Engineering Hydrology 1st Edition

Rajesh Srivastava
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Engineering Hydrology
 About the Authors

Rajesh Srivastava is Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur. He
obtained his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in Civil Engineering from the University of Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee). He
received his doctorate in Civil Engineering from the University of Arizona, Tucson, USA. He has taught at the University
of Roorkee for four years and has been teaching at IIT Kanpur for 20 years. He also has an industrial experience of 3 years
with consulting companies in the USA related to metal mining and its effect on the environment. His areas of expertise
include Water Flow and Contaminant Transport in Porous Media, and Effect of Climate Change on Water Resources.
He has authored more than 85 technical articles in national and international journals and conferences, 15 technical
reports for consultancy projects, and two textbooks, one on open channel flow and the other on numerical methods. He
has also edited a two-volume set on contemporary research on Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power and has created a video
module on Water Resources Engineering under the National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL).
He was awarded the G M Nawathe medal of the Indian Society for Hydraulics in 2004 and 2005, Best paper award in
Asia and Pacific Division of International Association of Hydraulic Research in 2006, and Best poster award at the
Annual Monsoon Workshop of Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology in 2015. He was the first occupant of the Sir M.
Visvesvaraya Chair instituted by the Ministry of Water Resources at IIT Kanpur. He is a member of the Indian Society
for Hydraulics, the American Geophysical Union, and InterPore–an International Society for Porous Media.

Ashu Jain is Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur. He received his Bachelor’s degree in Civil
Engineering from the Malaviya Regional Engineering College, Jaipur (now National Institute of Technology, Jaipur)
and Master’s degree in Civil Engineering from IIT Bombay. He did his PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of
Kentucky, Lexington, USA and then worked in two consulting firms, Michael Baker Jr., Inc., Alexandria, Virginia, USA,
and The Oyekan Group USA, Inc., Dallas, Texas, USA, for a total of about 3 years in the areas of flood management and
drainage design. He then joined as Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur. He teaches
undergraduate courses on Hydrology, Open Channel Flow, and Engineering Graphics; tutors undergraduate courses
on Engineering Graphics, Numerical Methods, and Fluid Mechanics; and teaches postgraduate courses on Advanced
Hydrology, Groundwater Hydrology, Stochastic Hydrology, and Introduction to Artificial Intelligence (AI) Techniques.
He has also developed a video-based course on Advanced Hydrology for NPTEL. His research interests include Rainfall-
runoff Modelling, Applications of AI Techniques for Modelling and Management of Water Resources Systems, and
knowledge extraction from Trained Artificial Neural Network Hydrologic Models.
He has published more than 105 articles in international and national journals and conferences, authored about 20
technical reports related to sponsored research and consultancy projects, guided seven doctoral and 37 master’s theses.
He has been a peer reviewer for several journals, organized several technical sessions in international and national
conferences, delivered numerous invited lectures in India and abroad, and is currently an associate editor of Hydrological
Sciences Journal published by Taylor and Francis. He was awarded the Best Discussion Paper Award, 2005 by ASCE;
Royal Society Fellowship, 2005-06, to visit The University of Leeds, Leeds, UK; International Centre of Excellence in
Water Resources Management (ICE WaRM) Fellowship, 2008, to visit The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia;
and Endeavour Executive Award, 2009 by the Ministry of Education, Australia. He is a life member of the Indian Society
for Hydraulics, the Indian Water Resources Society, the Indian Association of Hydrologists, and a Fellow of the Indian
Water Resources Society and the Indian Society for Hydraulics.
Engineering Hydrology

RAJESH SRIVASTAVA
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

ASHU JAIN
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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 Dedicated to
Late Dr. A. C. Srivastava and Late Dr. P. C. Jain
 Contents

Preface xv

1. Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
1.1 Engineering Hydrology 1
1.2 Importance of Engineering Hydrology 2
1.3 Hydrologic Cycle 5
1.3.1 Atmospheric Moisture 6
1.3.2 Precipitation 6
1.3.3 Infiltration 7
1.3.4 Groundwater 8
1.3.5 Surface Runoff 9
1.3.6 Evaporation and Transpiration 9
1.3.7 General Discussion of the Hydrologic Cycle 10
Summary 11
Exercises 12
Objective-Type Questions 12
Descriptive Questions 15
Numerical Questions 15
Useful Links 16
Glossary 16

2. Precipitation 18
Learning Objectives 18
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Occurrence – Mechanism of Formation, Various Forms, Distribution 19
2.2.1 Mechanism 19
2.2.2 Forms 20
2.2.3 Intensity 21
2.2.4 Distribution 21
viii Contents

2.3 Measurement – Rain Gauges, Remote Sensing 22

2.4 Analysis of Data – Missing Data, Consistency Check, Averaging 22
2.4.1 Completeness Check 26
2.4.2 Estimation of Missing Data 26
2.4.3 Consistency Check 29
2.4.4 Averaging of Data 33
2.5 Storm Averaging 38
Summary 44
Exercises 45
Objective-Type Questions 45
Descriptive Questions 47
Numerical Questions 48

3. Abstractions from Precipitation 51

Learning Objectives 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Abstraction Processes 51
3.2.1 Interception 52
3.2.2 Depression Storage 52
3.2.3 Evaporation 53
3.2.4 Transpiration 53
3.2.5 Infiltration 53
3.3 Initial Abstraction 53
3.4 Evaporation 55
3.4.1 Factors Affecting Evaporation 58
3.4.2 Estimation of Evaporation 59
3.5 Evapotranspiration 75
3.5.1 Empirical Equations 75
3.5.2 Theoretical Equations 78
3.6 Infiltration 79
3.6.1 Infiltration Process 80
3.6.2 Factors Affecting Infiltration 81
3.6.3 Estimation of Infiltration Capacity 82
3.6.4 Actual Infiltration 90
Summary 95
Exercises 96
Objective-Type Questions 96
Descriptive Questions 99
Numerical Questions 99
 Contents ix

4. Runoff 101
Learning Objectives 101
4.1 Runoff Generation 101
4.2 Measurement of Streamflow 102
4.2.1 Area 103
4.2.2 Velocity 103
4.3 Annual and Storm Hydrographs 104
4.3.1 Annual Hydrograph 105
4.3.2 Storm Hydrograph 105
4.4 Factors Affecting Runoff 107
4.4.1 Catchment Characteristics 107
4.4.2 Storm Characteristics 108
4.5 Rainfall-Runoff Relationships 109
4.5.1 Analytical Models 109
4.5.2 Empirical Models 110
4.6 Rational Formula 115
4.6.1 Runoff Coefficient 115
4.6.2 Intensity of Rainfall 117
4.6.3 Time of Concentration 118
4.7 SCS Method 119
4.8 Flow Duration Curve 126
4.9 Flow Mass Curve 130
Summary 135
Exercises 136
Objective-Type Questions 136
Descriptive Questions 141
Numerical Questions 142

5. Hydrograph Analysis 145

Learning Objectives 145
5.1 Introduction 145
5.2 Unit Hydrograph 146
5.2.1 Definition 146
5.2.2 Theory and Assumptions 147
5.2.3 Application of UH 148
5.3 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph 150
5.3.1 Baseflow Separation 150
5.3.2 Effective Rainfall and Direct Runoff Hydrograph 152
5.3.3 Derivation of UH from an Isolated Storm 152
5.3.4 Derivation of UH from a Complex Storm 154
5.4 S-Hydrograph 156
5.5 Unit Hydrograph of Different Durations 158
x Contents

