Cognitive Linguistics and Poetics of

Translation
Chapter 2: Imagery

Words are the images of things Simonides

 According to prototype theory, mental images, or patterns that organize

mental experience, lead to the formation of concepts, either through
projection to categories or through metaphorical projection from
physical to abstract domains;
 thus metaphor is not seen as a rare product of a genial mind, but as a
phenomenon that constitutes the very texture of human language: to
quote the title of Lakoff and Johnson’s seminal classic, we live by
metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson 1980; see also section 2.3.4 below)
 The distinction between literal and figurative isn't always clear-cut. Many everyday expressions
rely on metaphors or other figures of speech, even if they don't seem particularly creative or
unusual.
 Traditionally, language is seen as either literal (meaning exactly what it says) or figurative (using a
figure of speech like a metaphor).

The Container Metaphor:

 Lakoff and Johnson (1980) proposed the idea of a "container metaphor." We think of
abstract things like time, emotions, or ideas as if they were containers.

Examples:

 Literal: "Fill the bucket with water." (Container - bucket, content - water)
 Figurative: "Hope filled my heart." (Container - heart, content - hope) Metaphor

The Spectrum of "Container" Language:

 The passage argues that these are all using the same basic idea – a container metaphor.
 The difference lies in how common or "conventional" the usage is:
o "Fill the hour" - This is a common way to talk about spending time, so it's
considered quite conventional.
o "Lord North filled a chair" - This still uses the container metaphor (chair
holding Lord North), but it's less common than "fill the hour."
 o "He fills affection's eye" - This is a more creative and poetic use of the
metaphor. It uses "affection's eye" as a container for the feeling of being filled.

Shifting the Paradigm:

 Traditionally, linguistics focused on "truth-functional referential semantics" - the idea

that words have objective meanings that point to things in the real world.

Prototype theory offers a different perspective on meaning in language compared to traditional

"truth-functional referential semantics." Here's a breakdown of the key points:

 Traditional View: This view assumes words have clear-cut, objective meanings that
directly correspond to things in the real world. Like a dictionary definition, a word points
to a single, well-defined category.
 Prototype Theory Challenge: Prototype theory argues that categories in language, and
therefore word meanings, are not always clear-cut. Instead, they are fuzzy and have
graded memberships.
 Prototype as a Central Example: Imagine a category like "bird." In prototype theory,
there's a central member, the "prototype," that embodies the most typical features of a
bird – wings, feathers, ability to fly.
 Membership Based on Resemblance: Other members of the "bird" category are judged
based on how closely they resemble this prototype. A robin perfectly fits the prototype,
while an ostrich might be considered a bird, but a less typical member due to its inability
to fly long distances.
 Fuzzy Boundaries: Because categories are based on resemblance, the boundaries
become fuzzy. A penguin has feathers but can't fly well. Is it still a bird? Prototype theory
allows for this fuzziness, where something can be a partial member of a category.

What this means: Prototype theory acknowledges that meaning in language is more flexible and
context-dependent. It's not just about a word pointing to a single thing, but about how well
something fits our mental image of a category, with varying degrees of membership.

Subjectivity and Meaning:

 This shift leads to a more subjective view of meaning. Meaning isn't just fixed in the
word, but also arises from the speaker's experiences and how they conceptualize things.

What "Conceptualization" Means:

 Langacker defines "conceptualization" broadly. It includes:

o Established concepts (e.g., chair)
o New ideas (e.g., a flying car)
o Sensory experiences (seeing a red apple)
o Emotions (feeling happy)
o Body awareness (feeling tired)
o Context (understanding a joke)
Relativism in Cognitive Linguistics (CL):

 This broad definition of meaning leads to relativism. The meaning of an expression can
vary depending on the speaker's unique experiences and context.

Speaker's Choice and Units:

 Every word or phrase is a choice a speaker makes from their "repertoire" of language
options. This choice can be small (a word) or large (a whole sentence).

Langacker's "Units":

 Langacker defines a "unit" as something a speaker has mastered. It's a "cognitive routine"
that connects a concept to its spoken or written form (e.g., associating the sound "cat"
with the furry animal).

Examples:

 Traditional: The word "chair" refers to a piece of furniture with four legs and a seat.
 Prototype Theory and Subjectivity: "Chair" might evoke a different image for someone
who uses a wheelchair compared to someone who uses a traditional dining room chair.
Both are chairs, but the specific features they focus on might differ based on experience.
 In essence, this passage argues that meaning isn't just about words and objects, but also about
the speaker's mind and experiences. This shift from objective meaning to subjective meaning
based on prototypes and experience is a core principle in Cognitive Linguistics (CL).

The Rules of Language (Sort of):

 Languages have rules and established ways of using words (linguistic structures). These
are created through convention, meaning everyone agrees to use them in a certain way.

Not Black and White:

 However, how "conventional" something becomes isn't always clear-cut. There's no exact
moment when something new becomes a widely accepted part of the language.

A Spectrum of Convention:

 Imagine a scale:
o On one end: Things everyone agrees on (common words like "apple"). These are
highly conventional.
o On the other end: Highly personal or creative uses of language ("the bitterness of
the rotten pearmain I bit into this morning"). These are less conventional and
more specific to the speaker.
Your "Apple" vs. My "Apple"

 The core meaning of "apple" (fruitness, roundness, etc.) is widely agreed upon
(conventional).
 But your personal experiences can add details. For you, "apple" might also include the
memory of a specific basket or a bad experience with a rotten pearmain.
 These extra details are less conventional and unique to you.

key Point:

Language is a constantly evolving system. New words and ways of using words can become
conventional over time. The meaning we attach to words can also be influenced by our personal
experiences.

Illustration:

 The word "like" used to be more specific (meaning similar or equal to). Now, it's often
used in a more general way (e.g., "I like this song"). This broader usage has become more
conventional over time.
 A new slang term might start out as something only a small group understands
(idiosyncratic). If it catches on ‫انتشرت‬, it can become more widely used and eventually
conventional

o Denotation vs. Connotation: Denotation is the "dictionary definition" (apple =
fruit). Connotation are emotional associations (apple = healthy, sweet). The
passage suggests these aren't always separate. Our experiences (encyclopedic
knowledge) can influence both.
o Grammar vs. Communication: Knowing grammar rules (linguistic competence)
isn't enough for successful communication. You also need to understand how
language is used in context (communicative competence).
o Pragmatics vs. Semantics: Pragmatics focuses on how context affects meaning,
while semantics focuses on word meaning. The passage argues these are
intertwined. Our knowledge (encyclopedia) shapes how we interpret both.
o Linguistic vs. Non-Linguistic Knowledge: The clear separation between
knowledge of language and general knowledge is blurred. Our overall
understanding of the world influences how we use and understand language.

In essence, the passage argues that language meaning isn't fixed. It's constantly evolving based
on our ever-growing knowledge and experiences. These experiences influence how we use and
interpret language, making a clear distinction between different aspects of language study
(grammar, meaning, context) difficult.

This passage explains how "poetic value" is created in language according to the framework of
"relativity of conventionalization." Here's a breakdown:

The Recipe for Poetic Value:

  The "poetic value" of a text depends on the author's skill in choosing words and phrases.
 These choices should have varying degrees of conventionalization (how common or
established they are).

Why This Works:

 Using a mix of common and less common words or phrases can create a unique effect.
 Highly conventional words are easily understood, while less conventional choices can
surprise or challenge the reader, making them think more deeply.
 This combination allows the author to effectively "symbolize" (represent) the meaning
they want to convey.

Individual Differences:

 People have different levels of understanding of language conventions (how common

words and phrases are used).
 They also have different abilities to process and express their experiences through
language.

The Art vs. Everyday Language Gap:

 The difference between someone who can write poetry and someone who uses language
for everyday communication is a matter of degree, not a clear distinction.
 Both use language to convey meaning, but a skilled writer can use a wider range of
conventionalization and create a more complex and evocative effect.

The Subjectivity of Judgment:

 Ultimately, deciding whether something is "poetic" or not relies on "intuitive judgments."

There's no strict scientific test.
 Different people might have different reactions to the same text, finding it more or less
poetic based on their own experiences and understanding of language.

Examples:

 Highly Conventional: "The dog sat on the mat." (Easy to understand, but not very
poetic)
 Less Conventional: "The canine reclined upon the woven rectangle." (More formal and
uses less common words)
 Poetic Mix: "The sun dipped below the horizon, painting the sky in fiery hues."
(Combines common words with more evocative descriptions)

In essence, the ability to create poetic language comes from skillfully using a range of
conventionalization in your word choices. This is a skill that can be developed, but there's also a
subjective element, as what one person finds poetic another might not.
Everyone is Creative with Language:

 The passage refers to the idea that we're all creative in how we use language ("utilization
of the resources of language").
 Every time we choose a word or phrase, we're making a creative choice.

Why Creativity Isn't Just for "Style"

 Traditionally, "creativity" was linked to artistic style (writing poetry, using fancy
language).
 This passage argues against this limitation.

Choice is Key:

 The core idea is that any choice we make with language is a form of creation.
 Language isn't a set of fixed rules that dictate what we say. We always have choices in
how we express ourselves.

Conscious vs. Unconscious Choices:

 Traditional views might say stylistic choices are more "conscious" (we think carefully
about them).
 The passage acknowledges this, but argues that even everyday choices are motivated (not
random).
 We might not always be super aware of our choices, but there are always reasons behind
them (e.g., wanting to sound polite, clear, or funny).

Not Quite Chomskyan Rules:

 Noam Chomsky proposed that language is based on innate rules.

 The passage suggests that these rules aren't absolute. We still have choices within the
system.

Examples:

 Simple Choice: Saying "good morning" vs. "hi" is a choice, even if it seems small.
 More Stylistic Choice: A writer might choose a metaphor ("life is a journey") to add
creativity to their description.

In essence, the passage argues that creativity is woven into the fabric of how we all use
language. Every time we make a choice about what to say, we're using a bit of creativity, even if
it's not about writing poetry.

This passage talks about the overlap between cognitive grammar, stylistics, and poetics,
focusing on the concept of "imagery" in Langacker's work. Here's a breakdown:
Shared Ground:

 Cognitive grammar studies how we use language conventions (grammar, vocabulary) to

structure meaning.
 Stylistics analyzes how language choices create different effects or styles in writing.
 Poetics focuses on the creative use of language in literature.

What They All Share:

 All three fields are interested in how speakers choose words and structures to express
meaning.
 They all acknowledge that these choices aren't random, but reflect the speaker's ability to
present the same idea in different ways.

Langacker's "Imagery":

 Langacker uses the term "imagery" to describe this ability to "construe a conceived
situation in alternate ways."
 It's the mental picture or scene we create through our language choices.

Examples:

 Imagine a child playing in the park.

 Simple statement: "The child is playing." (Cognitive grammar analysis: subject-verb
structure conveys basic meaning)
 Stylistic choice: "The little tyke frolicked with glee on the verdant expanse." (More
descriptive, playful tone)
 Poetic imagery: "Laughter echoed like wind chimes as the child became a whirlwind of
pure joy." (Figurative language creates a vivid image)

In essence, all three fields are interested in how we use language choices to shape the meaning
and impact of what we say. Langacker's term "imagery" captures the idea that these choices
allow us to create different mental pictures for the listener/reader, even when talking about the
same basic situation.

Mental Imagery: A Hot Topic

 The concept of mental imagery - forming pictures or representations in our minds - is a

major discussion point in cognitive science.

Two Sides of the Coin:

 There's no single agreed-upon explanation for what mental images actually are. The
debate centers on two main views:
o Pictorial Images (Iconophiles): These are seen as detailed, picture-like
representations in the mind, similar to a photograph.
 o Descriptive Images (Iconophobes): These are seen as more like descriptions or
concepts, not detailed pictures. They might focus on key features without a
complete picture.

The Category Connection:

 This debate connects to how we categorize things.

o Pictorial Images: These require a specific category (e.g., "dog") to form a mental
image of a particular dog.
o Descriptive Images: These might be based on a category but don't require a
complete picture. You might imagine a "furry animal" without picturing a specific
breed.

Ordering and Detail:

 Pictorial images are seen as having no specific order for their details (like a photograph).
 Descriptive images can be more flexible. We can focus on certain details and organize
them in a way that makes sense to us (like a written description).

Analogy: Novel vs. Movie:

 The passage compares the two views to a novel and a movie adaptation:
o Descriptive Image (Novel): Like a novel, it uses words to describe something,
potentially leaving out details and requiring the reader to "fill in the blanks" with
their imagination.
o Pictorial Image (Movie): Like a movie, it presents a more complete and detailed
visual representation.

In essence, there's no clear answer to whether mental images are more like detailed pictures or
mental descriptions. The debate reflects different ideas about how we form and use these
representations in our minds.

 the traditional view is a good starting point, but it's important to recognize that imagery can be
achieved in many ways, not just through a heavy use of figurative language.

This passage explains how the concept of imagery in literature has evolved, particularly with the
rise of the modern novel and the work of Mikhail Bakhtin. Here's a breakdown:

Traditional Imagery Theories Limited:

 As novels became more complex, traditional views of imagery (focusing on poetic

figures of speech) became inadequate.
 These theories couldn't fully explain the rich and nuanced imagery found in narrative
prose.

Bakhtin's Intervention:
  Long before modern narratology (study of narrative structure), Mikhail Bakhtin criticized
these shortcomings.

"Images of Language":

 Bakhtin focused on a new concept: "images of language."

 This refers to how an author uses "someone else's language" to create complex imagery.

Example: Character Portrayal:

 In a polyphonic novel (where multiple voices and perspectives are present), "images of
language" might be used to depict a character.
 The author might use a particular style of speech or vocabulary to represent that character
and create a mental image for the reader.

In essence, Bakhtin challenged the limitations of traditional imagery theories and introduced the
concept of "images of language" to explain how authors can use various aspects of language (not
just poetic devices) to create complex imagery, especially in novels with diverse voices and
perspectives.

Figurative Language Everywhere:

 The widespread use of metaphor in everyday language challenges the idea that
"figurative language" is unique to literature.
 It suggests figurative language is just a more creative and noticeable way we use imagery
in everyday communication.

