Harish K Thakur (2021). Research methodology in Social Sciences.

New Delhi: Corvette

Press.
Chapter 1

TYPES OF RESEARCH

RESEARCH

Etymologically ‘Research’ means a quest for knowledge, a search for the truth, a long,
rigorous and focused search. Research means dealing with the prevalent issues, raising
questions, and finding answers to them. Rusk (1972) writes, “Research is a point of view, an
attitude of inquiry, or a frame of mind. It comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggesting solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypothesis”. Crawford writes, “research is a systematic and
refined technique of thinking, employing specialised tools, instruments and procedure in
order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem” (Crawford, 2011). Research is, thus, a
systematic quest for undiscovered truth.

There are different types of research:

(a) Basic, Pure and Strategic research.

(b) Applied and Action research; Field and Result-oriented research.
(c) Descriptive, Explanatory and Evaluation research.
(d) Exploratory and testing-out and Problem solving; Analytical research.
(e) Market, Historical and Academic research.
(f) Convert, Adversarial and Collaborative research.
(g) Case Study.
(h) Conceptual and Empirical research.

Functions of Social Research

The functions of social science research are as follows:

a) Achieving a New Breakthroughs or Inventions:

In social research the researcher is supposed to answer the questions of what, when, how and why of
man, society and institutions. He should discover new facts in relation to the research problem and
relate them to the issues associated with the problems leading to policy solutions. The primary
function of the research is to bring forth the reality about the questions under study.
b) Diagnosis of Problem.
There are so many problems likeilliteracy, inflation, poverty, unemployment, social justice, economic
inequalities etc. prevalent in all the societies. The purpose of the research is to decode the problems,
understand their nature and dimensions and diagnose them accordingly. Provision of the appropriate
solutions and way outs to the problems are the chief functions of the research.
c) Systematization of Knowledge.
Systematization of knowledge means the scientific, methodical and well ordered study of the research
problem. The findings of such systematic study lay foundations of theory building and development
of new theories which help in controlling the social phenomena.
e) Prediction.
Since social research is a systematic exercise based on facts the findings of it leads to observation of
certain order or pattern in social phenomena that helps in predictions.
f) Policy Making
Once the research findings are served through final report the remedial course takes shapes through
the policy making and development planning. This is the stage where the final remedy of a problem is
provided and the issues resolved.
g) Social welfare.
Social research can identify the causes of social evils and problems. It can thus help in taking
appropriate remedial actions. It also provides guideline for socialwelfare.

RESEARCH APPROACH AND RESEARCH METHOD

Many times, researchers get confused between research approach, research method and
research methodology and use them interchangeably. A research approach is closer to
research methodology and includes a broader plan and procedure like research objectives,
questions, research methods, data collection and analysis tools and report. A research
approach may be taken as a broad framework or paradigm that includes different methods
inside. It is an overall theoretical structure of the study within which the researcher employs
different methods and tools like empirical methods of surveying, interviewing, observation
etc.
On the basis of inference, the research approaches could be inductive, deductive or mixed
(integrated) or qualitative, quantitative or mixed (integrated). If you have formulated a set of
hypotheses in a research work that has to be verified after testing you are following a
deductive approach. In deductive approach, also called the top-down approach, the researcher
bases or deduces his argument or question on a set principle or rule or theory which has to be
tested by developing hypothesis. In contrast to deductive approach in inductive approach,
also called the down to top approach inference is made and general principle is set.
Hypothesis is not tested as it starts with its own research questions. Sometimes research
approach is also defined in terms of presentation of data and findings like descriptive,
comparative, analytical and explanatory. Furthermore, the researchers also use different
approaches in social sciences like normative approach (ethics and values), philosophical
approach (ideology and thought like Marxist, Gandhian, Ambedakarite etc.), realist approach
(in IR) and empirical approach (use of scientific method). All these approaches involve
distinct sets of research methods or tools to be followed during the project. Research
approach is closer to research methodology that involves larger part of how the research is to
be carried out against methods that speak of specific ways and tools to be used. Then there
are qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Research method (design) is the 'doing' part of the research process. It includes setting and
sampling, ethics, data collection and data analysis. Broadly there are two basic approaches to
research i.e. Quantitative Approach and the Qualitative Approach. In the former the data is
quantified while in the latter the data is non-numeric innature. However, two more
approaches i.e. Pragmatic Approach and Participatory Approach are also discussed in social
research. Therefore, we shall discuss four major approaches in social research:
Quantitative Research