5.5.1 UH of Different Durations by Method of Superposition 159

5.5.2 UH of Different Durations by S-Hydrograph Method 161
5.6 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 163
5.6.1 Snyder’s Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 163
5.6.2 SCS Dimensionless Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 167
5.7 Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 170
5.8 Relationships among UH, IUH, and S-Hydrograph 171
Summary 174
Exercises 175
Objective-Type Questions 175
Descriptive Questions 182
Numerical Questions 183

6. Hydrograph Routing 187

Learning Objectives 187
6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 Hydrologic and Hydraulic Routing 188
6.2.1 Hydrologic Routing 188
6.2.2 Hydraulic Routing 189
6.3 Hydrologic Routing through a Reservoir 190
6.3.1 Modified Puls Method 191
6.3.2 Goodrich’s Method 195
6.3.3 Standard Runge–Kutta (SRK) Method 195
6.3.4 Changes in Inflow Hydrograph Characteristics 200
6.4 Hydrologic Routing through a Channel 200
6.4.1 Muskingum Method 202
6.4.2 Estimation of Parameters of Muskingum Equation 205
6.5 IUH Development 207
6.5.1 Clark’s Method 208
6.5.2 Nash’s Method 211
Summary 217
Exercises 218
Objective-Type Questions 218
Descriptive Questions 226
Numerical Questions 226
Useful Links 229

7. Groundwater 230
Learning Objectives 230
7.1 Introduction 230
7.2 Occurrence of Groundwater 231
7.2.1 Unsaturated Zone 232
 Contents xi

7.2.2 Saturated Zone 235

7.3 Movement of Groundwater 236
7.3.1 Basic Equations 239
7.4 Flow through a Confined Aquifer 245
7.4.1 Steady One-Dimensional Flow 246
7.4.2 Steady Flow Towards a Well 248
7.4.3 Transient One-Dimensional Flow 250
7.4.4 Transient Flow Towards a Well 252
7.5 Flow through Unconfined Aquifers 257
7.5.1 Steady One-Dimensional Flow 257
7.5.2 Steady Flow Towards a Well 260
7.5.3 Transient One-Dimensional Flow 262
7.5.4 Transient Flow Towards a Well 263
7.6 Non Ideal Conditions 265
7.6.1 Well Loss and Specific Capacity 265
7.6.2 Flow through a Layered Porous Medium 267
7.6.3 Flow through Leaky Aquifers 269
7.6.4 Flow through Unsaturated Zone 271
7.6.5 Flow Near Boundaries 271
7.7 Parameter Estimation 272
7.7.1 Estimation of Flow Direction 272
7.7.2 Estimation of Recharge 273
7.7.3 Estimation of Hydraulic Conductivity 274
7.7.4 Estimation of Transmissivity and Storage Coefficient 275
Summary 281
Exercises 282
Objective-Type Questions 282
Descriptive Questions 284
Numerical Questions 285
Useful Links 287

8. Irrigation and Water Resource Management 288

Learning Objectives 288
8.1 Introduction 288
8.2 Water Requirement of Crops 289
8.3 Canal Irrigation 292
8.4 Irrigation Methods 294
8.4.1 Basin Irrigation 296
8.4.2 Furrow Irrigation 296
8.4.3 Border Irrigation 296
8.4.4 Ring Irrigation 297
8.4.5 Sprinkler Irrigation 297
xii Contents

8.4.6 Subsurface Irrigation 297

8.4.7 Drip Irrigation 297
8.5 Single-purpose and Multipurpose Projects 298
Summary 301
Exercises 302
Objective-Type Questions 302
Descriptive Questions 304
Numerical Questions 304

9. Statistical Methods in Hydrology 305

Learning Objectives 305
9.1 Introduction 305
9.2 Basic Probabilistic and Statistical Concepts 306
9.2.1 Sample and Population 306
9.2.2 Random Variable 307
9.2.3 Probability 307
9.2.4 Probability of Discrete Random Variables 309
9.2.5 Probability of Continuous Random Variables 312
9.3 Moments and Basic Descriptive Statistics 315
9.3.1 Measures of Central Tendency 316
9.3.2 Measures of Variation 319
9.3.3 Measure of Skewness 322
9.3.4 Measures of Peakedness 323
9.4 Some Important Probability Distributions 326
9.4.1 Binomial Distribution 326
9.4.2 Normal Probability Distribution 329
9.4.3 Gumbel’s Probability Distribution 332
9.5 Frequency Analysis 334
9.5.1 Probability Plotting Method 335
9.5.2 Frequency Factor Method 338
9.6 Risk and Reliability of Water Resources Projects 349
9.6.1 Risk 350
9.6.2 Reliability 350
9.6.3 Factor of Safety 350
Summary 351
Exercises 352
Objective-Type Questions 352
Descriptive Questions 357
Numerical Questions 358
 Contents xiii

10. Measurement of Hydrologic Variables 361

Learning Objectives 361
10.1 Introduction 361
10.2 Measurements – General 362
10.3 Selection of Site and Instruments 363
10.3.1 Site-selection 363
10.3.2 Instrument-selection 364
10.4 Measurement Techniques 364
10.4.1 Precipitation 364
10.4.2 Evaporation and Transpiration 370
10.4.3 Infiltration 374
10.4.4 Soil Moisture 377
10.4.5 Streamflow 379
10.4.6 Groundwater 383
10.4.7 Temperature, Pressure, Humidity, Wind, Radiation 384
10.5 Databases 385
Summary 386
Exercises 387
Objective-Type Questions 387
Descriptive Questions 389
Numerical Questions 390

Answers to Objective-Type Questions 392

References 395

Index 400
 Preface

Introduction to the Course

Hydrology is the science dealing with the occurrence and movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of the earth. The movement of water is conveniently described through a hydrologic cycle, involving
evaporation of water from water bodies, return of this water to the earth in form of rain, snow, etc., transfer of
rain water as runoff to surface streams and infiltration to underground water, and finally, the movement of water
from surface streams and underground water to the water bodies. This book deals with basic understanding of
various processes of the hydrologic cycle, with emphasis on the engineering aspect, i.e., the application for
management of water resources.

Target Audience
The book is primarily designed for a first course in hydrology at the undergraduate level. However, the
treatment of the subject matter is such that it may also be useful in a graduate level course. Scientists and
engineers dealing with water resources may use this book to get a broader perspective and learn about recent
developments, particularly in the areas of statistical analysis and measurement of hydrologic variables.

Objective of this Book

Several books are already available on the subject with some emphasising the basic concepts, while others
concentrating on problem-solving. Following the principle of science based engineering, we believe that the
students should not only know how to apply a technique, but should also know how it has been arrived at, in
order to better understand its limitations. The presentation of material in this book is made with emphasis on
engineering applications of hydrology, with enough fundamental concepts interwoven in between for better
understanding of the basic principles.