In essence, the passage argues that imagery is a fundamental part of how we understand
language, not just a feature of literature. Figurative language, like metaphors, is more common
than we might think, and even everyday speech relies on these underlying mental pictures to
convey meaning.

Literary Imagery Redefined:

 Some literary critics, like Cuddon, define imagery broadly as using language to represent
anything we can experience (objects, emotions, ideas, etc.).
 This definition doesn't restrict imagery to figurative language or just poetry.

The Overlap Between Fields:

 The passage emphasizes the overlap between cognitive psychology, literary studies, and
linguistics in studying imagery:
o Cognitive Psychology: Interested in the mental processes behind imagery.
o Literary Studies: Focused on how imagery is used to create meaning in
literature.
o Linguistics: Analyzes how language choices shape imagery.
  This overlap is a core principle of Cognitive Linguistics (CL).

In essence, this passage argues that imagery is a fundamental way we use language to represent
the world around us, regardless of whether we're writing a poem, having a conversation, or
reading a news article. Understanding imagery requires insights from different fields,
highlighting the connections between cognitive processes, language use, and literary creation.

 Langacker's "Linguistic Imagery": Focuses on using language creatively to express the

same idea in different ways, highlighting different aspects.
 Alternate Construals: Different ways to understand and express a situation using the tools
provided by language.
 Polish Example: The basic idea of "things going well" can be expressed in Polish using
different verbs:

 "poszły" (went) - neutral

 "potoczyły się" (rolled) - emphasizes smoothness
 "ułożyły się" (arranged) - emphasizes outcome

Imagery and Translational Nuance:

 These seemingly interchangeable options create subtle differences in the "image"

conveyed.
 This can affect what is grammatically acceptable in a language.
o Example: "Sprawy szły jak po grudzie" (Things went like on bumpy ground) -
acceptable (highlights difficulty).
o Example (unacceptable): "Sprawy toczyły się jak po grudzie" (Things rolled on
like on bumpy ground) - clashes with the smooth image of "toczyły się" (rolled
on).

 English Contrast: English uses "go" for this metaphor, lacking the nuanced options of
Polish in this case.

In essence, the passage highlights how Langacker's "linguistic imagery" is about understanding
how speakers use language to construct meaning and imagery. Even small choices in verbs or
phrasing can create subtle differences in the "image" conveyed. This is important for translators
to consider, as they need to find ways to capture these nuances in the target language, even if the
languages don't have perfect equivalents.

 Imagery as a Core Human Ability: Our ability to form mental images (imagery) is
fundamental to everyone.
 Imagery in Language: This mental imagery is directly reflected in the way we use
language (conventional imagery). So, all texts inherently have imagery.
 Poetic Imagery and "Perfect Language": Literary texts, especially poetry (often seen
as the "perfect" use of language), take imagery a step further. They use extended or more
creative forms of imagery (poetic imagery).
  Degrees of Conventionalization: The difference between various texts (like a news
article vs. a poem) lies in the level of "conventionalization" of the imagery used.
o Conventional imagery refers to commonly understood ways of using language to
create images.
 Individual Choice and Constraints: Even within these conventions, writers still have
some freedom to make individual choices. However, these choices are still limited by the
conventions of the language and the type of text.

In essence, this passage argues that imagery is a fundamental aspect of human thought and
language. It's present in all texts, but it's used in more creative and unconventional ways in
literature, especially poetry. The specific ways imagery is used depend on the type of text and the
choices of the writer within the constraints of language and genre.

Building Mental Images: The Role of Comparison

 Our ability to compare things is essential for understanding scenes (mental images).
 This comparison helps us:
o Form categories: We group similar things together ("similarity in diversity").
o Create metaphors: We extend categories to create new meanings.

Scanning a Scene: Summary vs. Sequential

 We can "scan" a scene mentally in two ways:

o Summary scanning: We perceive all relevant features at once (e.g., "apple" -
roundness, sweetness, fruitness).
o Sequential scanning: We focus on individual components one by one (e.g., "eat"
- a sequence of actions leading to a temporal relation).

In essence, this passage highlights how our basic cognitive ability to compare things shapes how
we construct mental images (scenes) by influencing how we scan and process information.

Sequential scanning: We focus on individual components

one by one (e.g., "eat" - a sequence of actions leading to a
temporal relation). WHAT THAT MEAN?
Here's a breakdown of sequential scanning in the context of mental imagery and the example of
the word "eat":

Imagine you're looking at a movie scene. Instead of taking in the whole scene at once (summary
scanning), you're focusing on individual parts one after another. This is sequential scanning.

"Eat" as an Example:

The word "eat" doesn't directly give you a complete image. Instead, it triggers a sequence of
mental images in your mind. These images could be:
 1. Picking up food with your hand (or using utensils).
2. Bringing the food to your mouth.
3. Chewing the food.
4. Swallowing the food.

These individual components happen one after another, creating a mental sequence that
represents the action of eating.

Key Points:

 Sequential scanning focuses on the order or progression of things.

 "Eat" is a verb that describes a process, and sequential scanning helps us understand the
steps involved.
 This type of scanning allows us to build a mental image of something dynamic (changing
over time) by piecing together smaller parts.

Contrast with Summary Scanning:

 Summary scanning, on the other hand, gives you a more complete picture all at once. For
example, the word "apple" might evoke the image of a red, round fruit without focusing
on how you would eat it.

Selection in Langacker's Dimensions of Imagery: When

Synonyms Aren't Quite Synonyms
This passage dives into the first dimension of imagery in Langacker's framework: selection.
Here's a breakdown:

 Selection: This is the initial choice of mental structures (domains) that make up an
image.
 Relation to Semantic Synonymy: This dimension relates to what's traditionally called
"semantic synonyms" - words with close meanings.
 Focus on Salience: However, the focus here is on the "salience" of different aspects
within a concept. Even synonyms can have slightly different emphasis on what's most
prominent.
 Polish Example: The passage uses the example of Polish words "zadymka" and
"zamiec" (both translated as "blizzard").
o Both refer to snowstorms but with a difference:
 "Zadymka" emphasizes the image of a cloud of powdery snow (smoke-
like).
 "Zamiec" emphasizes the movement of snow swept by wind.
 "Blizzard" and Limitations of Translation: The English "blizzard" captures both
aspects but might not perfectly represent the specific emphasis of each Polish word. This
suggests a potential limitation in achieving perfect "imagery-based translation
equivalence."
In essence, this passage highlights how selection, the initial choice of mental structures,
influences the image we create. Even words considered synonyms can have subtle differences in
emphasis, which can be challenging to capture perfectly when translating between languages.

Selection in Cognitive Linguistics: Beyond Synonyms

This passage continues the discussion of selection as a dimension of imagery in Cognitive
Linguistics (CL) but focuses on a different aspect: the relationship between profile and base.

 Focus Shift: The passage acknowledges that the difference in emphasis between
synonyms is a well-known challenge in translation.
 Profile and Base: Instead, it delves into Langacker's concept of profile and base within
selection.
 Profile: The entity or concept that's the main focus of attention in an expression.
o Example: In "wall," the wall itself is the profile.
 Base: The background knowledge or context needed to understand the profile.
o Example: Understanding "wall" requires knowing what constitutes a "high" wall
(scale) and its purpose (function).

Cognitive Scales:

The passage mentions "cognitive scales" as part of the base. These are mental frameworks we
use to judge features of the profile entity.

 Example: The "high" in "high wall" is judged based on our concept of what constitutes a
high wall (a cognitive scale).

In essence, this passage moves beyond the issue of synonyms to explore how selection, through
the interplay of profile and base, influences how we shape the meaning of an expression. The
base, with its cognitive scales, provides the context for understanding the specific focus (profile)
of an expression.

Relativity of Scales:

 The key point is that scales are relative, not absolute.

 Something can be "small" compared to other cars but "huge" compared to insects.

Example: A sentence like "slowly approaching small car looking like a huge bug" highlights this
relativity.

Scope of a Concept:

The passage also introduces the concept of "scope" related to how broadly a concept is
understood within a network of related domains.
  Maximal Scope: This refers to all the conceptual content an expression can potentially
evoke.
 Immediate Scope: This refers to the specific aspects of the maximal scope that are
directly relevant in a particular context (used to describe the profile entity).

Example:

 The maximal scope of "car" might include wheels, engine, transportation, etc.
 The immediate scope in the sentence "small car" might focus only on the size compared
to other cars.

In essence, this passage emphasizes that selection is not just about choosing the right concept
(profile) but also about considering the relative nature of scales and how broadly a concept is
applied within a specific context (scope).

Connecting Selection, Profile, Base, and Scope in Cognitive

Linguistics
This passage builds on the previous discussion of selection (choosing mental structures) and
connects it to the concepts of profile, base, and scope:

 Revisiting the Wall Example: The passage returns to the example of "walsdl."
 Immediate Scope: Here, the immediate scope of "wall" includes the concepta of
"house." This is because understanding a wall often requires knowing it's part of a house
(part-whole relation, a basic cognitive domain).
 Profile and Base: "Wall" is the profile (focal point) within its immediate scope (base),
which in this case is "house."
 Hierarchical Organization: The selection process often follows a hierarchy. The most
directly relevant concept (house) becomes the immediate scope, not some broader
concept from the maximal scope (like block, street, town).

Essentially, this passage highlights how selection is a structured process. When we choose a
concept (profile), we consider the context (base) and identify the most relevant related concept
(immediate scope) within that context.

Selection, Scope, and Translation Challenges in a Literary

Passage
This passage uses an excerpt from a Polish narrative to illustrate how selection (profile, base,
scope) and cognitive scales can affect translation:

 Polish Excerpt (2.2.P):

o Describes something glimmering between buildings ("massif of Avenue" and
"peaked mountain of Palace of Culture").
 o It evokes the image of a city (/CITY/) with the palace compared to a mountain
(/MOUNTAIN/) - a metaphor.
 English Translation (2.2.E):
o Uses different vocabulary ("avenue" vs. "massif," "Palace of Culture" vs. "peaked
top").
o Mentions "Viennese Secession-style apartments" instead of just "apartment
houses," potentially adding a cultural element not present in the Polish text.

Focus on Selection:

The passage highlights how the choice of words (selection) in both texts influences the imagery:

 Scope: The English version uses a broader scope for "apartment houses" by specifying
their architectural style ("Viennese Secession").
 Scales: The Polish uses "peaked mountain" which might emphasize the height more than
"peaked top" in the English version (relative scale).

Challenges in Translation:

This example showcases how capturing the exact imagery and connotations of the original text
can be difficult in translation due to:

 Different vocabulary choices and their associated cognitive domains (e.g., "massif" vs.
"avenue").
 Variations in the level of detail or scope provided for certain concepts (e.g., adding
architectural style).

In essence, this passage demonstrates how selection (profile, base, scope), and the use of
cognitive scales can influence the way we create mental images from language. It also highlights
the challenges translators face in capturing the specific nuances of imagery and cultural
references across languages.

This passage delves deeper into the translation choices in the example and how they impact the
imagery:

 Focus on "Peaked Top" vs. "Spiczasta Góra":

o The Polish "spiczasta góra" (peaked mountain) profiles the entire mountain
against a flat surface it rises from.
o The English "peaked top" only focuses on the top itself, leaving the larger entity
(mountain) unspecified. This changes the overall image.
 Impact on Imagery:
o The Polish version creates a clearer picture of a lower flat surface (Parade Square)
separating the Palace and the Avenue.
o The English version, by focusing on "massif" and "peaked top," makes the
vertical dimension (height) more prominent.
 Loss of Specificity:
 o The English translation loses some of the specific details about the mountain
shape and the surrounding flat surface present in the Polish text.

Essentially, this passage argues that the translator's choice of words, particularly "peaked top"
vs. "spiczasta góra," alters the mental image created by the text. The Polish version provides a
more specific and realistic image of the location, while the English version becomes more
abstract and emphasizes height. This highlights the challenge of balancing accuracy and
maintaining the original intent of the imagery during translation.

Literary Impact of Translation Choices

This passage concludes the analysis of the translation choices and explores their potential impact
on the literary meaning:

 "Apartment Houses" vs. "Apartments":

o The Polish "kamienice" (apartment houses) emphasizes the buildings as a group
along the avenue.
o The English "apartments" focuses on individual units within the buildings,
potentially weakening the image of a unified structure.
 Impact on Imagery:
o This change weakens the metaphor of the "apartment houses" forming a "massif"
alongside the "mountain" (palace).
o The movement of the "glimmering object" might be less clearly visualized as
moving above a flat surface in the English version.

Beyond Linguistics: Literary Significance

 The passage acknowledges that this is where linguistic analysis ends, and literary critics
take over.
 The argument is that the specific details in the Polish text contribute to a powerful image:
o Contrast between the traditional "old houses" and the imposing "Palace of
Culture" (political symbol).
o This contrast might be significant for the overall meaning of Konwicki's book.

Essentially, this passage highlights how seemingly minor translation choices can have a ripple
effect on the broader literary interpretation. The specific details and imagery in the Polish text
might contribute to a symbolic and critical message that the translator's choices might not fully

capture.

Abstraction in Langacker's Model: Schemas and Details

This passage dives into the concept of "abstraction" within Langacker's framework and how it
relates to mental schemas and their specific instances. Here's a breakdown:
  Abstraction vs. Omission: Abstraction doesn't mean leaving out details. It refers to the
level of generality of a schema compared to its specific examples (instantiations).
 Schemas: These are integrated mental structures that capture general characteristics at a
certain level.
o Think of them as templates or blueprints for concepts.
 Instantiations: These are specific examples or elaborations of a schema.
o Think of them as the real-world applications of a schema.
 Schema Elaboration vs. Abstraction: The process of creating specific examples from a
schema is elaboration. Abstraction is the opposite, moving from specific examples to a
more general concept.
 Hierarchical Network: Schemas and their instances are linked hierarchically.
o An instance of a "higher-level" schema can become a schema for even more
specific examples.

Example:

 Schema: /HOUSE/ (general concept of a house)

 Instantiation: /BUNGALOW/ (a specific type of house)

Abstraction vs. Specificity:

 A schema can encompass all the general properties of its instances.

 Instantiations can include additional details that make them specific examples.

Analogy:

Langacker compares schemas and instances to photographs with different levels of detail.