Quantitative research, as the term suggests is concerned with the collection and analysis of
data in numeric form. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with collecting
and analysing data in as many forms, chiefly, non-numeric. In the quantitative approach, the
data is subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. This includes Inferential; Experimental; &
Simulation. The qualitative approach deals with data subjective to assessment of attitudes,
opinions, and behaviour. The basic features shared by all of these different kinds or views of
research are that they are or aim to be systematic and reliable ways of finding out or
deepening understanding.
Most of the studies which rely on data collection, its numericizing and application of
statistical tools are quantitative in nature. It is generally associated with the positivist/post-
positivist paradigm. It usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so
that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn (Alzheimer Europe).
The process
Researchers will have one or more hypotheses. These are the questions that they want to
address which include predictions about possible relationships between the things they want
to investigate (variables). In order to find answers to these questions, the researchers will also
have various instruments and materials (e.g. paper or computer tests, observation check lists
etc.) and a clearly defined plan of action.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is primarily based on the first handdata obtained through participation,
observation, interviews, questionnaires, focus groups, participant-observation, recordings
made in natural settings, documents, and artefacts. The data are generally nonnumerical in
nature. According to M.K. Trochim a qualitative “approach” is a general way of thinking
about conducting qualitative research. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose
of the qualitative research, the role of the researcher(s), the stages of research, and the method
of data analysis.
Qualitative research is the approach usually associated with the social constructivist paradigm
which emphasises the socially constructed nature of reality. It is about recording, analysing
and attempting to uncover the deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and
experience, including contradictory beliefs, behaviours and emotions. Researchers are
interested in gaining a rich and complex understanding of people’s experience and not in
obtaining information which can be generalized to other larger groups.
The process
The approach adopted by qualitative researchers tends to be inductive which means that they
develop a theory or look for a pattern of meaning on the basis of the data that they have
collected. This involves a move from the specific to the general and is sometimes called a
bottom-up approach. However, most research projects also involve a certain degree of
deductive reasoning (see section on quantitative research for more details) (Trochim).In the
qualitative research the investigator needs not formulate hypotheses (which is optional) as it
is with quantitative research and the research is guided by the research questions and
objective with the help of a broader theoretical lines.
The approach to data collection and analysis is methodical but allows for greater flexibility
than in quantitative research. Data is collected in textual form on the basis of observation and
interaction with the participants e.g. through participant observation, in-depth interviews and
focus groups. It is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically analysed. Data
collection may be carried out in several stages rather than once and for all. The researchers
may even adapt the process mid-way, deciding to address additional issues or dropping
questions which are not appropriate on the basis of what they learn during the process. In
some cases, the researchers will interview or observe a set number of people. In other cases,
the process of data collection and analysis may continue until the researchers find that no new
issues are emerging (Trochim). The advantage with qualitative research is that it allows data
triangulations and spontaneous moves of data collection according to situation. Besides
interviewing the observation method offers lots of avenues like discussions, attending
functions or festivals and listening to the views, opinions and experiences of the respondents
which are beneficial for the research output.
Pragmatic Approach
A pragmatic study focuses on an individual decision maker within an actual real-world
situation. The process of undertaking a pragmatic study is first to identify a problem and view
it within its broadest context. This leads to research inquiry, which seeks to better understand
and ultimately solve the problem (Salkind 2010). The pragmatic approach, as the term itself
suggests go for the practical solutions and dealings with a problem instead of looking for
theoretical discussions. It can go for a mixed approach of quantitative and qualitative