Salient Features
∑ Comprehensive coverage of the science of hydrology, incorporating the recent developments and
techniques
∑ Exclusive coverage on topics like statistical methods in hydrology, estimation of evaporation and
runoff, infiltration capacity models, and transient flow of groundwater, to help students develop a
deeper understanding of the subject
∑ A dedicated chapter on measurement of hydrologic and climatic variables explaining the conventional
and advanced methodologies, which has not been paid much attention in the existing books on
hydrology
xvi Preface

∑ Summary of important concepts for a quick review before exams

∑ Over 680 chapter-end exercises and 76 solved examples to illustrate the underlying concepts and
help the students prepare for first course in hydrology of their engineering degrees/diplomas and
competitive examinations
∑ Online links to hydrological and meteorological databases to help students understand hydrological
concepts and instructors to develop additional examples/questions

Learning Tools in the First Edition

Learning Objectives
Each chapter is organized into multiple learning Abstractions from
objectives (LOs). The topics covered in the
chapter closely follow these objectives with each
3 Precipitation
section listing the relevant objective. This feature
of tagging each section with respective learning LEARNING OBJECTIVES

objective will help the instructors to plan the LO 1

structure of course. The tagged LO brings out the
essence of every section before the readers.
LO 2
Know about the various abstraction processes and initial abstraction
Define evaporation, factors affecting it, and the methods of estimation
LO 3 Estimate potential and actual evapotranspiration
LO 4 Discuss the infiltration process and the influence of various factors on the rate of infiltration
LO 5 Summarize empirical and theoretical methods for the estimation of infiltration

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Although precipitation is an important part of the hydrologic cycle, as mentioned earlier, the topic of greater
interest for engineers and hydrologists is the amount of water flowing in the rivers. If we could estimate how
and how much water is being abstracted from the precipitation before it runs-off to the streams, we will have

Illustrations and Diagrams

It is quite essential for a book to present figures
to keep the interests of the users, and hence
liberal use of figures is made in the book to aid in
understanding of basic concepts.

Figure 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle

Worked-Out Examples EXAMPLE 2.1

The annual precipitation at the four rain gauges is shown in the table below. Determine whether more stations
are needed, if the desired CV is 20%.
The book contains 76 solved examples for better Station S1 S2 S3 S4
Annual Rainfall (mm) 830 1120 1000 650
understanding and application of concepts. Solution

Solved example problems also help in explaining The mean of the station data for annual precipitation is obtained as 900 mm, and the standard deviation,
2 2
(70 220 100 250 ) 2 2
204.78 mm. The coefficient of variation is, therefore, 0.228. Since it
new concepts and illustrate the working of
n 1
3
is more than the desired CV of 0.2, we require more stations and the total number of stations, using Eq. (2.1),
2

computational procedure. is
0.228
0.2
4 5.18. We should provide two more stations.

Notes: If there is another station close to the boundary, but outside the catchment area, we may expect
it to be climatically similar to other stations and should include it in the analysis, even though it lies in a
different catchment. Also, we should keep in mind that this technique should be applied to long-term data,
e.g., annual, which tends to average out the temporal and spatial variations in rainfall.
 Preface xvii

Chapter-End Exercises
OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS More than 680 chapter-end exercises have been
6.1 The factors affecting the size, shape, and other characteristics of an inflow hydrograph while traveling carefully constructed to enhance knowledge.
through a channel reach include
(a) Storage in the river reach
(b) Resistance to flow due to friction from sides and bed
These are categorized into Objective-Type
(c) Lateral addition or subtraction of flow within the reach
(d) Questions, Descriptive Questions, and Numerical
6.2
(a)
(c)
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
Questions, to enable the students evaluate their
6.3
I.
II.
6.1 Why do the size, shape, and characteristics of an inflow hydrograph change when it travels through a channel
reach? understanding of different concepts after end
6.2 Explain the hydraulic and hydrologic methods for hydrograph routing with the help of equations.
III.
6.3 Explain the Modified Puls method of hydrologic routing. of each chapter. Answers to the Objective-type
(a) 6.4 Explain the Goodrich’s method of hydrologic routing.
(e) 6.5 Explain the fourth order SRK method of hydrologic routing. Questions are provided at the end of the book.
6.6 For hydrograph routing through a reservoir, prove that the peak of the outflow hydrograph intersects inflow
hydrograph. (Hint: use continuity equation).
6.7 Discuss the importance of hydrograph routing in flood management with special emphasis on attenuation
and lag
6.8
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS

6.9 7.1 Water flows through a 2 m long horizontal soil column at a constant velocity. At a section of the tube, a red
dye was inserted and it was observed that it travelled a distance of 1 m in 235 seconds and the dispersion
was negligible. The soil is sandy with a porosity of 0.42 and hydraulic conductivity of 1 cm/s. What would
6.10
be the drop in piezometric head across the column length?
7.2 A 50 m thick confined aquifer has a porosity of 0.35. The formation compressibility is 5 × 10−8 Pa–1 and
water compressibility is 1 × 10−10 Pa–1. Estimate the storage coefficient and the specific storage of the
aquifer.
7.3 Two large lakes are connected by a 200 m long confined aquifer in such a way that one-dimensional flow
assumption is valid. The difference in water level of the lakes is 2.5 m and it is estimated that water is
being conveyed through the aquifer at a rate of 1 m3/min per meter width. Estimate the transmissivity of the
aquifer.
7.4 A fully-screened well is pumping a confined aquifer at a constant rate of 1 m3/s. A prior pump test on the
aquifer has provided an estimate of the transmissivity as 0.05 m2/s. Two observation wells are located at a
distance of 50 m and 100 m, respectively, from the pumping well. After a long time of pumping, the water
levels in the observation wells achieve a nearly constant value. If the piezometric level in the first well (at 50
m) is 120 m above mean sea level, what would be the level in the other well?

Summary SUMMARY
Presence of water and condensation nuclei in the atmosphere is required for the formation of
A detailed chapter-end summary is provided clouds and, for precipitation to take place, a cooling mechanism is needed. The cooling may occur
due to orographic, convective, frontal, or cyclonic mechanisms, and results in precipitation in

for a quick review of the important concepts. It any of its various forms, such as rain, snow, or hail. The severity of precipitation is expressed
either in terms of its intensity, generally in mm/h, or the depth, generally over the period of a
day. The variation of intensity with time is shown by a hyetograph and the variation of the depth
helps in recapitulating the ideas initiated with the with time is shown either through a histogram (showing daily precipitation depths) or a mass
curve (showing cumulative depths). The measurement of precipitation is done by recording rain

outcomes achieved. gauges, which maintain a continuous record, or non-recording gauges, which provide only the daily
precipitation depths. Any missing values in a precipitation record may be estimated by utilizing
the precipitation records at nearby stations. The normal ratio method, inverse distance method,
quadrant method, or more advanced techniques like Kriging, may be used for this purpose.
To check if the data is consistent with the general climatic conditions, a double mass curve
analysis is performed. This technique also provides a method to correct the data, if found to be
inconsistent. The point rainfall data measured at a rain gauge is processed to obtain meaningful
quantities related to catchment area, by using the arithmetic mean method, the Thiessen polygon
method, or the isohyetal method. The isohyetal method is likely to be the most accurate method

Use of Technology
1. Maps of average annual precipitation
(a) India: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:India_annual_rainfall_map_en.svg,
In bringing out this book, we have taken
www.mapsofi
(b) US: advantage of recent technological
(c) Global:
developments to create a wealth of
2.
(a) useful information to be supplemented
(b) US:
(c) Global: with the physical book. Considering
3. the ease of internet access at most
4.
engineering institutes, useful links
5.
to literature and datasets have
been provided throughout the book.
Moreover, Excel based solutions are
incorporated in the book.
xviii Preface