 Schemas: Like photos with "coarser grain" (less detail).

 Instantiations: Like photos with "finer grain" (more detail).

Limits of Specificity:

 We can always add more detail to an instance, unlike language which has limitations in
expressing extreme specificity.
 New instances can be created on the spot ("hoc") by combining existing linguistic
elements.

Key Points:

 Abstraction is about the level of generality, not omitting details.

 Schemas and instances are linked hierarchically.
 Instantiations are more specific than their corresponding schema.
 Language has limitations in expressing the full range of possible specificity.

Choosing the Right Level of Detail: A Balancing Act

This passage explores how speakers choose the appropriate level of detail (specificity) when
conceptualizing things. Here's a breakdown:

 Balancing Act: Speakers need to find the right balance between being too general or too
specific when forming a concept.
 Context is Key: The context of the conversation heavily influences the level of detail
needed.
 Grice's Maxim of Quantity: This principle (provide enough information, but not too
much) applies to choosing specificity.
o Too much detail (overspecification) is redundant.
o Too little detail (underspecification) is unclear.

Examples:

 (2.3.a): Asking "Did you feed the bull terrier?" when there's only one dog is redundant.
o In this context, the basic term "dog" would be sufficient.
 (2.3.b): Asking "Did you feed the dog?" when there are two dogs is unclear
(underspecified).
o You might need to add details like breed or a deictic ("that one") for clarity.

Conscious Choices:

 Speakers can intentionally choose under- or overspecification depending on their goals.

 Underspecification: De-emphasizes the omitted feature.
 Overspecification: Emphasizes or highlights the added detail.

Key Point:

Choosing the right level of detail is a crucial part of effective communication. Speakers consider
context and their communicative goals to strike a balance between clarity and avoiding
redundancy.

This passage dives into the concept of specificity in language and how it shapes the message:

 Specificity vs. Neutrality: There's no neutral level of detail in language. Every choice of
detail activates specific aspects in the listener's mind.
 Relativity of Specificity: The importance of a chosen detail depends on the context.
o Details that might seem irrelevant at a higher level can become significant at a
more specific level.
o Conversely, unspecified aspects at a lower level might be irrelevant at a higher
level.

Example:

 Sentence (a) "a stone or two" is less specific than (b) "a couple of 50 carat diamonds."
  The details in (b) ("couple," "50 carat," "diamonds") become crucial in the context of a
goldsmith selling gems.
 These details wouldn't be relevant if someone was just casually offering some stones.

Impact on Mental Image:

 The chosen level of specificity plays a role in shaping the mental image created by the
message.
o In (a), the listener imagines some generic stones.
o In (b), the listener has a much clearer picture of high-quality diamonds.

In essence, this passage argues that specificity is a relative concept. The details we choose to
include or leave out significantly influence how our message is interpreted and the mental image
it creates in the listener's mind.

Specificity and Cultural Influence on Language

This passage highlights how the concept of specificity in language is shaped by both individual
and cultural factors:

 Choice and Specificity: Similar to other aspects of language, speakers choose the level
of detail (specificity) based on their needs.
 Individual vs. Cultural: Specificity is influenced by:
o Individual experiences and perspectives.
o The broader cultural patterns and categories of a language community.
 Example: Snow: The classic example of "snow" in English versus multiple terms for
various snow conditions in Eskimo languages.
o English speakers find "snow" sufficient for most situations.
o Eskimos, reliant on snow for various activities, have developed specific terms for
different snow types.

Essentially, this passage argues that language reflects how a culture categorizes the world. The
level of detail needed to communicate effectively can vary depending on the cultural context.

Specificity in Translation: Boots vs. Buty

This passage uses the example of translating "boots" to showcase how cultural differences in
categorization can affect translation:

 English: "Boots" is a subordinate category within the /FOOTWEAR/ schema, further

divided into "boots" and "shoes" based on ankle coverage.
 Polish: "Buty" is a basic category for /FOOTWEAR/, encompassing various
subcategories based on features like shape, purpose, or material.

The Text Example:

  Sentence (2.5.E) describes a "solitary East German sentry... in boots and baggy trousers."
 The English "boots" suggests the sentry is likely wearing military uniform (boots are a
typical part of military attire).

Translation Challenge:

 The Polish "buty" (shoes) doesn't convey the same level of detail about the footwear.
 This creates "underspecification" - the Polish lacks the detail about the military aspect
present in the English.

Achieving Equivalence:

 To achieve an equivalent mental image, the translation should use a more specific term
like "wysokie buty" (high boots).
 This clarifies the detail about the ankle coverage, which is crucial for the image in the
English text.

Key Point:

Differences in how languages categorize concepts (basic vs. subordinate levels) can create
challenges in translation. Translators need to consider these differences to ensure the translated
text evokes a similar mental image as the original.

Perspective in Langacker's Model: The View from Here

This passage dives into the concept of "perspective" within Langacker's framework and how it
relates to mental imagery:

 Perspective and Viewpoint: Perspective is a key aspect that connects Langacker's

grammar to how we perceive and understand the world. It refers to the observer's
viewpoint when constructing a scene in their mind.
 Vantage Point: This is the specific location from which the observer views the scene.
 Impact on Language Choice: The vantage point influences how we choose words like
"left/right," "up/down," "in front/behind."

Examples:

 We typically describe things based on our own physical orientation.

o "He backed the car into the garage" - Even if we're inside, we describe it based on
the car's movement relative to a standard front/back orientation.
 We use adjectives based on typical orientations.
o "Long cigarettes" - Because we hold them horizontally.

Non-Canonical Perspectives:

 Perspective doesn't have to be the default or "standard" view.

  It can also reflect:
o A specific, temporary situation.
o A unique viewpoint.
o An individual's perspective (idiosyncratic).

Example:

 "Tall cigarettes" might sound strange, but it could be appropriate if cigarettes started
walking around (like in a children's movie).

Key Point:

Perspective is crucial in shaping mental imagery. The viewpoint from which we imagine a scene
affects how we interpret it and the language we use to describe it.

Directionality in Scene Construction: It's All Relative

This passage explores the concept of "directionality" in Langacker's model and how it influences
our understanding of scenes:

 Directionality vs. Motion: While directionality often relates to physical movement, it's
broader in Langacker's view.
 Static Situations: Directionality can be applied even to describe unchanging situations
(static configurations).
 Example: Sentences (2.7.a) and (2.7.b) describe a roof's slant.
o Though there's no actual movement, the difference in wording ("upward" vs.
"downward") implies directionality.

The "Scanning Observer":

 Langacker suggests that directionality reflects the mental path the observer takes when
constructing the scene.
 We essentially "scan" the scene in our mind, and the direction of that scan shapes our
interpretation.

Example:

 Sentence (2.7.a) suggests scanning the roof from bottom to top.

 Sentence (2.7.b) suggests scanning the roof from top to bottom.

Impact on Meaning:

 The choice of directionality, even in static situations, influences the meaning we

perceive.
 Sentences (2.7.a) and (2.7.b) might evoke slightly different mental images despite
describing the same roof.
Key Point:

Directionality is a mental tool we use to understand the world. Even in the absence of actual
movement, the way we "scan" a scene in our minds can influence how we interpret it.

Directionality and Mental Flexibility in Scene Construction

This passage wraps up the discussion on directionality and perspective in Langacker's model:

 Unspecified Directionality: Directionality doesn't have to be explicitly stated.

o Example: "Serve lukewarm" - It's unclear if heating or cooling is needed.

Shifting Perspectives:

 Speakers can choose a perspective different from their own.

 This is called "mental transfer" (adopting the viewpoint of the listener).

Example:

 Sentence (2.8.a): "I am going to Paris" (speaker's perspective).

 Sentence (2.8.b): "I will come to Paris" (listener's perspective - assuming they'll meet in
Paris).

Motivation for Shifts:

 Mental transfer needs a reason. In sentence (2.9.a), the speaker stays in their own
perspective because the listener isn't directly involved in the travel plans.

Connection to Linguistic Theory:

 Mental transfer relates to the concept of "linguistic polyphony" - the presence of multiple
voices or perspectives within language.

Focus of the Passage:

 This part acknowledges the importance of mental transfer in language but avoids going
into detail as it's a well-established concept.

Key Point:

We can be flexible in how we construct scenes in our minds. We can adjust the directionality and
even adopt the viewpoint of others to enhance communication.

Subjectification and Mental Transfer: Viewing Yourself

Through Another's Eyes
This passage explores the link between "subjectification" and "mental transfer" in Langacker's
model:

In Langacker's Cognitive Grammar framework, "subjectification" and "mental transfer" are

concepts related to how we understand and express our experiences. They both deal with the role
of the speaker's (conceptualizer's) perspective in shaping meaning. Here's a breakdown of each
term and how it connects to "Objectification Through Another's Eyes":

 Subjectification: This refers to the process of taking an objective concept or event and
imbuing it with the speaker's perspective, emotions, or evaluations. Language choices can
highlight the speaker's viewpoint. For example, instead of saying "It's raining," you might
say "It's pouring!" which emphasizes the intensity of the rain from your perspective.
 Mental Transfer: This concept builds on subjectification. It describes how we can
mentally project ourselves into a different viewpoint, either real or imagined. This allows
us to understand the world from another's perspective. For example, imagine describing a
view from a mountaintop. You might say "The valley stretches out below me," placing
yourself mentally at the top.
 Objectification Through Another's Eyes: This phrase isn't directly from Langacker's
model, but it aligns with the concept of mental transfer. It describes the act of taking
another person's perspective and describing something as if you were seeing it through
their eyes. For example, describing a room to a blind person, you might say "The window
is to your left" instead of "The window is on the right" (from your own viewpoint).

Connections: All three concepts highlight how our understanding of the world is shaped by our
own perspective and our ability to consider other viewpoints.

 Subjectification personalizes objective information.

 Mental transfer allows us to project ourselves into another perspective.
 Objectification Through Another's Eyes is a specific application of mental transfer in
communication.

By understanding these concepts, we gain a deeper appreciation for the flexibility and nuance of
human language. We can not only express our own experiences but also consider and understand
the world from another's viewpoint.

 Mental Transfer Revisited: When we adopt someone else's perspective (mental

transfer), we can see ourselves in a more objective way.
o It's like viewing yourself from an outside viewpoint.

Objectification Through Another's Eyes:

 By taking another's perspective, we can achieve a higher degree of "objectification" -

seeing ourselves as an external object.

Examples of Objectification in English:

  Third-person pronoun: "Give your wife a kiss" (wife says to husband about himself).
 Inclusive "we": "And how do we feel today?" (doctor asks patient).

The Subjectification Balancing Act:

 The level of subjectification depends on the interplay between two roles:

o The speaker as the one constructing the scene (conceptualizer).
o The speaker as the element being described within the scene.

Subjectification in Narrative:

 This interplay between perspectives is a powerful tool for storytellers.

o It allows for a more nuanced and engaging portrayal of characters and events.

Key Point:

Subjectification and mental transfer are intertwined. By adopting different viewpoints, we can
achieve a more objective perspective on ourselves and the world around us. This plays a crucial
role in crafting effective narratives.

This passage dives into a specific translation choice and how it relates to focus and
directionality:

 Original Text (English): "We're heading in that direction..." (focuses on direction)

 Polish Text: "Idziemy" (translates to "we go")
 Translator's Choice: Used "head" instead of the more general "go" in English.

Reason for the Choice:

 "Head" emphasizes directionality more than "go."

 This choice might compensate for the different sentence structure in Polish.

Polish Sentence Structure:

 The Polish sentence emphasizes location by placing it at the beginning.

Focus and Ground (mentioned but not discussed):

 The passage mentions focus/ground alignment but doesn't go into detail.

Key Point:

Translators sometimes need to adapt their word choice to account for how the original language
emphasizes certain aspects (like direction) and how sentence structure might influence focus.

Lost in Translation: Perspective and Subjectivity

This passage analyzes a mistranslation in the excerpt from Konwicki's "Kompleks Polski" and
how it affects the reader's experience:

The Scene:

 The narrator (23rd in line) observes a commotion at the front of the line for a jewelry
store opening.

Original Polish Text (2.14.P):

 "Wybucha mały niepokój na początku kolejki" (A little commotion explodes at the

beginning of the line).
 Key points:
o Focuses on the narrator's perspective (23rd in line).
o He observes something happening ahead (limited scope - 22 people in front).
o Creates suspense - he doesn't know the reason yet.

English Translation (2.14.E):

 "Excitement rippled through the line."

 Issues with the translation:
o "Rippled" suggests an objective view (bird's eye) - a wave spreading through the
whole line.
o Ignores the narrator's limited perspective and subjectivity.
o Loses the suspense - the narrator seems to experience the excitement along with
everyone else.

Impact on the Reader:

 The translation misses the key aspects of the scene:

o The narrator's limited view and uncertainty.
o The anxiety of those at the back (beyond 23rd) waiting to understand the
commotion.

Key Point:

A good translation considers the perspective and subjectivity of the original text. This passage
highlights how a seemingly minor change in wording can significantly alter the way the reader
experiences the scene.

Relative Salience and Figure/Ground in Scene Construction

This passage explores how we prioritize certain elements when forming a mental image of a
scene:

 Selective Attention: When we observe a scene, we don't focus on everything equally.

  Language Reflects Focus: Languages have words that highlight different aspects of a
concept (similar to "boots" vs. "footwear").
 Relative Salience: This refers to the importance we give to certain features within a
scene.
 Analyzability: Words can differ in how explicit they are about their components.
o Example: "Eye doctor" vs. "ophthalmologist" - the first focuses on the body part,
the second is more technical.

Base vs. Profile:

 Langacker's concept of base and profile helps define salience:

o The "profile" is the element in focus, given more prominence.
o The "base" is the background information, less prominent.

Example:

 The passage analyzes a scene from a spy novel where a car is being inspected.
 In the English text, "the car" is consistently profiled (in focus) throughout the description.

Translation Challenge:

 The Polish translation of the last sentence reverses the focus.

 It highlights the car's movement in relation to a stationary point instead of the car itself.
 This creates a subtle difference in the mental image and reduces consistency compared to
the English original.

Key Point:

When constructing scenes in our minds, we prioritize certain elements. Languages offer various
tools to reflect this focus, and successful translation requires considering these differences in
salience and figure/ground alignment.