elements while dealing with a problem.
The pragmatic approach to science involves using the method which appears best suited to
the research problem and not getting caught up in philosophical debates about which is the
best approach. Pragmatic researchers, therefore, grant themselves the freedom to use any of
the methods, techniques and procedures typically associated with quantitative or qualitative
research. They recognise that every method has its limitations and that the different
approaches can be complementary. They may also use different techniques at the same time
or one after the other. For example, they might start with face-to-face interviews with several
people or have a focus group and then use the findings to construct a questionnaire to
measure attitudes in a large scale sample with the aim of carrying out statistical analysis
(Trochim).
The key to the pragmatic method is a commitment to end-causes and outcomes of practice,
rather than abstract first-causes. It therefore “tries to interpret each notion by tracing its
respective practical consequences”; if there is no difference in the outcomes, a metaphysical
dispute is futile (James 1995:18). Thus, explanations are aimed at understanding our complex
reality. Thus, ideas are true provided that they help us incorporate and link new experiences
within our existing stock of opinions with minimum disturbances and clashes with other vital
benefits, i.e. “true in just so much…true instrumentally” (James 1995:23).
The pragmatic approach allows data triangulation i.e. adoption of mixed methods as the
problem requires at a particular time. This involves the engagement ofdifferent researchers
(investigator triangulation), different approaches to the study and different methods
simultaneously. Normally in qualitative research when the researcher claims to have adopted
qualitative approach the quantification of certain responses for determining scales and
graphics or experimentation implies pragmatism.
ParticipatoryApproach
Participatory action research is an approach to research in communities that emphasizes
participation and action. It seeks to understand the world by trying to change it,
collaboratively and following reflection. Participatory ApproachResearch (PAR) emphasizes
collective inquiry and experimentation grounded in experience and social history. Within a
PAR process, "communities of inquiry and action evolve and address questions and issues
that are significant for those who participate as co-researchers" (Reason and Bradbury, 2008).
To some degree, researchers adopting participatory approach feel that the approaches to
research described so far do not respond to the needs or situation of people from marginalised
or vulnerable groups. As they aim to bring about positive change in the lives of the research
subjects, their approach is sometimes described as emancipatory. It is not a neutral stance.
The researchers are likely to have a political agenda and to try to give the groups they are
studying a voice. As they want their research to directly or indirectly result in some kind of
reform, it is important that they involve the group being studied in the research, preferably at
all stages, so as to avoid further marginalising them (Trochim)
PAR has multiple progenitors and resists definition. It is a broad tradition of collective self-
experimentation backed up by evidential reasoning, fact-finding and learning. All
formulations of PAR have in common the idea that research and action must be done 'with'
people and not 'on' or 'for' people. It counters scientism by promoting the grounding of
knowledge in human agency and social history (as in much of political economy). Inquiry
based on PAR principles makes sense of the world through collective efforts to transform it,
as opposed to simply observing and studying human behaviour and people's views about
reality, in the hope that meaningful change will eventually emerge (Chevalier and Buckles,
2008).
The researchers may adopt a less neutral position than that which is usually required in
scientific research. This might involve interacting informally or even living amongst the
research participants (who are sometimes referred to as co-researchers in recognition that the
study is not simply about them but also by them). The findings of the research might be
reported in more personal terms, often using the precise words of the research participants.
Whilst this type of research could by criticised for not being objective, it should be noted that
for some groups of people or for certain situations, it is necessary as otherwise the thoughts,
feelings or behaviour of the various members of the group could not be accessed or fully
understood (Trochim).
The approach is significant and emancipatory for vulnerable or marginalised groups. Many of
the NGOs today work with these groups not only to find their development hiccups and
challenges but also suggest measures by participating in their routine life activities helping
the subject dealing with the challenges.

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