Approach Adopted in this Book

The presentation of material in this book is made with an emphasis on engineering applications of hydrology
with just enough fundamental concepts interwoven in between for better understanding of the basic principles.
From an engineering viewpoint, it is the runoff component of the hydrologic cycle which is the most important
and, therefore, it is only natural that this component is discussed in greater details than other components. In
fact, the objective of nearly all hydrological exercises by engineers boils down to the prediction of peak flows
or low flows in a stream or the amount of water available as groundwater. One could then question the utility of
studying other parts of the hydrologic cycle, such as evaporation and infiltration. Due to the rapidly changing
stream characteristics, in order to draw some logical conclusions about its behavior, one must have data about
the streamflow covering a long period. However, the length of record of streamflow and the reliability of this
data is generally not adequate. On the other hand, rainfall and other climatic data are available to us for a
much longer period and are more reliable, partly because of their direct effect on our daily lives and partly
because their measurement requires very little skill or training. Therefore, it is quite common to develop a
relationship between rainfall and runoff for the area under consideration and then estimate the runoff on the
basis of longer duration and more reliable rainfall record. The rainfall-runoff relationship will be affected by
several factors which influence the evaporation, infiltration, and other losses from the precipitation.

Organization of the Book

Keeping in mind these points, this book is divided into ten chapters. The chapters are organized as follows:
• Chapter 1 introduces the subject and the motivations for studying it. Chapter 2 deals with
precipitation of atmospheric water onto the earth surface with emphasis on various aspects of data
collection, presentation, and analysis. The measurement techniques are described very briefly since
we find it more convenient to describe the measurement of all hydrologic variables together in the
final chapter.
• Chapter 3 describes various abstractions from precipitation before it runs off to the surface streams.
These abstractions include interception, depression storage, evaporation and infiltration. Stress is
placed on discussion of various factors affecting these abstractions and their estimation, so as to
enable an engineer to derive a logical rainfall-runoff relationship.
• Chapters 4, 5, and 6 deal with the runoff component, with Chapter 4 introducing the processes
of its generation, its measurement and estimation, and the analysis of data for use in the design
and operation of water systems. Chapter 5 emphasizes hydrograph analysis for estimation of
runoff. It introduces the concepts of unit hydrograph, its components and estimation, S-hydrograph,
instantaneous unit hydrograph, inter-relationships among them, and their application in design and
operation of water systems. Chapter 6 discusses the movement of runoff water through a stream or
a reservoir and how the concepts of hydrograph routing can be useful in the hydrologic design and
flood control studies.
• The subsurface reservoir of groundwater, movement of water within it, and its recharge and
withdrawals are described in Chapter 7, which effectively ends with the discussion of hydrologic
cycle and water supply.
 Preface xix

• Chapter 8 then describes an aspect of water demand, related to irrigation, and application of the
hydrological principles for better management of water resources of an area. Since hydrological
variables vary widely in space and time, there is always an inherent uncertainty in the analysis of
these variables. Any prediction we make, based on the available data and our understanding of the
hydrological principles, will, therefore, not be precise.
• Chapter 9 describes several statistical techniques to not only estimate the desired quantities but to
also assign a degree of uncertainty to those. Estimation of flood magnitudes and their probability is
an important component of this analysis.
• Finally, as mentioned before, since the issues involved with measurement of most hydrological
variables are similar, we have clubbed all measurement techniques in Chapter 10. Particular
attention is given to more recent techniques based on remote-sensing of the data, as it is expected to
become more common in future.
• References have been provided at the end of the book and an effort has been made to include freely
accessible online references, wherever possible, rather than printed books or research papers.

Online Learning Center Supplements

There are a number of supplementary resources available on the book’s website:
http://www.mhhe.com/srivastava_jain/eh

� For Instructors
• Solutions Manual
• PowerPoint Lecture Slides

� For Students
• Web links for further readings

Acknowledgements
Rajesh Srivastava thanks his parents, Mrs. G. K. Srivastava and Late Dr. A. C. Srivastava, for their
encouragement, wife, Jayshree, for her understanding and support, and children, Soumya and Tanu, for their
delightful presence. Ashu Jain would like to express his deep sense of appreciation to his father, Late Dr. P.
C. Jain, for being a constant source of inspiration not only for writing this book but for pursuing academics
throughout his life. He is grateful to his mother, Mrs. Swarn Lata Jain, wife, Savita, and children, Ateendriya
and Tarushi, for their support, tolerance, and understanding throughout the time spent on writing this book.
He would also like to thank all other friends, relatives, and colleagues, who have helped in some form or the
other. One learns so much while teaching and the acknowledgement cannot be complete without thanking all
the students, teaching whom we learn the nuances of the subject matter, and for their inquisitiveness urging a
teacher to delve deep into the subject matter.
The authors would also like to thank the team members of McGraw Hill Education (India), especially
Vibha Mahajan, Shalini Jha, Hemant Jha, Vaishali Thapliyal, Sachin Kumar, Satinder Singh Baveja,
Anuj Kr. Shriwastava and Taranpreet Kaur who handled various responsibilities related to the book very
patiently and effectively.
Another random document with
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elevates marriage amongst mankind to something infinitely higher
and purer than the gratification of a mere animal instinct.”—Dr.
Edith Pechey Phipson (Address to the Hindoos of Bombay on Child
Marriage, 1891, p. 14).

8.—“... selfless thought.”

“Love took up the harp of life, and smote on all the chords with might;
Smote the chord of Self that, trembling, pass’d in music out of sight.”
—Tennyson (“Locksley Hall”).
 IX.

7.—“... Neglecting none ...”

“We are entering into an order of things in which justice will be the
primary virtue, grounded on equal, but also on sympathetic
association; having its roots no longer in the instinct of equals for
self-protection, but in a cultivated sympathy between them; and no
one being now left out, but an equal measure being extended to
all.”—J. S. Mill (“The Subjection of Women,” p. 80).
 X.

4.—“... clogged ... man’s power ...”

“He has reaped the usual reward of selfishness, the gratification of

immediate low desires has frustrated the future attainment of higher
aspirations.”—Mrs. Pechey Phipson, M.D. (Address to Hindoos).

5, 6.—“Egypt or Greece in vain sought heavenly light,

While woman’s soul was held from equal flight.”

In Egypt “the art (of literature) was practised only by the priests,
as the painted history plainly declares.... No female is depicted in the
act of reading.... The Greek world was composed of municipal
aristocracies, societies of gentlemen living in towns, with their farms
in the neighbourhood, and having all their work done for them by
slaves. They themselves had nothing to do but to cultivate their
bodies by exercise in the gymnasium, and their minds by
conversation in the market-place. They lived out of doors, whilst
their wives remained shut up at home. In Greece a lady could only
enter society by adopting a mode of life which in England usually
facilitates her exit.”—Winwood Reade (“The Martyrdom of Man,” pp.
35, 71).

8.—“... subjugated wife ...”

At Athens “the free citizen women lived in strict and almost

Oriental recluseness, as well after being married as when single.
Everything which concerned their lives, their happiness, or their
rights, was determined or managed for them by their male relatives;
and they seem to have been destitute of all mental culture and
accomplishments.”—Grote (“History of Greece,” Vol. VI., p. 133).
 XI.