Tense and Salience in Scene Construction

This passage uses an excerpt to illustrate how verb tense choices can influence salience and
figure/ground relationships:

 The Sentence: "He had been talking about folk etymology...and then, quite suddenly, he
passed out" (TDS 6)
 Focus and Background:
o "Had been talking" (non-perfective) - describes an ongoing lecture (background).
o "Passed out" (perfective) - a sudden event that stands out (figure) against the
lecture background.

Tenses and Salience:

  The choice of tenses here contributes to the salience of the lecturer's fainting.

Perfect for Non-Native Speakers:

 This example highlights the cognitive reasons behind grammar rules, which can be
helpful for learners.

Polish Tenses:

 Polish doesn't have a direct equivalent to the "continuous" vs. "simple" tense distinction
in English.

Key Point:

Tense choices can influence how we perceive a scene by creating a distinction between ongoing
background events and prominent foreground events. Understanding these connections can be
beneficial for language learners and translators.

Lost in Translation: Salience and Figure/Ground

Misalignment
This passage discusses how translation can sometimes miss the intended salience and
figure/ground relationships, leading to misunderstandings:

 Covert Errors: These are translation mistakes that become apparent only when
compared to the original text.

The Example:

 This passage analyzes an excerpt from a text by Polish playwright Sławomir Mrożek.
 The scene describes Mrożek's transition from a student to an editor.

Focus and Background in Polish:

 The key element is the verb "wyniosło" (elevated).

 This verb emphasizes the upward movement (figure) and doesn't specify the agent
causing the movement (ground).
 This creates a sense of powerful, unknown forces propelling Mrożek forward.

Challenges in Translation:

 English doesn't have a direct equivalent for this verb form.

 A simple translation like "became" might not capture the emphasis on the mysterious
force behind the change.
Impact on Understanding:

 The translation can downplay the intended impact of the scene.

 It might lose the sense of an almost magical transformation fueled by unknown forces.

Key Point:

Salience and figure/ground relationships are crucial for understanding a scene. Translators need
to consider these aspects to ensure the translated text conveys the same weight and meaning as
the original.

Lost in Translation: Reordering the Scene

This passage highlights how changes in sentence structure can affect the figure/ground
relationship and overall meaning in translation:

The Original Polish Text (2.17.P):

 Focuses on the mysterious force elevating the narrator (Mrożek).

 Uses a verb form that emphasizes the movement ("wyniosło") but doesn't specify the
agent causing it.

The English Translation (2.17.E):

 Changes the focus:

o "I" becomes the grammatical subject twice, making it more prominent (figure).
o The translation becomes "about the narrator" rather than the mysterious force
behind his rise.

Sentence Structure and Figure/Ground:

 The order of information in sentences can reflect figure/ground.

 Typically, main clauses hold the figure (focus), and subordinate clauses hold the ground
(background).

Example (2.18.E):

 Original structure aligns with this principle:

o Main clause: Control puts on light (figure).
o Subordinate clause: Leamas being inside (ground).

The Polish Equivalent (2.18.P):

 Reverses the structure:

o Main clause: Negation of light being lit (less prominent).
o Subordinate clause: Leamas entering (potentially more prominent).
Impact on Understanding:

 The Polish translation downplays the mysterious force and makes the scene seem like an
objective observation.
 It loses the focus on the narrator's perspective and the sense of a strange event.

Key Point:

Word order and clause structure can influence how readers perceive the relative importance of
elements in a scene. A good translation considers these aspects to preserve the intended focus
and perspective of the original text.

Leamas's Voice: Passive Voice and Shifting Focus

This passage analyzes Leamas's speech from a spy novel, focusing on how the use of the passive
voice affects the scene construction:

“I just want her left alone.... I don’t want her to be messed about. I don’t want
her to have a file or anything. I want her forgotten.”
Leamas's Monologue (2.19.E):

 Focuses on protecting his girlfriend ("her").

 Uses passive voice in three out of four sentences.

Passive Voice and Figure/Ground:

 Normally, the subject of a sentence is the figure (in focus).

 Here, the passive voice reverses this:
o "Her" remains the focus (figure) even though it's not the subject in every sentence.
o The unknown agents ("them") who might harm her are left unspecified (ground).

Leamas's Choice:

 This construction emphasizes what matters most to Leamas - his girlfriend's safety.
 It highlights the desired outcome (her being left alone, forgotten) rather than the actions
needed to achieve it.

Stative Verbs:

 The passive verbs used ("left alone," "messed about," "forgotten") describe states rather
than actions.
 This reinforces the focus on the desired end result - a state where his girlfriend is safe and
untroubled.
Key Point:

Leamas's use of passive voice is a deliberate choice that reflects his priorities. It keeps the focus
on his girlfriend's well-being and the desired peaceful outcome for her.

Lost in Translation: Nuances of Voice and Process

This passage delves deeper into the challenges of translating Leamas's speech, focusing on the
difference between passive voice and impersonal verbs in English and Polish:

Leamas's Monologue (2.19.E):

 Focuses on the desired outcome: his girlfriend's safety ("left alone," "forgotten").
 Uses passive voice to keep the focus on "her."

Polish Translation (2.19.P):

 Uses imperatives ("give her peace") and impersonal verbs ("one forgot").
 This shift in verb forms changes the meaning:
o Imperatives emphasize actions ("give," "don't touch").
o Impersonal verbs focus on processes happening over time ("one forgot").

Impact on Meaning:

 The Polish version loses the emphasis on the final desired state for the girlfriend.
 It introduces a more process-oriented tone, focusing on the actions needed rather than the
outcome.

Passive vs. Impersonal:

 The passage clarifies the difference between passive voice and impersonal verbs:
o Passive voice: emphasizes the final state resulting from an action (desired
outcome for the girlfriend).
o Impersonal verbs: focus on the process itself (the act of forgetting).

Translation Equivalence:

 This difference creates a gap in translation equivalence.

 The Polish version doesn't fully capture the nuance of Leamas's voice and his focus on
his girlfriend's well-being.

Key Point:

Translating nuances of voice and emphasis requires careful attention to how verb forms
shape the meaning in both the source and target languages. While passive voice and
impersonal verbs might seem similar, they can create subtle differences in how a scene is
Keeping the Focus: Repetition and Parallelism in
Translation
This passage highlights the importance of repetition and parallelism in maintaining the intended
focus and figure/ground relationships in translation:

 Repetition and Parallelism:

o Literary devices used to emphasize certain elements in a text.
o They achieve this by repeating words or using similar grammatical structures.
o In Cognitive Linguistics (CL), these can be seen as tools for giving prominence to
specific elements within a scene.

Leamas's Monologue:

 Uses repetition of the negative ("don't want") to emphasize his girlfriend's safety.
 The positive "I want" in the last sentence stands out against the negative pattern, further
highlighting his desire.

Translation and Parallelism:

 The Polish translation doesn't fully maintain the parallelism of the original English.
 This weakens the emphasis on Leamas's desires and the layered focus on his girlfriend's
safety.

Lost in Translation:

 The passage suggests that some aspects of figure/ground alignment can be difficult to
translate perfectly.
 While some differences might be unavoidable due to language structures, maintaining
parallelism could have preserved more of the emphasis in this case.

Key Point:

Translators should consider using repetition and parallelism in the target language whenever
possible to ensure the translated text conveys the same level of emphasis and focus on specific
elements as the original. This helps maintain the intended meaning and impact of the scene.

Iconicity in Language:

 Iconicity refers to the inherent connection between language and the things it describes.
 On the level of individual words, this can be a direct similarity between sound and
meaning (e.g., onomatopoeia).

Iconicity in Sentence Structure:

  Iconicity can also influence how words are arranged in sentences.
 For instance, putting related words close together (e.g., "long journey") reflects their
connection conceptually.

 Iconicity: In linguistics, iconicity refers to the idea that the form of a language element
(word, phrase, sentence) has a resemblance to its meaning.
 "Long Journey": In this example, the word "long" precedes "journey." This order
reflects the idea of the "length" stretching out before the "journey" itself. By placing
"long" first, the sentence order mimics the concept of temporal extension.
 Not Arbitrary: This is different from an arbitrary relationship, where the order wouldn't
affect the meaning. For instance, "journey long" conveys the same information but loses
the iconic emphasis on the extended duration.

Here are some additional points about iconicity in word order:

 Not universal: While some iconic tendencies exist across languages, word order
iconicity can vary depending on the specific language.
 Other examples: Languages like Japanese sometimes place the topic first, which can be
seen as iconic because it introduces the main focus of the sentence upfront.
 Emphasis: Word order can also be used for emphasis. Placing an adjective after a noun
can highlight it (e.g., "The sight was beautiful").

Overall, iconicity in word order is a fascinating way language can use structure to subtly
reinforce meaning. It's not always the dominant force, but it can play a role in shaping how we
understand and produce sentences.

Iconicity and Imagery:

 This type of iconicity (sentence structure) is less about individual creativity and more
about grammatical rules.
 It doesn't directly affect imagery in the way the focus is used in figure/ground
relationships.

Key Point:

Iconicity is a fundamental property of language that helps us connect words and sentences to the
concepts they represent. While some forms of iconicity are less flexible and more about
grammar, understanding this concept sheds light on how language builds scenes and conveys
meaning.

Dative Shift and Iconicity: Balancing Order and Salience

This passage dives into the concept of iconicity in relation to word order and the dative shift:
Dative Shift:

 A grammatical construction in some languages where a verb can take two different orders
for its objects.
 Example: "He wrote Mary a letter" vs. "He wrote a letter to Mary."

Iconicity and Dative Shift:

 The passage argues that the order of words in a dative shift construction can reflect a
closeness in meaning.
o "He wrote Mary a letter" emphasizes the connection between the verb and the
indirect object (Mary).
 This is an example of the "iconicity imperative," where language structure reflects
concepts.
 Beneficiary vs. Recipient:
o Beneficiary First (Dative Shift): "She baked her son a cake" (focuses on the
benefit to the son)
o Recipient First (Prepositional Phrase): "She baked a cake for her son" (focuses
on the cake as the object and the son as the recipient)
 Possession Transfer:
o Dative Shift: "She gave the child the toy" (highlights the transfer of ownership
from the speaker to the child)
o Prepositional Phrase: "She gave the toy to the child" (emphasizes the toy itself
rather than the possession transfer)
 Emotional Impact:
o Dative Shift: "The news brought him great joy" (emphasizes the impact of the
news on him)
o Prepositional Phrase: "He received great joy from the news" (shifts focus to the
news itself as the source of joy)
 Emphasis:
o Dative Shift: "They told us the truth" (emphasizes who received the truth - us)
o Prepositional Phrase: "They told the truth to us" (emphasizes the act of telling
the truth itself)

Important Note: The specific nuances conveyed by the word order may vary depending on the
language and the specific verb being used. However, the general idea is that the dative shift
construction can put more emphasis on the recipient or the beneficiary of the action, while the
prepositional phrase construction can put more emphasis on the object itself or the action being
performed.

Language Limitations:

 Language is inherently linear (words come one after another).

 But our concepts can be more complex and non-linear.
 To represent these complex ideas, languages might reorder words (like in the dative shift)
to highlight what's important (salience).
Finding a Balance:

 The final word order is a compromise between:

o Linear flow of language.
o Highlighting the most important concepts (saliency).

Key Point:

The dative shift is an example of how language uses word order to create meaning and reflect the
speaker's focus. It highlights the tension between the linear nature of language and the need to
represent complex, non-linear thoughts.

Natural vs. Salient Order: Balancing Time and Importance

This passage refines the discussion of iconicity and word order by introducing the concepts of
natural and salient order:

 Natural Order:
o Reflects the chronological order of events in the real world.
o Example: "I came, I saw, I conquered" (Caesar's famous quote).
 Salient Order:
o Rearranges words to emphasize what's most important, even if it disrupts the
chronological order.
o This can be achieved through constructions like the dative shift.

Caesar's quote "I came, I saw, I conquered" is a classic example of natural order, prioritizing
chronology over emphasis. Here are some ways to rearrange it using salient order (potentially
using the dative shift construction) to highlight different aspects:

Emphasize Speed and Decisiveness:

 "Conquered! I came, I saw." (Dative shift with exclamatory emphasis) - This puts the
accomplishment of conquest first, followed by the swiftness of his actions (came and
saw)

Highlight the Difficulty of the Conquest:

 "I came, I saw, then conquered against all odds." - This maintains the chronological
order but adds a phrase to emphasize the difficulty of the conquest.

Focus on Personal Achievement:

 "Having come and seen, I conquered." (Dative shift participle phrase) - This rephrases
"I came, I saw" into a participle phrase, emphasizing the speaker's role in achieving the
conquest.
Emphasize the Importance of Seeing Before Acting:

 "I saw, and so I conquered. I came first." (Dative shift with reversed order) - This
completely flips the order, putting the importance of observation (seeing) first, then the
conquest, and finally mentioning the arrival as less important.

These are just a few examples, and the most effective way to rearrange the sentence depends on
the specific aspect you want to emphasize. The key takeaway is that salient order allows you to
play with the order of words to bring your desired focus to the forefront, even if it disrupts the
natural chronological order of events.

Iconicity and Order:

 Languages often try to align the order of words with the order of events (iconicity
principle).
 This is so natural that listeners usually understand the timing of events even without
explicit time markers.

Natural Order in Literature:

 Literary narratives often use a natural order, where consecutive sentences with the same
tense describe events happening one after another in the story.

Key Point:

Understanding natural and salient order helps us appreciate the flexibility of language. While
languages often try to reflect real-world chronology, they can also reorder elements to highlight
what's most important in a scene.

Experiential Iconicity: Ordering Words to Reflect Our

Experience
This passage delves into a specific type of iconicity called experiential iconicity:

Natural vs. Salient Order (Recap):

 Natural order reflects the actual order of events in the world.

 Salient order emphasizes what's important, even if it disrupts chronology (e.g., the dative
shift).

Experiential Iconicity:
  A type of salient order where the order of words reflects the order of steps in a process or
experience.
o Often used in instructions and descriptions.
 This creates a strong connection between language and the experience it describes
(iconicity).

