gallery). 291
44 One of Giacomo Torelli’s stage-sets for Luigi Rossi’s Orfeo, performed in the
Palais-Royal, Paris, during the carnival of 1647. 323
45 The Oratorio del Santissimo Crocifisso, Rome, for which Carissimi composed
his oratorios. 348
46 Renaud escapes from Armide’s toils in the Fifth Act of Lully’s opera (after the
engraving by Jean Berain) 375
47 The opening of Purcell’s solo cantata ‘Bess of Bedlam’, published in the first
volume of Orpheus Britannicus (second edition, 1706), with ‘through-bass . . .
figur’d for the Organ, Harpsichord, or Theorbo-Lute'. 392
48 Pelham’s Humfrey’s ‘Like as the Hart’ in the hand of the 18-year-old Purcell
(Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum Ms 88, fo. 7). 417
49 Justine Favart as Bastienne in Les Amours de Bastien et Bastienne (1753), after a
portrait by Charles-Andre Vanloo. She made theatrical history by dressing as a
real peasant girl. 458
50 First of the four title-pages of Bach’s so-called ‘B minor Mass’ (Berlin,
Staatsbibliothek Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Musikabteilung). 536
51 (i) the sarangi has three strings played with a bow and forty to fifty sympathetic
strings
(ii) North Indian ensemble with (left to right) sitar, sarod, tambura, and tabla
(Jodhpur, Rajasthan) (photo Deben Bhattacharya). 561
52 Players of hand-drum and biwa. At the feet of the blind biwa player lie a pitchpipe
and a small recorder. Illustration by Tosa Mitsunobu from the Shokunin Zukushi
Uta-awase (1744). 571
53 Title-page of Le Sueur’s opera La Caverne (1793) (London, British Library). 578
54 Haydn (seated in the foreground) being honoured with a fanfare of trumpets and
drums before the performance of Die Schopfung in the Aula of the Old University,
Vienna, on 27 March 1808. 661
55 Opening of the ‘Bluminen-Kapitel’ (flower chapter), after Jean Paul’s Siebenkiis,
which was originally the second movement of Mahler’s First Symphony but later
discarded, in autograph score (Yale, University Library, and Theodore Presser
Company). 704
56 Coronation scene in Act 1 v of Meyerbeer’s Prophete: the first London performance
at Covent Garden (24 July 1849) with Mario as John of Leyden and Pauline
Viardot as Fides (Illustrated London News). 708
57 Wotan and Fricka, followed by Froh, Freia, and Donner, cross the rainbow-
bridge to Valhalla while Loge calls to the lamenting Rhine-maidens in the valley
below: last scene of the first production of Das Rheingold, staged separately at
Munich on 22 September 1869. 726
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Jos otetaan vanha Martta pois luvusta, olen varma, ettei yksikään
näistä isistä ja äideistä vielä tähän asti ollut tuntenut sydämessään
mitään ahdistusta tämän surullisen toimituksen kestäessä. Mutta kun
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Pikku Emma! Kyllä oli leipä karkeaa ja vuode kova ja hame ohut
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ja vahvaksi, kuin nuori, valkonen solkikoivu haassa, ja sinä tulit
iloiseksi kuin leivonen ja kauniiksi kuin aurinkoinen toukokuun päivä.
Seuraavan kerran kun sinut myytiin, kävi huonommin, sillä ostajan
hienon takin alla sykki huonompi sydän kuin "esimiehen" karkean
sarkatakin alla. Ja kun sinua ajattelen, en tahdo muistaa tuoreessa,
täyteläisessä kukoistuksessasi, joka tuli turmioksesi, enkä kalpeassa
kurjuudessasi kun tulit Nils veljen luo kuolemaan. En, tahdon
muistaa sinua kolmivuotiaana, suloisena palleroisena, joka
katseellasi voit pehmentää satoja sydämiä, juuri sellaisena kuin olit,
kun sinut myytiin kuudestakymmenestä kruunusta…
"Pystyyn, poika!"
Tämä varstalla puinti kello kahdesta yöllä aina hämäriin asti
iltapäivällä oli yleinen tapa talonpoikaisoloissa 1840-luvulla ja
jälkeenkin. Ne puimakoneet, mitä silloin löytyi, olivat liian kalliita
talonpojille ja liian suuriakin heidän pienissä tiloissaan. Puhdepuinti
oli niin muodoin välttämätön, jos mieli saada kaikki vilja puiduksi
ennen joulua, mikä oli kunnian-asia.
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tapahtui jo samana keväänä kun täytin neljätoista vuotta. Seisoin
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vierekkäin aivan kuin pantterin nahkassa. Heillä ei ollut varaa antaa
minulle parempaa; viimeiseksi vuodeksi oli Jaska huutanut minut
vain viidestätoista kruunusta. Arveltiin, että minä jo aloin ansaita
elatukseni, ja sen minä todella uskon itsekin.
Ja nyt minä oikein sain kuulla, kuinka suuren arvoinen nuori mies
minä olin talossa. En ihmettele, ett'ei Jaska tahtonut tehdä nuorta
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Niin olin minä siis "myyty" toisen kerran elämässäni! Mutta olin
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