1.—“Marriage which might have been a mateship sweet.”

“In vain Plato urged that young men and women should be more
frequently permitted to meet one another, so that there should be
less enmity and indifference in the married life.” (“Nomoi,” Book VI.)
—Westermarck (“History of Human Marriage,” p. 361).

2.—“... equal souls ...”

“The feeling which makes husband and wife true companions for
better and worse, can grow up only in societies where the altruistic
sentiments of man are strong enough to make him recognise woman
as his equal, and where she is not shut up as an exotic plant in a
greenhouse, but is allowed to associate freely with men. In this
direction European civilisation has been advancing for centuries.”—
Westermarck (loc. cit.). (See also Note XIX., 6.)

7, 8.—“Her only hope of thought or learning wide,

Some freer lot to seek than yoke forlorn of bride.”

In Greece “the modest women were confined to their own

apartments, and were visited only by their husbands and nearest
relations.... The courtesans of Athens, by living in public, and
conversing freely with all ranks of people, upon all manner of
subjects, acquired, by degrees, a knowledge of history, of philosophy,
of policy, and a taste in the whole circle of the arts. Their ideas were
more extensive and various, and their conversation was more
sprightly and entertaining than anything that was to be found among
the virtuous part of the sex. Hence their houses became the schools
of elegance; that of Aspasia was the resort of Socrates and Pericles,
and, as Greece was governed by eloquent men, over whom the
courtesans had an influence, the latter also influenced public
affairs.”—Alexander Walker (“Woman, as to Mind,” &c., p. 334).
 XII.

3.—“... craving mental food ...”

That the quest of knowledge and intellectual power was literally

the incentive to many a woman who accepted the life of hetaira is
indisputable. Westermarck says:—“It seems to me much more
reasonable to suppose that if, in Athens and India, courtesans were
respected and sought after by the principal men, it was because they
were the only educated women.”—(“History of Marriage,” p. 81.)
And Letourneau remarks:—“Religious prostitution, which was
widely spread in Greek antiquity, has been also found in India, where
every temple of renown had its bayadères, the only women in India
to whom, until quite recently, any instruction was given.”—
(“Evolution of Marriage,” Chap. III.)

5, 6.—“Conceding that, might lead a learned life—

A license vetoed to the legal wife.”

“Hetairai, famous at once for their beauty and intellect such as

Phryne, Laïs of Corinth, Gnathæna, and Aspasia, were objects of
universal admiration among the most distinguished Greeks. They
were admitted to their assemblies and banquets, while the ‘honest’
women of Greece were, without exception, confined to the house.... A
considerable number of women preferred the greater freedom which
they enjoyed as Hetairai to marriage, and carried on the trade of
prostitution as a means of livelihood. In unrestrained intercourse
with men, the more intelligent of the Hetairai, who were doubtless
often of good birth, acquired a far greater degree of versatility and
culture than that possessed by the majority of married women, living
in a state of enforced ignorance and bondage. This invested the
Hetairai with a greater charm for the men, in addition to the arts
which they employed in the special exercise of their profession. This
explains the fact that many of them enjoyed the esteem of some of
the most distinguished and eminent men of Greece, to whom they
stood in a relationship of influential intimacy, a position held by no
legitimate wife. The names of these Hetairai are famous to the
present day, while one enquires in vain after the names of the
legitimate wives.”—August Bebel (“Woman,” Chap. I.).

7.—“... wealth, or ... fame.”

E.g., Phryne, who offered to rebuild the wall of Thebes; and Laïs,
commemorated in the adage, “Non cuivis hominum contingit adire
Corinthum.” And as to even modern “fame,” a writer so merciless
concerning her own sex as Mrs. Lynn Linton can yet say, “Agnes
Sorel, like Aspasia, was one of the rare instances in history where
failure in chastity did not include moral degradation nor unpatriotic
self-consideration.”—(Nineteenth Century, July, 1891, p. 84.)

8.—“... the tinge of shame.”

Why indeed should shame have attached specially to those women,

more highly cultured and better treated than wives; and whose sole
impeachment could be that they rejected the still lower serfdom of
wedded bondage?
 XIII.

2.—“To him who fixed the gages of the fight.”

“If we could imagine a Bossuet or a Fénélon figuring among the

followers of Ninon de Lenclos, and publicly giving her counsel on the
subject of her professional duties, and the means of securing adorers,
this would be hardly less strange than the relation which really
existed between Socrates and the courtesan Theodota.”—Lecky
(“History of European Morals,” Vol. II., p. 280).

8.—“The waste of woman worth ...”