Examples of Experiential Iconicity:

 Cookbook instructions: Steps are listed in the order they should be done.
 Tourist guide descriptions: Locations are described in the order a visitor would
encounter them.

Nested Locatives (from Langacker):

 A related concept where each phrase narrows down the location, focusing on a smaller
area.
 This can also be seen as a form of experiential iconicity.

Key Point:

Experiential iconicity is a powerful tool for writers to create a clear and vivid picture of a process
or experience in the reader's mind. By arranging words in the order things happen, language
becomes more closely tied to the real-world experience it describes.

Salient Order: Putting the Most Important First

This passage explores the concept of salient order in the context of narrative structure and
information flow:

Salient Order (Recap):

 Arranges words to emphasize what's important, even if it disrupts the natural order of
events.

Hierarchical Ordering in Narratives:

 Narratives often follow a hierarchical structure, prioritizing the most important

information first.
 This aligns with the idea of attending to the "most urgent task" first.

Topic-Comment Structure:

 The topic-comment structure within sentences can also reflect salience.

 When the topic is clear (predictable), the comment (new information) comes first: "To go
home is what I want to do now."
  When the topic needs clarification, it comes first: "Talking about John, he should not
have left Maisie."

Subjective Judgment:

 The speaker decides whether to prioritize the topic or comment based on how easy it is
for the listener to understand.
 This choice is another aspect of how language creates imagery and conveys meaning.

Key Point:

Salient order is a crucial principle in structuring narratives and conveying information

effectively. By prioritizing the most important elements first, language helps listeners understand
the speaker's intended focus and message

Iconicity and Scene Building: From Linear Language to

Non-Linear Perception
This passage explores the most complex form of iconicity - how language can represent non-
linear experiences and descriptions:

Linear Language vs. Non-linear Perception:

 Language is inherently linear (words come one after another).

 But our perception of the world can be non-linear (we take in information all at once).

Iconicity and Perception:

 In some cases, the order of words can reflect the order in which we perceive things.
 This is most evident in descriptions that summarize a scene rather than narrate events
sequentially.
 For example, describing someone's appearance might list details in the order they are
noticed.

Example: Description of Rufus:

 "Very laid-back Rufus was, cool as a cucumber and with a cutting edge to his voice."
 The order of modifiers ("very laid-back" first) might reflect how the observer noticed
Rufus's characteristics.

Iconicity and Translation:

 This type of iconicity can create challenges in translation.

 Capturing the subtle nuances of how the order reflects perception can be difficult.
Example: Passage from a Polish Text:

 The passage describes a chaotic scene in a line outside a store.

 The order of words is used to create a sense of unfolding events:
o First, there's a sudden "explosion" of commotion.
o Then, the cause ("a little commotion") and location ("in front of the line") are
identified.
 This order might reflect how the narrator perceives the scene as it unfolds around them.

Key Point:

Iconicity plays a crucial role in how language builds scenes and conveys the speaker's
perception. By carefully arranging words, even in a linear way, language can create a sense of
non-linear experience for the listener/reader. This complexity can make translation challenging,
as capturing the subtle nuances of perception through word order is not always straightforward.

Epistemic and Axiological (nature of value) Elements of

Meaning: Beyond the Individual
This passage dives into the role of epistemology (knowledge) and axiology (values) in shaping
meaning:

Subjectivist Theory of Meaning:

 This theory, foundational for cognitive linguistics, views concepts as shaped by

individual perception and experience.
 Both physical experience and beliefs/judgments contribute to how we understand the
world.
 This perception is influenced by:
o Social and cultural factors: Upbringing, cultural norms.
o Individual differences: Personal history, personality.

Epistemic and Axiological Aspects:

 Epistemic refers to knowledge and how we represent it in language (e.g., modality

markers like "probably").
 Axiological refers to values and how we express them in language (e.g., "This is
beautiful").

Linguistics and Epistemology/Axiology:

 Traditionally, these were philosophical domains.

 However, cognitive linguistics is interested in how language reflects them:
o Epistemic: Analyzing how we express certainty, doubt, etc. in language.
o Axiological: Studying how we use language to express values and beliefs.
Speaker's Choices:

 When speaking, we choose words and structures that reflect our knowledge and values.
 This "epistemic and/or axiological commitment" becomes part of the meaning we
convey.

Langacker and Conventional Imagery:

 Langacker's theory of "conventional imagery" focuses on how language creates meaning

through structure and form.
 This passage argues that epistemic and axiological elements should be included in this
concept.

Key Point:

Meaning in language goes beyond individual perception. It's also shaped by our knowledge,
beliefs, and values. By analyzing how language expresses these elements, cognitive linguistics
gains a deeper understanding of how meaning is created and communicated.

Epistemology, Axiology, and the Art of Evaluation in

Language
This passage delves deeper into how language reflects our knowledge (epistemology) and values
(axiology) through evaluation:

Epistemology, Axiology, and Evaluation:

 Our understanding of the world (epistemology) and our values (axiology) shape how we
evaluate things in language.
 This evaluation involves placing things on scales:
o Epistemic: True vs. False (e.g., "probably")
o Axiological: Good vs. Bad (e.g., "beautiful")

Language and Evaluation:

 Language offers many tools to express evaluation:

o Lexical: Words with built-in evaluation (e.g., "horrible" vs. "bad").
o Figurative language: Similes, metaphors, etc. can convey values.
 The strength of evaluation can vary (neutral vs. marked language).
o Neutral: Objective, avoids expressing strong opinions.
o Marked: Carries a strong evaluative connotation (positive or negative).

Evaluation and Scene Building:

 Evaluation can be used to focus attention on certain aspects of a scene (figure/ground).

  Stronger evaluation (e.g., "horrible" vs. "bad") creates a more vivid picture.

Evaluation and Translation:

 Translating evaluation can be challenging because different cultures have different

values.
 Translators need to consider the "objectivity" vs. "subjectivity" of the evaluation:
o Objective: Refers to generally accepted values or those from authorities.
o Subjective: Reflects the speaker's personal opinion or experience.

Langacker and Evaluation:

 Langacker's concept of "subjectification" aligns with objective evaluation (speaker

detached).
 Langacker's "objectification" aligns with subjective evaluation (speaker's opinion
included).

Key Point:

Evaluation is a powerful tool in language for shaping meaning and conveying our perspective on
the world. By understanding how language expresses epistemology, axiology, and
objectivity/subjectivity, we gain a deeper appreciation for the richness and complexity of human
communication.

Nuances of Evaluation in Language and Translation

Challenges
This passage wraps up the discussion on evaluation by highlighting the challenges it poses for
translation:

Language Diversity in Evaluation:

 Different languages express evaluation (scales of good/bad, true/false) differently.

 This creates significant challenges for translators.

Examples of Evaluative Language:

 Modal verbs (e.g., "may," "must")

 Adverbs (e.g., "possibly," "certainly")
 Sentence structure (passive vs. active voice)

Focus on Subjectivity vs. Objectivity:

 Much research focuses on how language conveys "subjectivity" (personal opinion) vs.
"objectivity" (generally accepted views).
  This is crucial for tasks like argumentation and translation.

Translation Challenges:

 Translators need to consider how to translate evaluation accurately while respecting the
target language's conventions.
 This includes capturing the intended level of subjectivity/objectivity.

Examples:

 Sentence (a) in each example (2.27 and 2.28) is more objective, while (b) is more
subjective.

(2.27.)a. It’s possible for Alex to give us a lift to York .

(2.27.)b. It’s possible that Alex will give us a lift to York”
(2.28.)a. John recognizes that she is intelligent.
(2.28.)b. John recognized her to be intelligent.

 The translator needs to find equivalent expressions in the target language that maintain
the same level of subjectivity.

Key Point:

Evaluation is a complex aspect of language that varies across cultures. Translators play a crucial
role in bridging these gaps by carefully considering the nuances of evaluation in both the source
and target languages.

It’s possible for Alex to give us a lift to York

It’s possible that Alex will give us a lift to York
what is the difference between subjective and objective from
two examples?
The difference between the two sentences lies in the level of subjectivity (personal opinion) vs.
objectivity (generally accepted fact). Here's a breakdown:

Sentence (a): It's possible for Alex to give us a lift to York.

 This sentence is more objective.

 It simply states a possibility without expressing the speaker's personal belief or opinion
on whether Alex will actually give them a lift.
  The focus is on the general capability (it is possible).

Sentence (b): It's possible that Alex will give us a lift to York.

 This sentence is more subjective.

 It uses "that" which introduces a dependent clause, hinting at a slight uncertainty or
speculation.
 It leans more towards the speaker's view of the possibility, suggesting they are unsure
about Alex's willingness or ability to give them a lift.

In essence:

 (a) - Focuses on the general possibility.

 (b) - Focuses on the speaker's perception of the possibility.

how can i differentiate subjective from objective by sentence

structure?
Sentence structure alone isn't always a foolproof way to differentiate subjective from objective,
but there are some clues it can offer. Here's how structure can sometimes indicate subjectivity:

Subjectivity Indicators:

 Modal verbs: Words like "might," "could," "should," and "would" often introduce
subjective statements because they express possibility, obligation, or preference, which
are based on personal views. (e.g., "It would be nice if Alex gave us a lift.")
 Exclamations: Sentences with exclamation points often express strong emotions or
opinions, which are subjective. (e.g., "Alex giving us a lift to York? That's amazing!")
 Questions: Questions can be subjective, especially if they ask for opinions or beliefs.
(e.g., "Do you think Alex would be willing to give us a lift?")
 Figurative language: Similes, metaphors, and other figures of speech often convey
subjective interpretations or feelings. (e.g., "Getting a lift from Alex would be a
lifesaver!")
 Emphasis: Emphasis through italics, underlining, or strong verbs can highlight a
subjective viewpoint. (e.g., "We really hope Alex can give us a lift.")

Objective Indicators:

 Passive voice: While not a guarantee, the passive voice can sometimes be used
objectively to focus on the action itself rather than the person performing it. (e.g., "A lift
to York was offered by Alex.")

Remember:
  Context is key. The same sentence structure can be used for subjective or objective
purposes depending on the context. (e.g., "It is raining" is a factual statement, but "It
never rains when I want to go outside" is subjective.)
 Other elements like word choice and tone also play a big role.

Here are some additional tips:

 Look for words that express emotions or opinions (e.g., "sad," "beautiful," "important").
 Consider the purpose of the sentence. Is it trying to convey information (objective) or
influence your opinion (subjective)?
 If you're unsure, try rephrasing the sentence in a different way. If the meaning changes
significantly, the original sentence was likely subjective.

By considering these elements alongside sentence structure, you'll be better equipped to

differentiate subjective from objective statements.

Deictic Expressions and Emotional Distance: A Trip

Through Space and Sentiment
This passage explores how deictic expressions (words that rely on context, like "this" or "here")
can convey emotional distance:

Deictic Expressions and Space:

 Deictic expressions like "this" and "here" point to things in physical space relative to the
speaker.

Deictic Expressions and Emotion:

 The concept of physical distance can be metaphorically mapped to emotional distance.

o Things closer to the speaker (in space) can be seen as more positive.
o Things farther away (in space) can be seen as more negative.

English Example: "Come" vs. "Go"

 "Come" implies something coming towards the speaker (positive).

 "Go" implies something moving away from the speaker (negative).
o Sentence (a) - "The plane came down near the lake" (neutral)
o Sentence (b) - "The plane went down near the lake" (implies a crash - negative)

Polish Example: "Tu" vs. "Tam"

 "Tu" (here) refers to a location close to the speaker (positive).

 "Tam" (there) refers to a location farther away (negative).
 o Sentence (a) - "You are half an hour late, and HERE I am waiting and worrying"
(emphasizes the speaker's inconvenience) - negative for the listener.
o Sentence (b) - "As far as I am concerned, THERE I know nothing about it"
(distancing oneself from the issue) - potentially negative depending on context.

Translation and Emotional Distance:

 Translators need to consider how to maintain emotional distance when translating deictic
expressions.

Example: A Passage from Konwicki's KP

 The passage is a letter from a character living in a totalitarian regime.

 The original Polish text uses deictic expressions to convey the character's negativity and
entrapment.
 The English translation needs to capture this emotional distance.
o Original Polish: "nie ma [...] odwrotu?" (not [...] return?) - emphasizes the lack of
escape.
o English translation: "there is not turning back?" - maintains the feeling of being
trapped.

Key Point:

Deictic expressions are powerful tools that go beyond just indicating physical location. They can
also convey emotional distance and speaker's sentiment. By understanding this, we can
appreciate the complexity of language and the challenges of translation.

The Subjective vs. Objective Dance in Translation: A Case

Study
This passage delves into how a translator's choices can shift the meaning between subjective and
objective, using examples from a novel:

Epistemic Commitment and Subjectivity:

 The original Polish text (2.32.P) uses words like "perhaps" and "I think" which show the
speaker's subjective judgment.
 The English translation (2.32.E) uses structures like "for-to infinitive" which make it
sound more objective.

Emotional Distance and Translation:

 The Polish text uses a strong negative word "idiotic."

 The English translation omits it, possibly due to a clash with the objective tone.
Shifting From Objective to Subjective:

 The passage analyzes another excerpt (2.33.P) from the novel.

 The original scene is objectively described without the narrator's judgment.
 The English translation (2.33.E) adds subjective elements:
o "Yet" suggests the translator's surprise at the lack of apology.
o "Then" implies an escalation of violence not present in the original.

Key Points:

 Translators can unintentionally shift the subjectivity of the text through their choices.
 The original text might be neutral, leaving the emotional judgment to the reader.
 The translation might introduce the translator's own perspective, making the scene seem
harsher.

Author's Style and Subjectification:

 The author's style in the Polish text is one of "subjectification" (maximally subjective) in
Langacker's terms.
 The narrator remains detached, letting the scene speak for itself.

Translator's Role and Objectification:

 The English translation introduces the translator's perspective, making it more

"objectified" (less subjective).
 The translator tries to explain and justify the seemingly "bad" behavior in the scene.

Overall:

This passage highlights the challenges of translation in preserving the author's intended
subjectivity and the potential influence of the translator's perspective.

