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THE EU BETWEEN FEDERAL UNION
AND FLEXIBLE INTEGRATION
Interdisciplinary European Studies
“Putin’s barbaric war in Ukraine tests our European Union as never before. Since
the invasion on 24 February 2022, we have seen unity among EU member states
and staunch solidarity with Ukraine. It is important that this continues. But what
are the options for the next steps with regard to the future of the EU? Increased
federalism or more flexible integration? This volume offers valuable answers
and insights regarding a wide selection of key issues, ranging from the rule of
law to economic, security and industrial policy, as well as income inequality.
The volume provides a rich source of essential knowledge on the state of the
European Union.”
—Anders Ahnlid, Director General of National Board of Trade Sweden. Formerly
Sweden’s ambassador to Finland, the European Union and the OECD, and
Director General for Trade in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Antonina Bakardjieva Engelbrekt ·
Per Ekman · Anna Michalski · Lars Oxelheim
Editors
The EU
between Federal
Union and Flexible
Integration
Interdisciplinary European Studies
Editors
Antonina Bakardjieva Engelbrekt Per Ekman
Department of Law Department of Government
Stockholm University Uppsala University
Stockholm, Sweden Uppsala, Sweden
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
v
vi CONTENTS
Index 279
Notes on Contributors
vii
viii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
xi
xii LIST OF FIGURES
xv
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
The future of the European Union (EU) is again on the agenda. A strong
impetus for reconsidering the EU’s shape and composition has this time
been given by external events. Chief amongst them is Russia’s large-
scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 and the long-lasting effects
that this terrible deed will have on the European security architecture.
The war Russia is waging in EU’s immediate neighbourhood requires
rethinking the role of the EU in the defence and security of Europe, and
the prospects of EU membership for Ukraine, Moldova, and Georgia, as
A. Bakardjieva Engelbrekt
Department of Law, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
e-mail: antonina.bakardjieva@juridicum.su.se
P. Ekman · A. Michalski (B)
Department of Government, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
e-mail: anna.michalski@statsvet.uu.se
part of a future Pax Europaea (Balfour, 2022; Snyder, 2022). Beyond the
immediate effects of the war itself and its security implications, the break-
down of the European security architecture will have a long-lasting impact
on a wide range of EU policy and various political initiatives. The dialectic
process of deepening and widening is again set to drive the debate on the
future of the EU, and how a viable form of political integration will be
found between flexible integration and federalism.
In the early 2020s, the EU member states are undergoing a series of
crises caused or exacerbated by Russia’s unprovoked military aggression
towards Ukraine. In the first half of 2022, the EU enacted a number of
sanctions packages as a response to the attack. It became clear that the
increasingly tense stand-off between the EU and Russia would trigger
an unexpectedly rapid revision of the EU member states’ energy poli-
cies. The EU institutions and member states were galvanized into action
in the wake of Russia’s decision to discontinue indefinitely the export
of gas through Nord Stream 1 and 2 as a way to punish them for the
support given to Ukraine. The withdrawal from Russian oil and gas is
having a nefarious impact on the economies of the EU. A cost-of-living
crisis has hit European consumers due to the rise in energy prices, fuelling
an already high rate of inflation and afflicting further economic and social
pain on the populations of all member states. The negative fallout of the
dependence on Russian supply of oil and gas shows that in the short to
medium term the EU’s green conversion is becoming even more crucial
in order to ensure strategic and societal resilience as well as to mitigate
the effects of climate change.
Despite fears to the contrary, the massive influx of Ukrainian refugees
into the EU in the beginning of the war did not develop into a crisis on
par with the refugee crisis of 2015–2016 in the wake of the war in Syria;
P. Ekman
e-mail: per.ekman@statsvet.uu.se
L. Oxelheim
Research Institute of Industrial Economics (IFN), Stockholm, Sweden
e-mail: lars.oxelheim@ifn.se
University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway
Lund University, Lund, Sweden
1 THE ROAD AHEAD FOR THE EUROPEAN UNION: BETWEEN … 3
early 2020s, however, the issue was carefully put back on the EU’s polit-
ical agenda. In an effort to seek out public support for further reforms,
the Conference on the Future of Europe met in 2021–2022 as a forum
for EU citizens to lay out and debate possible alternatives for the road
ahead. The Conference’s final document called for ambitious reforms in a
wide range of areas, some of which, such as a move to qualified majority
voting in EU’s foreign and security policy regarding sanctions, would
require treaty change, while in the case of others, the existing treaty’s
passerelle clause would be sufficient to permit a deepening of the EU’s
competences (Conference on the Future of Europe, 2022). In 2023, it is
still too early to say whether sufficient political momentum is building in
favour of treaty reform in the coming years, but it is clear that the Euro-
pean Parliament and, to a lesser extent, the European Commission will
be pressing the European Council to convene a convention to consider
this very question (European Commission, 2022; European Parliament,
2022).
Public debates on the future of the EU are nothing new as it has
been strongly felt since the difficult ratification of the Maastricht Treaty
in 1992–1993 that the European project needed to be better anchored
with European citizens. The ambiguity concerning the ultimate aim of
European integration has been constant since the inception of the Union.
Opinions have been divided on whether the EU should be considered
a case of regional integration, unique in nature but without a definite
end point, or whether instead it is a politico-federal construction bearing
comparison with previous state formations in history. According to the
first perspective, the Union’s development has been marked by flex-
ible solutions to meet needs which have arisen in its member states or
impinged due to shifts in world politics. According to the second view,
deeper integration forms part of a constituting process in which national
sovereignty gradually dissolves into the Union, up to the point where
a new federal state has emerged. The constant tension found within the
EU’s policies and institutional structure can be interpreted on the basis of
either perspective, depending on the standpoint of the observer, resulting
in quite intransigent positions. A more productive way perhaps than the
binary view of intergovernmental cooperation versus supranational inte-
gration is to approach the question by considering the actual changes in
EU policies and institutions that have taken place over the last decade
in response to the many deep crises that have beset the EU. The EU’s
ability to deal with these crises and challenges to its cohesion is of crucial
6 A. BAKARDJIEVA ENGELBREKT ET AL.
PÁGINAS.
Proemio V.
Segundo viaje de Colón 1.
Fuentes históricas 18.
Diego Alvarez Chanca 29.
Carta del doctor Chanca 38.
Cómputo de fechas y escalas 89.
Mapa de las Antillas 90.
Juan de la Cosa 91.
El mapa de Juan de la Cosa 99.
No es apócrifa 107.
Boriquén 118.
Qué significa Boriquén? 128.
Carib 139.
Qué significa Carib? 149.
Archipiélago antillano 151.
La cuestión puerto ó bahía 154.
Aguada y Aguadilla 158.
Mayagüez 165.
Guayanilla 179.