Since these words were written, a letter from Mrs. Mona Caird has
been published by the “Women’s Emancipation Union,” in which is
said:—“So far from giving safety and balance to the ‘natural forces,’
these time-honoured restrictions, springing from a narrow theory
which took its rise in a pre-scientific age, are fraught with the gravest
dangers, creating a perpetual struggle and unrest, filling society with
the perturbations and morbid developments of powers that ought to
be spending themselves freely and healthfully on their natural
objects. Anyone who has looked a little below the surface of women’s
lives can testify to the general unrest and nervous exhaustion or
malaise among them, although each would probably refer her
suffering to some cause peculiar to herself and her circumstances,
never dreaming that she was the victim of an evil that gnaws at the
very heart of society, making of almost every woman the heroine of a
silent tragedy. I think few keen observers will deny that it is almost
always the women of placid temperament, with very little sensibility,
who are happy and contented; those of more highly wrought nervous
systems and imaginative faculty, who are nevertheless capable of far
greater joy than their calmer sisters, in nine cases out of ten are
secretly intensely miserable. And the cause of this is not eternal and
unalterable. The nervously organised being is not created to be
miserable; but when intense vital energy is thwarted and misdirected
—so long as the energy lasts—there must be intense suffering.... It is
only when resignation sets in, when the ruling order convinces at last
and tires out the rebel nerves and the keen intelligence, that we know
that the living forces are defeated, and that death has come to quiet
the suffering. All this is waste of human force, and far worse than
waste.”
Id.... Alexandre Dumas fils says:—“Celles-là voient, de jour en jour,
en sondant l’horizon toujours le même, s’effeuiller dans l’isolement,
dans l’inaction, dans l’impuissance, les facultés divines qui leur
avaient d’abord fait faire de si beaux rêves et dont il leur semble que
l’expansion eût pu être matériellement et moralement si profitable
aux autres et à elles-memes.”—(“Les Femmes qui Tuent et les
Femmes qui Votent,” p. 107).
Id.... And Lady Florence Dixie has written:—“Nature gives strength
and beauty to man, and Nature gives strength and beauty to woman.
In this latter instance man flies in the face of Nature, and declares
that she must be artificially restrained. Woman must not be allowed
to grow up strong like man, because if she did the fact would
establish her equality with him, and this cannot be tolerated. So the
boy and man are allowed freedom of body, and are trained up to
become muscular and strong, while the woman, by artificial, not
natural, laws, is bidden to remain inactive and passive, and, in
consequence, weak and undeveloped. Mentally it is the same. Nature
has unmistakably given to woman a greater amount of brain power.
This is at once perceivable in childhood. For instance, on the stage,
girls are always employed in preference to boys, for they are
considered brighter and sharper in intellect and brain power. Yet
man deliberately sets himself to stunt that early evidence of mental
capacity by laying down the law that woman’s education shall be on a
lower level than that of man’s; that natural truths, which all women
should early learn, should be hidden from her; and that while men
may be taught everything, women must only acquire a narrow and
imperfect knowledge both of life and of Nature’s laws. I maintain
that this procedure is arbitrary and cruel, and false to Nature. I
characterise it by the strong word of infamous. It has been the means
of sending to their graves, unknown, unknelled, and unnamed,
thousands of women whose high intellects have been wasted, and
whose powers for good have been paralysed and undeveloped.”—
(“Gloriana: or, the Revolution of 1900,” p. 130.)
 Id.... Buckle gives numerous instances which support the foregoing
assertions, saying himself on the point:—“That women are more
deductive than men, because they think quicker than men, is a
proposition which some persons will not relish, and yet it may be
proved in a variety of ways. Indeed, nothing could prevent its being
universally admitted except the fact that the remarkable rapidity
with which women think is obscured by that miserable, that
contemptible, that preposterous system called their education, in
which valuable things are carefully kept from them, and trifling
things carefully taught to them, until their fine and nimble minds are
irreparably injured.”—(“Miscellaneous Works,” Vol. I., p. 8, “On the
influence of Women on the Progress of Knowledge.”)
Id.... As a man of straightforward common-sense, Sydney Smith
has left a name unsurpassed in our literary history. Here is
something of what he says on this question of woman’s intellect and
its waste:—“As the matter stands at present, half the talent in the
universe runs to waste, and is totally unprofitable. It would have
been almost as well for the world, hitherto, that women, instead of
possessing the capacities they do at present, should have been born
wholly destitute of wit, genius, and every other attribute of mind of
which men make so eminent a use; and the ideas of use and
possession are so united together that, because it has been the
custom in almost all countries to give to women a different and
worse education than to men, the notion has obtained that they do
not possess faculties which they do not cultivate.”—(“Essay on
Female Education.”)
Id.... Hear also John Ruskin on the relative intellect or capacity of
women:—“Let us try, then, whether we cannot get at some clear and
harmonious idea (and it must be harmonious if it is true) of what
womanly mind and virtue are in power and office, with respect to
man’s; and how their relations, rightly accepted, aid and increase the
vigour, and honour, and authority of both.... Let us see whether the
greatest, the wisest, the purest-hearted of all ages are agreed in
anywise on this point.... And first let us take Shakespeare; ... there is
hardly a play that has not a perfect woman in it, steadfast in grave
hope and errorless purpose.... Such, in broad light, is Shakespeare’s
testimony to the position and character of women in human life. He
represents them as infallibly faithful and wise counsellors,
incorruptibly just and pure examples, strong always to sanctify, even
when they cannot save.... I ask you next to receive the witness of
Walter Scott.... So that, in all cases, with Scott as with Shakespeare, it
is the woman who watches over, teaches, and guides the youth; it is
never, by any chance, the youth who watches over or educates his
mistress.
“Now I could multiply witness upon witness of this kind upon you,
if I had time. Nay, I could go back into the mythical teaching of the
most ancient times, and show you how the great people, how that
great Egyptian people, wisest then of nations, gave to their Spirit of
Wisdom the form of a woman; and into her hand, for a symbol, the
weaver’s shuttle; and how the name and form of that spirit adopted,
believed, and obeyed by the Greeks, became that Athena of the olive-
helm and cloudy shield, to whose faith you owe, down to this date,
whatever you hold most precious in art, in literature, or in types of
national virtue.
“But I will not wander into this distant and mythical element; I will
only ask you to give the legitimate value to the testimony of these
great poets and men of the world, consistent as you see it is on this
head. I will ask you whether it can be supposed that these men, in the
main work of their lives, are amusing themselves with a fictitious and
idle view of the relations between man and woman; nay, worse than
fictitious or idle, for a thing may be imaginary yet desirable, if it were
possible; but this, their ideal of women, is, according to our common
idea of the marriage relation, wholly undesirable. The woman, we
say, is not to guide nor even to think for herself. The man is always to
be the wiser; he is to be the thinker, the ruler, the superior in
knowledge and discretion, as in power. Is it not somewhat important
to make up our minds on this matter? Are Shakespeare and
Æschylus, Dante and Homer merely dressing dolls for us; or, worse
than dolls, unnatural visions, the realisation of which, were it
possible, would bring anarchy into all households, and ruin into all
affections? Are all these great men mistaken, or, are we?”—(“Sesame
and Lilies,” p. 125, et seq.)
Truly, in the face of these things, Tennyson had reason concerning
his fellow men, when he wrote:—
“Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers....”
(“Locksley Hall.”)
 XIV.

3.—“... lostling ...”