Metaphor's Neglected Role in Translation Theory

This passage discusses the concept of metaphor and its importance in translation theory:

Metaphor: A Neglected Aspect

 Despite its long history of study, metaphor hasn't received much attention in translation
theory.
 Structuralist linguistics viewed metaphors as outside the realm of "proper" grammar,
making them less worthy of study.

Cognitive Linguistics and Metaphor

  Cognitive linguistics views metaphor as a fundamental tool for understanding complex
concepts.
 It sees metaphor as a way to express the abstract through the concrete.
 This is not a new idea, but aligns with views from scholars like Black (1962).

Metaphorical Extension

 Metaphor works by extending the meaning of a concept (source domain) to another

concept (target domain).
 Prototype theory helps explain this: categories have central members and peripheral
members.
 Metaphorical extensions often come from the periphery of a category.
 Example: "space" is a central concept, and "emotions" are a peripheral concept we can
talk about spatially (e.g., "feeling down").

Examples of Metaphorical Extensions

 Space metaphors: using spatial terms for non-spatial concepts (e.g., "The ground drops
sharply near the shore" - sadness as a downward movement)
 Metonymy: using a related concept to represent something else (e.g., "La Scala needs
five new sopranos" - the theater needs singers, a part representing the whole)

Key Point:

Metaphor is a powerful tool in language that goes beyond ornamentation. It shapes how we
understand the world. By understanding metaphor, translators can better capture the meaning and
intent of the original text.

Bridging the Gap: Metaphor, Culture, and Translation

Challenges
This passage explores the challenges metaphors pose for translation due to cultural differences:

Metonymy vs. Metaphor:

 Metonymy (pars pro toto) uses a related concept to represent something else (e.g., "La
Scala needs five new sopranos").
 Metaphor maps one conceptual domain onto another (e.g., "feeling down").

Challenges of Metaphor in Translation:

 Metaphors are rooted in cultural experiences, which can differ significantly.

 This can make them difficult to translate because the target language might not have a
direct equivalent.
  Metaphors are linked to cultural values and sensory perception, further complicating
translation.

Two Opposing Views:

 Untranslatable: Some argue metaphors are inherently

 untranslatable due to their cultural specificity.
 Universal Patterns: Others believe some basic metaphors (e.g., "more is up") might
have universal patterns that can be translated.

Constraints on Metaphor Formation:

 Even universal metaphors are limited by human conceptual resources.

 Language users, even poets, rely on shared concepts for communication.

Key Point:

Translating metaphors requires careful consideration of cultural differences. While some

metaphors may be untranslatable, translators can identify underlying concepts and find culturally
appropriate equivalents in the target language.

a. The ground drops sharply near the shore

b. Her voice dropped to a whisper

are all instances of space metaphors: possible extensions of the central

meaning, exemplified by, e.g.

(2.34.) d. The knife dropped from his hand.

In metonymy,
e.g. of the kind referred to in classical rhetoric as pars pro toto, reference
to an entity or event is made by evoking its most salient property, as in
(2.35.) La Scala needs five new sopranos.

Navigating the Maze of Metaphors in Translation

This passage delves deeper into metaphor types and their translation challenges:

Image Metaphors vs. Conceptual Metaphors:

 Conceptual metaphors map one conceptual domain onto another (e.g., "feeling down").
  Image metaphors create a new meaning by putting two concrete images together (e.g.,
"He is a lion in battle").

Image Metaphors: A Challenge for Translation

 Image metaphors are particularly difficult to translate because they are often culturally
specific.
 Social, historical, or environmental factors can influence these metaphors (e.g., animal
metaphors).

Classifying Metaphors:

 Traditional analyses categorize metaphors based on originality:

o Dead metaphors (fossilized): Basic and conventional, not creative (e.g., "time
flies").
o Creative metaphors (original): Novel uses of language to create new meaning.

Dead Metaphors and Translation:

 Dead metaphors are part of common knowledge within a language community.

 They are less culture-specific and easier to translate.

Creative Metaphors and Translation:

 Creative metaphors require more effort to translate because they are new and potentially
unfamiliar in the target language.

Example: A Metaphorical Moon

 Original Polish text (2.36.P): "Nad pasieką ruin wielki, niezwykle czytelny księżyc"
(Over apiary of ruins huge uncommonly legible moon).
 English translation (2.36.E): "There was a large uncommonly clear moon over the apiary
of the ruins."

Key Points:

 Understanding the type of metaphor (conceptual or image) helps with translation strategy.
 Dead metaphors pose less of a challenge than creative metaphors due to their
conventional nature.
 Translating creative metaphors might require finding a new image that conveys a similar
meaning in the target language.

This passage critiques a translation choice, arguing that the translator missed an opportunity to
convey a unique metaphor.

Original Polish Text (2.36.P):

  "Nad pasieką ruin wielki, niezwykle czytelny księżyc" (Over apiary of ruins huge
uncommonly legible moon)

English Translation (2.36.E):

 "There was a large uncommonly clear moon over the apiary of the ruins." (TPC 204)

The Argument:

 The translator kept the metaphor of "apiary of ruins" but changed "uncommonly legible
moon" to "uncommonly clear moon."
 The argument is that "legible moon" (even though uncommon) is understandable within a
shared cultural context.
 The moon's surface, with its craters and markings, can be metaphorically "read" like
writing.
 The rest of the paragraph in Polish reinforces this metaphor by describing mountains,
valleys, and "nonexistent rivers" on the moon – things you can "read" from its surface.

The Lost Metaphor:

 The translator opted for the more generic "clear moon," losing the author's creative
comparison.

Key Point:

 Translation choices can affect the richness and depth of the text. In this case, a potentially
interesting metaphor was replaced with a more common phrase.

Additional Notes:

 The translator might have felt "legible moon" was too awkward or unclear for English
readers.
 Finding an equivalent metaphor in English could be challenging.

Overall, this passage highlights the complexities of translation and the need to consider both
faithfulness to the original text and clarity for the target audience.

This passage critiques a translation choice, arguing that the translator missed an opportunity to
convey a unique metaphor.

Original Polish Text (2.36.P):

 "Nad pasieką ruin wielki, niezwykle czytelny księżyc" (Over apiary of ruins huge
uncommonly legible moon)

English Translation (2.36.E):

  "There was a large uncommonly clear moon over the apiary of the ruins." (TPC 204)

The Argument:

 The translator kept the metaphor of "apiary of ruins" but changed "uncommonly legible
moon" to "uncommonly clear moon."
 The argument is that "legible moon" (even though uncommon) is understandable within a
shared cultural context.
 The moon's surface, with its craters and markings, can be metaphorically "read" like
writing.
 The rest of the paragraph in Polish reinforces this metaphor by describing mountains,
valleys, and "nonexistent rivers" on the moon – things you can "read" from its surface.

The Lost Metaphor:

 The translator opted for the more generic "clear moon," losing the author's creative
comparison.

Key Point:

 Translation choices can affect the richness and depth of the text. In this case, a potentially
interesting metaphor was replaced with a more common phrase.

Additional Notes:

 The translator might have felt "legible moon" was too awkward or unclear for English
readers.
 Finding an equivalent metaphor in English could be challenging.

Overall, this passage highlights the complexities of translation and the need to consider both
faithfulness to the original text and clarity for the target audience.

Conceptual Metaphors vs. Image Metaphors: Understanding

the Difference
Metaphors add flavor and depth to language, but there are two main types: conceptual metaphors
and image metaphors. Here's a breakdown to help you understand them better:

Conceptual Metaphors:

 Function: Map one abstract concept (target domain) onto a more concrete concept
(source domain) to make it easier to understand.
 Focus: They shape how we think about abstract ideas by using concrete terms.
 Examples:
 o Argument is war: "She attacked his weak points in the argument." (Attack is a
physical action used to understand the mental act of presenting opposing views)
o Time is money: "I spent time working on the project." (Spending money, a
concrete action, helps us grasp the abstract concept of using up time)
o Love is a journey: "Our relationship has hit a rough patch." (A journey with its
ups and downs is used to understand the complexities of love)

Image Metaphors:

 Function: Create a new meaning by putting two concrete images together.

 Focus: They create a vivid picture in the reader's mind and often have a surprising or
creative element.
 Examples:
o "She is a lion in battle." (Lion, known for its bravery, is used to describe a
woman's fierce fighting spirit)
o "His jokes fell flat." (The image of a physical object falling is used to describe the
unfunny jokes)
o "Her eyes sparkled like diamonds." (Diamonds, known for their brilliance, are
used to describe the woman's bright eyes)

Key Differences:

 Conceptual metaphors are more systematic and ingrained in our language, while image
metaphors are often more creative and context-specific.
 Conceptual metaphors provide a general framework for understanding, while image
metaphors create a more specific and surprising image.

In essence:

 Conceptual metaphors are like using a familiar tool (the source domain) to understand
something new (the target domain).
 Image metaphors are like creating a whole new picture by combining two existing
images in an unexpected way.

The Challenge of Translating Metaphors: Beyond

Grammar, It's About Cognition
This passage dives into the difficulties of translating metaphors, focusing on the cognitive
aspects rather than grammatical rules.

Untranslatability of Creative Metaphors:

 It's not about grammatical errors, but about how the metaphor is understood.
 Example: "Three farmyards away" (from Dylan Thomas's poetry).
 This is unusual because "farmyard" isn't a standard unit of length.
  It becomes untranslatable if the target audience wouldn't understand the intended image
(e.g., a culture with massive farmyards).

Untranslatability of Dead Metaphors:

“They resisted the stream of enlightenment which threatened to engulf the small
province of Jewishness.”

 Similar cognitive issues apply to "dead metaphors" (commonplace metaphors).

 Example: "They resisted the stream of enlightenment..." (English text).
 "Stream" and "engulf" are dead metaphors, but here they create a literal image of flowing
water.
 The Polish translation uses different metaphors ("current" and "swallow up") that better
fit the water imagery.

Key Points:

 Translating metaphors requires understanding the conceptual meaning behind them.

 Cultural differences in how people understand metaphors can create translation
challenges.
 Even common metaphors can be tricky if their "dead" meaning clashes and creates
unintended imagery.

Additional Notes:

 The passage mentions MCD, which likely refers to the Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English.

This passage highlights the importance of going beyond the surface meaning of words when
translating metaphors. The translator needs to consider the cultural context and cognitive
understanding of the target audience to ensure the metaphor retains its intended impact.

The Pitfalls of Literal Equivalents in Metaphor Translation:

A Polish Example
This passage critiques a specific translation choice that resulted in a distorted metaphor:

Original English Text (2.38.E):

 "They resisted the stream of enlightenment which threatened to engulf the small province
of Jewishness."

Polish Translation (2.38.P):

  "Przeciwstawiali się prądowi oświecenia, który zagrażał pochłonięciem malej prowincji
żydowskości" (They resisted current of-enlightenment which threatened with-swallowing
up of-little province of-Jewishness)

The Problem:

 The Polish translation uses seemingly appropriate words ("prąd" for "stream" and
"pochłonięciem" for "engulf").
 However, this creates a different image: a fast-moving current that washes things away,
rather than engulfing them.

Why is it Incoherent?

 The original metaphor suggests "enlightenment" as an overwhelming force, threatening to

drown the "small province of Jewishness."
 "Engulf" implies being completely surrounded and submerged.
 The Polish "prąd" activates the image of a river current quickly washing things away.
 This changes the meaning: being swept away suggests less resistance compared to being
completely drowned.

Metaphorical Extension and Cultural Understanding:

 The original metaphor extends "enlightenment" as a large mass that can engulf
something.
 The Polish word "prąd" doesn't allow for this metaphorical extension.
 Cultural understanding plays a role: the target audience might not associate
"enlightenment" with something overwhelming.

Key Point:

 Simply finding lexical equivalents for words in a metaphor can be misleading.

 The translator needs to consider the overall image and metaphorical meaning being
conveyed.
 Cultural differences in how metaphors are understood must be taken into account.

This passage analyzes the challenges of translating a metaphor-rich passage from Polish to
English.

Original Polish Text (2.39.P):

 The text describes a political party with a long, beautiful name (possibly in a foreign
language).
 It compares the party to two things:
o A gigantic vacuum cleaner that sucks everything in.
o A cancer that devours everything greedily, enraged, with total metastasis, and
even a "cosmic erection" (emphasizing its aggressive nature).
English Translation (2.39.E):

 The translation captures the basic meaning but loses some of the imagery.
 "Vacuum cleaner" translates well, but the cancer metaphor is weakened:
o "Burns its way through" lacks the rawness of "devours."
o "Total overdrive" misses the image of a multi-pronged attack ("totalnych
przerzutów").
o The "cosmic erection" is completely omitted.

Key Points:

 The Polish text uses vivid metaphors to portray the political party as a monstrous, all-
consuming force.
 The English translation struggles to capture the full force of the imagery, especially in the
cancer metaphor.
 This difference is because the Polish text uses an image metaphor that creates a unique
picture.
 The English falls back on a more generic conceptual metaphor ("destructive piece of
machinery") which loses some of the emotional impact and specific details.

Additional Notes:

 The passage discusses the concept of "dead metaphors" (lexicalized metaphors) and how
the Polish text reactivates their underlying meanings to strengthen the image.
 Cultural differences play a role: the "cancer as evil beast" metaphor might be more
readily understood in Polish culture.

Overall:

This passage highlights the importance of considering both the literal meaning and the intended
image when translating metaphors. A good translation will try to find an equivalent image in the
target language that conveys the same emotional impact and level of detail as the original.

lexicalized metaphors. what that mean?

Lexicalized metaphors are metaphors that have become so common in a language that they are
no longer seen as metaphors but as part of the literal meaning of a word or phrase.

Here's a breakdown to understand them better:

 Metaphors: Figurative language that compares two things that aren't alike to create a
new meaning. (e.g., "She is a lion in battle.")
 Lexicalized Metaphors: Metaphors that have been used so often over time that their
metaphorical origin is no longer obvious. They become part of the regular vocabulary and
their figurative meaning is "baked in" to the word itself.
Examples of Lexicalized Metaphors:

 Time flies: This doesn't mean time has wings and literally flies. It's a metaphor for the
feeling that time passes quickly.
 Light bulb moment: This doesn't involve a light bulb or a moment of illumination. It
describes a sudden flash of inspiration or understanding.
 Get a grip: This doesn't involve physically grabbing something. It means to regain
control of oneself or a situation.

Key Points:

 Lexicalized metaphors are often idioms or phrases with a fixed meaning.

 They are so common that most people wouldn't even recognize them as metaphors.
 They can still be powerful and evocative, even though their metaphorical origin is
forgotten.

Unlexicalized Metaphors:

 Meaning: Fresh and creative metaphors that haven't been used extensively before. They
can be surprising or unusual and force the reader to see things in a new way.
 Examples:
o "Her eyes sparkled like diamonds" (compares eyes to diamonds)
o "The argument was a battlefield" (compares an argument to a battle)
o "His jokes fell flat" (compares jokes to falling objects)

Key Differences:

 Originality: Lexicalized metaphors are old and established, while unlexicalized

metaphors are new and creative.
 Impact: Lexicalized metaphors are familiar and easily understood, while unlexicalized
metaphors can be more surprising and thought-provoking.
 Recognition: Lexicalized metaphors are not recognized as metaphors, while
unlexicalized metaphors are clearly figurative comparisons.

Unlexicalized metaphors are a powerful tool for writers and poets. They can add depth, color,
and originality to language. They can also be used to make complex ideas easier to understand
by using familiar concepts to explain unfamiliar ones.

The passage you read earlier discussed the challenges of translating unlexicalized metaphors.
Because they are new and creative, they might not have a direct equivalent in another language.
The translator needs to understand the underlying meaning and find a way to convey it using
metaphors that are familiar to the target audience.

This passage argues that achieving stylistic equivalence in translation requires a deep
understanding of imagery and how it's constructed. Here's a breakdown of the key points:
Main Claim:

 Stylistic equivalence in translation goes beyond just matching the grammar and
vocabulary of the source text.
 It involves faithfully conveying the imagery used in the original text.

Why is Imagery Important?

 Imagery creates a mental picture for the reader and contributes to the overall style of the
text.
 A good translator needs to understand the different aspects of imagery ("dimensions") to
capture its full effect.

The Art of Translation:

 This ability to recognize and translate imagery goes beyond just technical linguistic
skills.
 It requires a kind of "artful" understanding of how different elements work together to
create a unified picture.

Analogy:

 The passage compares the translator's work to a painter.

 Just as a painter uses individual brushstrokes to create a cohesive image, the translator
uses different "dimensions" of imagery to create a coherent and harmonious translation.

Key Points:

 Translators need to be sensitive to the imagery used in the source text.

 Faithfully conveying imagery is essential for achieving stylistic equivalence.
 It requires a combination of linguistic knowledge and a deeper understanding of how
language creates pictures in the reader's mind.

Additional Notes:

 The passage mentions "fuzzy borders" between the craft and art of translation. This
suggests that translation is both a skilled practice and a creative endeavor.
 The specific "dimensions" of imagery referred to might be explained in a different section
(not included here). These dimensions could be things like perspective, scale, focus, and
detail level.

This passage dives into the concept of "translation equivalence" and its history within translation
theory. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

The Evolving Notion of Equivalence:

  The idea of translation equivalence has changed significantly over time.
 Originally, it stemmed from the "impressionistic" views of early translators.
 It progressed through phases of prescriptivism (strict rules) and the dream of machine
translation.
 It then entered the realm of pragmatics (considering context) and individual case studies.

Is Equivalence an Illusion?

 Some argue that achieving perfect equivalence is impossible ("treacherous illusion").

 This is because translation involves subjective interpretations and cultural differences.
 Equivalence in translation doesn't equate to mathematical equivalence (perfect sameness).

The Importance of Equivalence Analysis:

 Despite the difficulty, many theorists see analyzing equivalence as crucial.

 This analysis focuses on understanding the nature and conditions that influence
equivalence in translation.
 The goal is not to define a single "correct" translation but to understand the factors that
impact it.

Key Points:

 Translation equivalence is a complex concept with a long history of debate.

 It's not about finding a single perfect match but about understanding the factors that
impact how meaning is conveyed across languages.
 Analyzing these factors helps translators make informed choices that best capture the
intent of the source text.

Additional Notes:

 The passage mentions Catford (1967) who is a prominent figure in translation theory.
 The concept of "sameness" in translation is subjective and depends on the context and
audience.

This passage delves deeper into the complexities of translation equivalence, focusing on two key
aspects:

1. Language and Text Specificity:

 Translation equivalence is both language-specific (depends on the languages involved)

and text-specific (depends on the specific content of the text).
 This creates a seemingly contradictory situation, similar to the debate between semantics
(meaning) and pragmatics (context) in linguistics.
 Every translation is unique because it's based on the translator's interpretation (subjective)
but also limited by linguistic and cultural conventions (objective).
  This process mirrors how people interpret a scene – a subjective experience shaped by
shared understanding.

2. Levels of Equivalence:

 Historically, there's been debate about the unit on which equivalence should be measured.
 Some argued for word-for-word equivalence (unrealistic).
 Others went for complete text equivalence (too vague).
 The current view is that equivalence applies to units larger than single sentences.
 The passage suggests cognitive linguistics (CL) offers a solution.
 It proposes an "image" (as defined by Langacker) as a possible translation unit.
 A text could be seen as a network of interconnected "scenes" based on these images.
 The dimensions of imagery (proposed by Langacker) could act as a reference point for
achieving equivalence.
 The specific configuration of these dimensions would account for the unique character of
each text.
 Language-specific aspects come into play with how these dimensions are expressed in
different languages.

Key Points:

 Translation equivalence is a nuanced concept influenced by both language and the

specific text itself.
 Cognitive linguistics offers a framework for analyzing equivalence by focusing on units
like "images" and their underlying dimensions.
 There is no single "correct" translation, but understanding these factors helps translators
make informed choices.

Additional Notes:

 The passage mentions Snell-Hornby (1988) as a reference for historical views on

equivalence.
 Langacker is another prominent figure in cognitive linguistics, whose theory of
"linguistic imagery" provides a potential framework for understanding equivalence.

Limits of Translatability: Different Perspectives and the

Case of Jokes
This passage explores the debate on what can and cannot be translated effectively.

Historical Views:

 There's been a wide range of opinions on translatability:

o Optimists: Believe everything can be translated (e.g., Jakobson).
 o Skeptics: Acknowledge difficulty but see translation as possible (e.g., Edward
FitzGerald).
o Pessimists: Believe some things are untranslatable (e.g., Hilaire Belloc).

Challenges for Pessimists:

 Linguists who argue for untranslatability often focus on:

o Grammatical differences between languages.
o Difficulties with puns, wordplay, and jokes.

Example: The Untranslatable Joke (2.40)

 A joke relies on activating two different meanings simultaneously:

o "Giving a present"
o "Trading something"
 The humor comes from understanding both meanings at once.

Why is this Difficult to Translate?

 Different languages might require separate words for each meaning.

 The source language (English) uses "for" for both, making it even harder.

Untranslatability is Relative:

 It doesn't mean something is completely impossible to translate.

 It depends on activating specific meanings at the same time.
 Using a metaphor, it's like needing two pictures on a single film frame.

Beyond Jokes: Poetry and "Weakly Stabilized Connotations"

 Similar challenges exist in poetry with subtle, layered meanings.

 These "weakly stabilized connotations" are:
o Not widely understood knowledge.
o Crucial for the poem's artistic quality.

Key Points:

 Translating humor and poetry can be difficult due to the need to convey multiple
meanings or subtle references.
 Untranslatability is not absolute but depends on the specific text and its reliance on
complex wordplay or cultural nuances.
 Even when a perfect translation isn't possible, the translator can still strive to capture the
essence of the original text.
Poetry Translation and Untranslatability: A Cognitive
Perspective
This passage explores the challenges of translating poetry, focusing on the concept of
"untranslatability" from a cognitive linguistics perspective.

The Problem of Connotations:

 Literary pessimists argue poetry is untranslatable due to complex connotations.

 These are unique meanings associated with words that are hard to capture in another
language.

Cognitive Linguistics Viewpoint:

 Cognitive linguists argue the difficulty is similar to any text, not unique to poetry.
 Understanding a poem (or any text) requires recognizing the author's intended meanings.
 This is true for readers, critics, and translators alike.

Untranslatability Beyond Languages:

 The difficulty arises from different "inventories of domains" (cognitive structures).

 This mismatch can happen even within the same language for different readers.

Example Poem: "Sopot"

 This Polish poem uses a series of fragmented images to create an impression of a spa
town.
 It lacks background details, relying on the reader to fill them in.

The Challenge for Translation:

 While translating the words might be easy, the impact might differ for different readers.
 A Polish reader familiar with Sopot will bring their own background knowledge to the
poem.
 This can alter the meaning compared to someone unfamiliar with the location.
 Even within the same language (Polish reader vs. British reader), cultural associations
can differ.

The Question of True Untranslatability:

 The passage asks if a poem truly needs translation to be a "translation."

 Different readers, even within the same language, can have different interpretations.

Key Points:
  Translating poetry is challenging due to the reliance on connotations and individual
interpretations.
 Cognitive linguistics suggests these difficulties are not unique to interlingual translation
(between languages).
 The "meaning" of a poem can vary depending on the reader's background knowledge and
cultural associations.

Additional Notes:

 The passage mentions Lakoff & Turner (1989) who are prominent figures in cognitive
linguistics.
 The concept of "text biography" refers to a reader's past experiences that influence how
they interpret a text.

This passage argues for the translatability of all texts, based on the idea that all interpretation is a
form of reconstruction.

Here's a breakdown of the key points:

 All Texts are Interpretable, Thus Translatable:

o The passage builds on the idea that reading is a process of "reading in" meaning, a
kind of construction.
o If all reading is a construal, then translation, as a form of interpretation, can also
be seen as a construal.
 Challenges in Interlingual Translation:
o Difficulties arise when translating between languages because the "building
blocks" (concepts and imagery) might be different.
o This is like needing to repaint an image using different painting techniques.
 The Role of Translation Theory:
o Translation theory can't provide a perfect one-to-one mapping between languages.
o Its role is to offer guidance on how to choose the "best available" substitute
techniques for conveying meaning across languages.
o This helps translators make informed decisions while acknowledging the inherent
challenges.

Key Points:

 Translation involves interpretation and reconstruction of meaning, making all texts

theoretically translatable.
 The difficulty lies in finding the best way to convey the original meaning using the
different "building blocks" of another language.
 Translation theory provides a framework for translators to navigate these challenges and
arrive at effective translations.
The Mewlips and the Challenge of Definite vs. Indefinite
Articles
This passage discusses the challenges of translating a poem titled "The Mewlips" from English to
Polish, focusing on the role of definite and indefinite articles.

The Problem:

 Polish lacks grammatical articles (definite "the" and indefinite "a/an").

 This can lead to ambiguity in translation when the choice of article in the English text is
crucial for meaning.

The Importance of Articles in "The Mewlips":

 The poem uses definite and indefinite articles to establish perspective.

o Definite articles ("the") might indicate the narrator is familiar with the scene.
o Indefinite articles ("a/an") might introduce something new or unknown.
 This interplay of articles shapes the reader's understanding of the story.

Example Lines:

 Line 1: "The shadows where the Mewlips dwell" - Suggests the narrator knows where the
Mewlips live.
 Line 5: "You sink into the slime..." - "You" is indefinite, making the reader imagine
themselves in the situation.

Focus of Analysis:

 The passage will not delve into the poem's overall structure or sound devices (alliteration,
rhyme, etc.).
 It will focus on how the manipulation of definite and indefinite articles creates challenges
for translation into Polish.

Key Points:

 The lack of articles in Polish can make it difficult to translate poems that rely heavily on
definite and indefinite articles to convey perspective and meaning.
 Translators need to find alternative ways to capture the intended perspective and guide
the reader's understanding in the target language.
 This example highlights the importance of grammatical structures beyond vocabulary in
translation.

Definite vs. Indefinite Articles and Perspective in "The

Mewlips" (Continued)
This passage dives deeper into the poem "The Mewlips" and how the use of definite and
indefinite articles shapes the reader's perspective.

Definiteness and Perspective:

 Definite articles ("the") are no longer seen as inherent properties of objects but as
interactional features.
 They depend on whether the object is "identifiable" or "recoverable" for the
speaker/conceptualizer.
 This makes definiteness a pragmatic factor that influences how readers interpret the
perspective.

The Opening and Speaker's Perspective:

 The poem starts with a definite noun phrase ("The shadows").

 This "introduction in medias res" technique is used to create a sense of familiarity.
 The reader is thrust into the middle of the action as if they already know the scene.
 This establishes the speaker's perspective as the observer and "witness" of the scene.
 Subsequent definite articles in the first stanzas reinforce this perspective.
 The speaker describes what they see (bell, gargoyles, willows, etc.)

Shifting Perspective with Indefinite Articles:

 A shift occurs in line 13 with the introduction of "a long and weary way."
 Indefinite articles ("a," "an") suggest the speaker is no longer describing their own
experience.
 They are now relaying information about a different perspective, possibly a story they
heard.
 The next stanzas use indefinite articles ("a mouldy valley," "a dark pool's borders") and
possessives ("their gold") to depict a scene that is not directly witnessed by the speaker.

Additional Notes:

 The passage mentions Herman (1987) who discusses the "introduction in medias res"
technique.
 Subcategorial level refers to recognizing something as a specific type within a broader
category (e.g., weeping willows as a type of tree).

Key Points:

 The use of definite and indefinite articles in "The Mewlips" creates a shift in perspective.
 Definite articles establish the speaker as a witness describing a familiar scene.
 Indefinite articles suggest the speaker is relaying information from another source.
 This analysis demonstrates how grammatical choices beyond vocabulary can impact the
meaning and experience of a poem in translation.
Definite vs. Indefinite Articles and Imagery in "The
Mewlips" (Continued)
This passage continues the analysis of "The Mewlips" focusing on how articles influence the
reader's visual experience.

Definite vs. Indefinite Articles and Image Creation:

 Herman (1987) argues definite articles in fictional narratives help readers create detailed
mental images.
 The passage suggests indefinite articles can also create images, but of a different type.

Shift in Reader Perspective:

 The speaker's direct observation ends in line 12.