Between the most cultured hetairai and the poor outcast as here
shown, were many intervening or coalescing grades. Instance, as one
of the phases, the following sketch of an Indian courtesan:—“Lalun is
a member of the most ancient profession in the world. Lilith was her
very-great-grandmama, and that was before the days of Eve, as
everyone knows. In the West, people say rude things about Lalun’s
profession, and write lectures about it, and distribute the lectures to
young people, in order that morality may be preserved. In the East,
where the profession is hereditary, descending from mother to
daughter, nobody writes lectures or takes any notice.”—Rudyard
Kipling (“On the City Wall”).
Id.—“... worse than brutal woes ...”
Dumas fils, who knew well whereof he wrote, tells of “Les femmes
du peuple et de la campagne, suant du matin au soir pour gagner le
pain quotidien, le dos courbé, domptées par la misère:” of whom
some of the daughters “sortent du groupe par le chemin tentant et
facile de la prostitution, mais où le labeur est encore plus rude.”—
(“Les Femmes qui Tuent et les Femmes qui Votent,” p. 101.) As
historical instance of depth of wretched degradation, conf. mediæval
privilege of “scortum ante mortem,” conceded to some of even the
vilest and lowest of criminals condemned to capital punishment.
Though such a condition is barely more than parallel to the pitch of
infamy of modern times, as instanced in a quotation reproduced by
John Ruskin, in “Sesame and Lilies,” p. 91, first ed.:—
“The salons of Mme. C., who did the honours with clever imitative grace and
elegance, were crowded with princes, dukes, marquises, and counts, in fact, with
the same male company as one meets at the parties of the Princess Metternich and
Madame Drouyn de Lhuys. Some English peers and members of Parliament were
present, and appeared to enjoy the animated and dazzlingly improper scene. On
the second floor the supper-tables were loaded with every delicacy of the season.
That your readers may form some idea of the dainty fare of the Parisian demi-
monde, I copy the menu of the supper which was served to all the guests (about
200) seated, at four o’clock. Choice Yquem, Johannisberg, Lafitte, Tokay, and
Champagne of the finest vintages were served most lavishly throughout the
morning. After supper dancing was resumed with increased animation, and the
ball terminated with a chaine diabolique and a cancan d’enfer at seven in the
morning.”—(Morning Post, March 10th, 1865.)
To which perhaps the most fitting comment is certain words of
Letourneau’s:—“It is important to make a distinction. The
resemblance between the moral coarseness of the savage and the
depravation of the civilised man is quite superficial.... The brutality
of the savage has nothing in common with the moral retrogression of
the civilised man, struck with decay.... The posterity of the savage
may, with the aid of time and culture, attain to great moral elevation,
for there are vital forces within him which are fresh and intact. The
primitive man is still young, and he possesses many latent energies
susceptible of development. In short, the savage is a child, while the
civilised man, whose moral nature is corrupt, presents to us rather
the picture of decrepit old age.”—(“Evolution of Marriage,” Chap. V.)
If M. Letourneau will apply his strictures as to senility and decay to
so-called “Society” and its system, rather than to the individual, he
will find many thinkers, both of his own and other nationalities,
agree with his conclusion. Yet not death, but reform, is the righter
event to indicate. And by what means that reform may be ensured is,
at least in part, clearly set forth in the following passage from a paper
recently published by the Women’s Printing Society:—
“My positive belief is that women, and women alone, will be able to reverse the
world’s verdict, but they must change their method of reform in two important
matters.
“First and foremost, every mother must teach her daughters the truth, the whole
truth, and nothing but the truth about the relations of the sexes, the condition of
social opinion, the historical, physiological, ethical aspects of the question. She
must train herself so as to be able to teach the young minds these solemn, serious
aspects of life, in such a way that the world may learn that the innocence of
ignorance is inferior to the purity of right-minded, fearless knowledge. She must
strengthen the minds and form the judgment of her daughters, so that they may
demand reciprocal purity in those whom they would espouse.
“I fully understand the difficulty of teaching our pure-minded, delicately-
nurtured daughters the terrible lessons of this seamy side of life. I am a mother of
daughters myself, and I know the cost at which the courage has to be obtained, but
in this matter each mother must help another. What a mighty force is influence!
What help is conveyed by pressure of opinion! How often do I remember with
gratitude the words which I once read as quoted of Mrs. John Stuart Mill, who
taught her little daughter to have the courage to hear what other little girls had to
bear. How gladly I acknowledge the stimulus of that example to myself, and
therefore I would urge all women to SPEAK OUT. Do not be afraid. You will not
lose your womanliness. You will not lose your purity. You will not have your
sensibilities blunted by such rough use. No, “To the pure all things are pure.” We
must reach the mass through the unit, it is the individual who helps to move the
world.
“We must teach and train the mind of every woman with whom we come in
contact, for we have mighty work to do. A no less deed than to reverse the
judgment of the whole world on the subject of purity. I do not believe it is possible
for men to accomplish any radical reform in this matter. It belongs to women—I
was going to say exclusively—but I will modify my assertion; and if women do not
speak out more courageously in the future than they have done in the past, I
believe there is but slight chance of any further amelioration in the condition of
society than those which are such an inadequate return at the present time, for all
the love and money expended on them.”
And the same writer says, on a still more recent occasion: “I find
no words strong enough to denounce the sin of silence amongst
women on these social evils; and I have come to feel that the best
proof of the subjection and degradation of my sex lies in the opinions
often expressed by so-called Christian and pure women about other
women. If their judgments were not perverted, if their wills were not
broken, if their consciences were not asleep, and if their souls were
not enslaved, they would not, they could not, hold their peace and let
the havoc go on with women and children as it does.”—Mrs. Laura E.
Morgan-Browne (“Woman’s Herald”, 27th Feb., 1892).
Mrs. Morgan-Browne is, perhaps, not more than needfully severe
on the almost criminal reticence of women; yet man must certainly
take the greater share of blame for the social “double morality” which
condemns irrevocably a woman, and leaves practically unscathed a
man, for the same act. It is male-made laws and rules that have
resulted in the perverted judgments, broken wills, sleeping
consciences, and enslaved souls, which both sexes may deplore.
Charles Kingsley pointed a cogent truth when he said that “Women
will never obtain moral equity until they have civil equality.” (See
also Note XXXV., 6.)
 XV.

2.—“... woman’s griefs with man of barbarous breed.”

“In all barbarous societies the subjection of woman is more or less

severe; customs or coarse laws have regulated the savagery of the
first anarchic ages; they have doubtless set up a barrier against
primitive ferocity, they have interdicted certain absolutely terrible
abuses of force, but they have only replaced these by a servitude
which is still very heavy, is often iniquitous, and no longer permits to
legally-possessed women those escapes, or capriciously accorded
liberties, which were tolerated in savage life.”—Letourneau
(“Evolution of Marriage,” Chap. XIV.).

4.—“Crippled and crushed by cruelty and toil.”

Some of this crippling has been of set purpose, as well as the

simple result of brutal male recklessness. Instance the distortion of
the feet of high-born female children in China, the tradition
concerning which is that the practice was initiated and enjoined by
an emperor of old, one of whose wives had (literally) “run away”
from him. A somewhat similar precaution would seem to be
indicated as a very probable source of the persistent and almost
universal incommodity and incumbrance of the dress of woman as
compared with that of man.
Dr. Thomas Inman, in his “Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient
Names,” Vol. I., p. 53, seems to indicate a different, yet closely allied,
origin and motive for the impeding form of woman’s clothing, the
subordinate status of woman being always the purpose in view.
Id.... “Even supposing a woman to give no encouragement to her
admirers, many plots are always laid to carry her off. In the
encounters which result from these, she is almost certain to receive
some violent injury, for each of the combatants orders her to follow
him, and, in the event of her refusing, throws a spear at her. The
early life of a young woman at all celebrated for beauty is generally
one continued series of captivities to different masters, of ghastly
wounds, of wandering in strange families, of rapid flights, of bad
treatment from other females amongst whom she is brought, a
stranger, by her captor; and rarely do you see a form of unusual
grace and elegance but it is marked and scarred by the furrows of old
wounds; and many a female thus wanders several hundred miles
from the home of her infancy, being carried off successively to
distant and more distant points.”—Sir George Grey (“Travels in
North-Western Australia,” 1841, Vol. II., p. 249; quoted in M’Lennan
on “Primitive Marriage,” p. 75).

5.—“... her heart a gentle mien essayed.”

“Woman seems to differ from man in mental disposition, chiefly in

greater tenderness and less selfishness, and this holds good even
with savages, as shown by a well-known passage in “Mungo Park’s
Travels,” and by statements made by other travellers. Woman, owing
to her maternal instincts, displays these qualities towards her infants
in an eminent degree; therefore it is likely that she should often
extend them towards her fellow creatures.”... “Mungo Park heard the
negro women teaching their young children to love the truth.”—
Darwin (“The Descent of Man,” Chaps. IX., III.).

6.—“By deeper passion, holier impulse, swayed.”

Mrs. Eliza W. Farnham well says:—“Woman has accepted her

subordinate lot, and lived in it with comparatively little moral harm,
as the only truly superior and noble being could have done. The
masculine spirit, enslaved and imprisoned, becomes diabolic or
broken; the feminine, only warped, weakened, or distorted, is ready,
whenever the pressure upon it is removed, to assume its true
attitude.”—(“Woman and Her Era,” Part IV.)
Id.... Perhaps as appositely here, as elsewhere, may be recorded
the following:—“An American writer says: ‘While I lived among the
Choctaw Indians, I held a consultation with one of their chiefs
respecting the successive stages of their progress in the arts of
civilised life, and, among other things, he informed me that at their
start they made a great mistake, they only sent boys to school. Their
boys came home intelligent men, but they married uneducated and
uncivilised wives, and the uniform result was that the children were
all like their mothers. The father soon lost all his interest both in wife
and children. And now,’ said he, ‘if we could educate but one class of
our children, we should choose the girls, for, when they become
mothers, they educate their sons.’ This is the point, and it is true.”—
(Manchester Examiner and Times, Sept., 1870.)

8.—“... mother-love alone the infant oft preserved.”

In Polynesia, “if a child was born, the husband was free to kill the
infant, which was done by applying a piece of wet stuff to the mouth
and nose, or to let it live; but, in the latter case, he generally kept the
wife for the whole of her life. If the union was sterile, or the children
put to death, the man had always the right to abandon the woman
when and how it seemed good to him.”—Letourneau (“Evolution of
Marriage,” p. 113).
Id.... An Arab legend tells of a chief of Tamin, who became a
constant practitioner of infanticide in consequence of a wound given
to his pride ... and from that moment he interred alive all his
daughters, according to the ancient custom. But one day, during his
absence, a daughter was born to him, whom the mother secretly sent
to a relative to save her, and then declared to her husband that she
had been delivered of a still-born child.—(R. Smith, on “Kinship,” p.
282; quoted by Letourneau, “Evolution of Marriage,” p. 83.)
Id.... Charles Darwin writes of Tierra del Fuego:—“The husband is
to the wife a brutal master to a laborious slave. Was a more horrid
deed ever perpetrated than that witnessed on the west coast by
Byron, who saw a wretched mother pick up her bleeding, dying
infant-boy, whom her husband had mercilessly dashed on the stones
for dropping a basket of sea-eggs!”—(“Voyage of the Beagle,” Chap.
X.)
Id.... Mrs. Reichardt tells of a certain Moslem, of high standing in
the society of Damascus, who “married a young girl of ten, and, after
she had born him two sons, he drove her almost mad with such
cruelty and unkindness that she escaped, and went back to her
father. Her husband sent for her to return, and, as she was hidden
out of his sight, he wrung the necks of both his sons, and sent their
bodies to his wife to show her what he had in store for her. The
young mother, not yet twenty, died in a few days.”—(See Nineteenth
Century, June, 1891.)
Id.... It will not be forgotten that, in more than one of the older
civilisations, the father had the power of life and death over the
members of the family, even past adult age.
And, to come to quite recent times, and this our England, Mrs.
Wolstenholme Elmy, to whose unflagging energy, during some
fifteen years of labour, was mainly attributable (as the Parliamentary
sponsors of the measures know) the amelioration in the English law
concerning wives and mothers, embodied in the Married Women’s
Property Acts of 1870 and 1882, together with the later and
beneficent Guardianship of Infants Act, 1886, relates, in her record
of the history of this latter Act:—
“It will be remembered that so recently as 1883, a young lady petitioned that she
might be allowed to spend her summer holidays with her own mother, from whom
she was separated for no fault of her own or of her mother’s, but in virtue of the
supreme legal rights of her father. The Court refused her petition, natural and
proper as it seems to everyone of human feelings; and the words of the Master of
the Rolls in giving judgment, on the 24th of July, 1883, are more significant and
instructive as to the actual state of the law than the words of any non-professional
writer can be:—‘The law of England recognises the rights of the father, not as the
guardian, but because he is the father of his children.... The rights of the father are
recognised because he is the father; his duties as a father are recognised because
they are natural duties. The natural duties of a father are to treat his children with
the utmost affection, and with infinite tenderness.... The law recognises these
duties, from which if a father breaks he breaks from everything which nature calls
upon him to do; and, although the law may not be able to insist upon their
performance, it is because the law recognises them, and knows that in almost every
case the natural feelings of a father will prevail. The law trusts that the father will
perform his natural duties, and does not, and, indeed, cannot, inquire how they
have been performed.... I am not prepared to say whether when the child is a ward
of Court, and the conduct of the father is such as to exhaust all patience—such, for
instance, as cruelty, or pitiless spitefulness carried to a great extent—the Court
might not interfere. But such interference will be exercised ONLY IN THE UTMOST
NEED, AND IN MOST EXTREME CASES. It is impossible to lay down the rule of the Court
more clearly than has been done by Vice-Chancellor Bacon in the recent case of
“Re. Plowley” (47 “L.T.,” N.S., 283). In saying that this Court, “whatever be its
authority or jurisdiction, has no authority to interfere with the sacred right of a
father over his own children,” the learned Vice-Chancellor has summed up all that
I intended to say. The rights of a father are sacred rights, because his duties are
sacred....’
“These sacred rights of the father were, it will be observed, in the eyes of the law
so exclusive and paramount as to justify and demand the refusal to a young girl, at
the most critical period of early womanhood, of the solace of a few weeks’
intercourse with a blameless and beloved mother; and this although the
gratification of the daughter’s wish would have involved no denial to the father of
the solace of his daughter’s company, since she was not actually, but only legally,
in his custody, not having seen him for more than a year.
“It will be seen from this that the father alone has the absolute legal right to deal
with his child or children, to the extent of separating them, at his own sole
pleasure, from their mother, and of giving them into the care and custody of any
person whom he may think fit. The mother has, as such, no legal status, no choice,
voice, lot, or part in the matter.”—Mrs. Wolstenholme Elmy (“The Infants’ Act,
1886,” p. 2).
It is consolatory to learn that a palliation of some part of the above
unjust conditions has been achieved; yet how often has our
presumedly happy land witnessed scenes of child misery and
helpless mother-love, to which was denied even the poor consolation,
so pathetically depicted by Mrs. Browning, in a scene which, as Moir
truly says, “weighs on the heart like a nightmare”;—
“Do you hear the children weeping, oh! my brothers!
Ere the sorrow comes with years?
They are leaning their young heads against their mothers,
And that cannot stop their tears.”
 XVI.

4.—“... single basis ...”

First written “disproportioned basis,” but altered, with good

reason, in the face of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s arrogant male thesis:
—“Only that mental energy is normally feminine which can co-exist
with the production and nursing of the due (!) number of healthy
children.”—(“Study of Sociology,” Chap. XV., note 5.)
But Professor Huxley speaks, more humanly, of “... such a peasant
woman as one sees in the Alps, striding ever upward, heavily
burdened, and with mind bent only on her home; but yet, without
effort and without thought, knitting for her children. Now stockings
are good and comfortable things, and the children will undoubtedly
be much the better for them, but surely it would be short-sighted, to
say the least of it, to depreciate this toiling mother as a mere
stocking-machine—a mere provider of physical comforts.”—(“On
Improving Natural Knowledge.”)
Yet, if it be—as truly it is—a senseless and disgraceful depreciation
of woman to look upon her as “a mere machine for the making of
stockings,” is it not equally unworthy and unwise to consider her as—
primarily and essentially—a mere machine for the making of a “due”
number of stocking-wearers?

5.—“... quicker fire.”

In even so sedate and usually dispassionate a physiologist and

philosopher as Charles Darwin, the masculine sex-bias is so
ingrained and so ingenuous that he strives to disparage and contemn
the notorious mental quickness or intuition of woman by saying:—“It
is generally admitted that with woman the powers of intuition, of
rapid perception, and perhaps of imitation, are more strongly
marked than in man; but some, at least, of these faculties are
characteristic of the lower races, and therefore of a past and lower
state of civilisation.”—(“The Descent of Man,” Chap. XIX.).