 Lines 13-28 use indefinite articles, suggesting the reader takes on a new perspective.
 This new perspective is one of "construing an image" based on the information provided.

Vague Images and Schemas:

 Indefinite articles ("a mouldy valley," "a dark pool") create a vague "sketch" rather than a
rich image.
 These images are closer to "image schemas" (generalized concepts) than detailed
pictures.
 Examples: "a single sickly candle" (indefinite suggests schematicity)
 This creates a sense of mystery and the unknown.

Justifying the Shift:

 The vagueness due to indefinite articles makes sense because:

o The speaker wouldn't have seen inside the Mewlips' cellars.
o Even if someone did see it, it wouldn't be easily shared with others.
 This reinforces the idea that the reader constructs an image based on limited information.

Key Points:

 Indefinite articles in "The Mewlips" create a shift in perspective and a more schematic
image.
 This vagueness reflects the limitations of knowledge about the Mewlips' world.
 It contributes to the poem's atmosphere of mystery and the unknown.

Definite Articles Return and the Final Scene in "The

Mewlips"
This passage concludes the analysis of "The Mewlips" focusing on the final stanza and the role
of articles.

Return to the Speaker's Perspective:

 The last stanza (lines 29-32) uses definite articles again, suggesting the speaker's
perspective returns.
 The speaker describes the road the visitor from line 12 is now on.
 Definite articles ("the road," "the spider-shadows") indicate these are identifiable
elements.
 Other details ("hanging trees," "gallows-weed") are more general but contribute to the
scene.

Definite Articles and Internal Evaluation:

 The use of "the lonely road" reinforces the speaker's perspective.

o "Lonely" is an internal evaluation, reflecting the speaker's interpretation of the
scene.
 This contrasts with "a weary way" in line 13, which was more neutral and objective.

Dynamic vs. Static Scenes:

 The final scene uses verbs like "through" and "go," suggesting a dynamic action.
 This contrasts with the static scenes described earlier (using "in" and "by").

Definite and Indefinite Articles: The Key Device

 Despite other elements like perspective evaluation and scene dynamism, the passage
reiterates that:
o The main device for perspective in this poem is the use of definite and indefinite
articles.
o Definite articles establish the speaker's perspective, while indefinite articles create
a more objective or constructed image.

Key Points:

 The poem ends with the speaker's perspective returning, marked by definite articles and
internal evaluation.
 Definite and indefinite articles remain the key tool for shaping perspective and imagery
throughout the poem.
 This analysis highlights the importance of grammar in constructing meaning and
perspective in poetry translation.

The passage argues that a specific poem by Tolkien is untranslatable from English to Polish due
to the way it uses definite and indefinite articles to shift perspective.
Here's a breakdown of the key points:

 The Poem: The passage refers to a poem by Tolkien, but doesn't mention the title.
 Untranslatability Due to Perspective: The main argument is that the poem's meaning
relies on switching between definite and indefinite articles to create a sense of the
narrator's perspective.
o Definite articles (the) suggest the narrator is familiar with the scene.
o Indefinite articles (a/an) suggest a new or unknown element.
 Polish Lacks Articles: Polish grammar doesn't have articles (definite or indefinite).
 Loss of Perspective in Translation: Translating the poem into Polish loses this crucial
aspect of perspective and makes the story feel like a standard fairy tale with an
omniscient narrator.
 Different Conceptualization: This shift in perspective fundamentally changes the
meaning and experience of the poem in the target language (Polish).

In essence, the passage argues that the poem's untranslatability stems from the
grammatical differences between English and Polish, specifically the lack of articles in
Polish.

Tenses: Bridging Time and Language

This passage dives into the complex relationship between grammatical tenses and how we
perceive time.

 The Time & Language Conundrum:

o Linguists and philosophers have long debated the connection between
physical/logical time and how languages express it through tenses.
 Landmark Concepts:
o Pioneering ideas like:
 Reichenbach's (1947) distinction between "speech time" (the moment of
speaking) and "event time" (when the event happened).
 Benveniste's (1966) notion of the "zero point" (the moment of utterance)
as a reference point on a timeline of events.
o These concepts laid the groundwork for the understanding that tenses:
 Can be anchored in speech time (absolute reference point).
 Can be relative to an event chosen by the speaker (relative reference
point).
 Discourse and Tense Choice:
o The way a story unfolds (discourse) influences tense selection.
o Research by Lakoff (1970), Fillmore (1976), and Paprotte (1988) suggests:
 The choice of tense is linked to the participants in a conversation and their
roles.
 Speakers strategically use tenses to convey specific perspectives and
relationships between events.

Key Points:
  Tenses are not simply reflections of physical time.
 They are linguistic tools used to position events relative to the speaker's perspective and
the flow of the discourse.
 Understanding tense choice requires considering both the timeline of events and the
communicative goals of the speaker.

 Cognitive View of Tense:

o Langacker's model suggests the basic tense distinction (present vs. non-present)
reflects how close events are to the speaker's viewpoint.
 Tense Systems and Translation:
o Different languages grammaticalize time concepts differently, leading to
translation challenges.
 Focus: Present/Non-Present and Narrative Perspective:
o The passage will focus on how the present/non-present tense distinction functions
in narrative fiction.
o It will explore how tense choices shape the reader's experience of perspective.

Case Study: Konwicki's "KP"

 The passage will use Konwicki's novel "KP" as an example.

 "KP" is a first-person narration with a clearly identified narrator (the author himself).
 This "strictly personal perspective" shapes the story and its impact.
 The plot structure involves:
o A main storyline with the narrator waiting in line.
o Flashbacks and reflections interwoven with the main story.
o Two fictional inserts about a historical event (January Uprising of 1863).

The passage sets the stage for analyzing how tense choices in "KP" contribute to the
narrative perspective and potential translation challenges.

Tense Choices and Narrative Perspective in Konwicki's

"KP" (Continued)
This passage dives into a specific example of how tense choices in Konwicki's "KP" influence
the reader's experience of perspective.

The Power of Tense: Present vs. Past

 The main story and the narrator's reflections are told in the present tense (Polish text).
 This creates a sense of immediacy, as if the events are unfolding right now.
 The historical sections and the narrator's biography are narrated in the past tense.
 This creates a sense of distance and completed events.

Lost in Translation: Shifting Tenses

  The English translation changes the present tense of the main story to the simple past
tense.
 This shift is seen as a loss of intended effect, even though the factual content remains the
same.
 The present tense creates a feeling of the reader being present in the scene alongside the
narrator.
 The past tense makes the story feel more distant and narrated.

Sample Text and Analysis

 The passage provides the beginning of the novel in Polish and English for comparison.
 The Polish uses the present tense ("Stoję" - I stand) to place the reader directly in the
scene with the narrator waiting in line.
 The English uses the past tense ("I was standing") which creates a more detached and
narrated feeling.

Key Points:

 The choice of tense in "KP" is a deliberate strategy to create a sense of immediacy and
draw the reader into the story.
 Shifting the tense to the past in translation alters this strategy and creates a different
reading experience.
 This example highlights the importance of considering tense beyond just factual accuracy
when translating.

Tense choices and the illusion of immediacy in Konwicki's

"KP" (Continued)
This passage further analyzes how tense choices in the Polish original of Konwicki's "KP" create
a sense of immediacy that is lost in the English translation.

The Power of Present Tense

 The passage argues that using the present tense with first-person narration creates an
illusion of immediacy.
 The reader feels like they are directly experiencing the events alongside the narrator.
 This is because the present tense anchors the events in the moment of speech (hic et
nunc).

Lost in Translation: The Past Tense and its Impact

 The English translation changes the present tense to the past tense.
 This seemingly minor shift fundamentally alters the reader's experience.
o The story feels narrated and distant, rather than immediate and unfolding now.
Example: Opening Paragraph

 The Polish original uses present tense verbs ("stoję" - I stand) to place the reader in the
scene.
 The English uses the past tense ("I was standing"), making it feel like a recounted
experience.
 Similarly, the future tense in the Polish first paragraph is rendered with the "future-in-the-
past" tense in English ("would announce").
o This changes the feel from a prediction based on present reality to a point in a past
sequence of events.

Example: Second Paragraph

 The Polish uses the present tense to depict ongoing actions ("snowflakes sail," "tramcars
huddle").
 This reinforces the sense of immediacy and the reader being present in the scene.
 The English uses the present tense for some verbs but omits others, like "clang"
(originally present tense).
 Spatial deictics ("tej" - this) and subjective markers ("jakby" - as if) add to the present-
moment feel in Polish.
o These are mostly left out in the English translation.

Sequence of Tenses and Lost Nuance

 The Polish uses perfective verbs ("wyciągnął" - stretched out) to show completed actions
with a resulting state.
o The narrator observes the current state (spread legs) and infers the completed
actions.
 The English translation is forced to use the past tense due to the "backshifting" rule.
o This loses the nuance of the narrator's inference based on present observation.
 Similar issues arise with the use of the modal "would" in the English translation.

Key Points:

 The present tense in the Polish original creates a powerful sense of immediacy, placing
the reader directly in the scene.
 The English translation's use of the past tense alters this effect significantly.
 This analysis highlights the importance of considering the stylistic functions of tense
beyond just basic temporal reference during translation.

The Lost Illusion of Now: Tense and Perspective in

Konwicki's "KP" (Continued)
This passage delves deeper into the consequences of tense choices in the English translation of
Konwicki's "KP".
Focus on Adverbs and Tense

 The Polish adverb "czasam" (occasionally) reinforces the present-moment feel of the
scene.
o It suggests events that could be happening now, before, or after the moment of
speaking.
 This flexibility allows the narrator to connect present observations with past experiences
and future predictions.
 The English translation uses the past modal "would" three times, further emphasizing the
shift to the past tense.

Lost Nuance and Objectification

 The simple past tense verbs in the English translation ("stumbled," "fell") create a sense
of a repeated, non-immediate past event.
 This loses the nuance of the Polish, which suggests these events could be happening now
based on past experiences.

Beyond Tense: Other Shifts in Perspective

 The passage acknowledges other changes besides tense that contribute to the different
perspectives in the two versions.
o The English translation breaks down a complex Polish sentence into simpler ones,
making it feel more chronological.
 Overall, the Polish original creates a sense of the narrator being part of the scene,
experiencing it now.
 The English translation creates a sense of the narrator as an outsider, reporting on past
events.

Objectification and External Evaluation

 The English translation uses additional strategies to create a more objective and distanced
perspective.
o Phrases like "feeling no pain" (inserted evaluation) and "your usual day" (direct
address) create an "omniscient narrator" feel.
o Replacing "each person keeping the place staked out" implies an external observer
scanning the scene.

Key Points:

 The analysis highlights how various choices beyond just tense contribute to the different
perspectives in the Polish original and English translation.
 The Polish original creates a sense of immediacy and the narrator being part of the scene.
 The English translation creates a more objective and distanced perspective, with the
narrator as an observer of past events.
what is omniscient narrator" mean? An omniscient narrator is a
storytelling device where the narrator knows everything about the story and the characters.
Imagine a god-like figure who can see into the minds of all the characters and knows everything
that's happening in the story, past, present, and even future.

Here are some key features of an omniscient narrator:

 All-knowing: They have complete knowledge of the characters' thoughts, feelings,

motivations, and backstories.
 Flexible perspective: They can shift focus between characters and events at will,
providing insights unavailable to any single character.
 Authorial voice: They can comment on the story's events and characters, offering
judgments or interpretations.

Some famous examples of omniscient narrators include:

 Jane Austen in novels like "Pride and Prejudice" and "Emma"

 Leo Tolstoy in "War and Peace"
 J.D. Salinger in "The Catcher in the Rye"

While omniscient narration can be a powerful tool, it's not the only way to tell a story. There are
also limited third-person narration (where the narrator knows what one character is thinking) and
first-person narration (where the narrator is a character in the story).

in Alice Walker's the color purple, Alice is first person

narrator or omniscient narrator?
In Alice Walker's The Color Purple, Celie, the protagonist, is the first-person narrator. The story
unfolds entirely from her perspective, using her voice and her understanding of events.

This means the reader experiences the story through Celie's thoughts, feelings, and limited
knowledge. We don't have access to the inner thoughts of other characters unless Celie shares
them. This approach creates a sense of intimacy and allows the reader to connect directly with
Celie's journey.

An omniscient narrator, on the other hand, would have complete knowledge of all characters and
events, and could freely switch perspectives. This is not the case in The Color Purple.

The Challenge of Translating Konwicki's "KP": Irony Lost

in the Past Tense?
This passage concludes the analysis of tense choices in the English translation of Konwicki's
"KP".
The Translator's Choice: Past Tense for Irony?

 The author acknowledges the difficulty of understanding why the translator chose the
simple past tense.
 One possible reason is to convey the "ironical distance toward reality" characteristic of
Konwicki's writing.

Irony Through Grotesque and Juxtaposition

 The author argues that Konwicki creates irony in "KP" through:

o The grotesque nature of reality as seen by the narrator.
o The clash between communist propaganda clichés and the narrator's unique
observations.

Challenges Beyond Tense

 These aspects of Konwicki's style pose challenges for translation, beyond just tense
choices.

Lost in Translation: Distance vs. Entanglement

 The consistent past tense in the English translation creates a sense of separation from the
narrator's present experience.
 While this conveys distance, it misses a key point:
o The narrator, despite intellectual and emotional detachment, remains trapped in
this absurd reality.

The Importance of Tense Shifts

 The Polish original uses the past tense only for historical parts, highlighting a shift in
perspective.
 This crucial distinction is lost in the English translation.

Key Points:

 The past tense in the English translation creates a different reading experience than the
Polish original.
 While it may convey some aspects of Konwicki's style, it misses the immediacy and
sense of being trapped in a surreal reality.
 The analysis highlights the importance of considering the stylistic functions of tense
beyond just basic temporal reference during translation.

Tense, Time, and Perspective in Konwicki's "KP"

(Continued)
This passage explores how the interplay of time and tense shapes perspective in Konwicki's
"KP", again comparing the Polish original and English translation.

Breaking the Rules: The Original Polish Text (3.3.P.)

 This section uses the Polish text as an example of breaking the usual flow of time in
storytelling.
 The past tense is used, but it describes the narrator's interpretation of what he sees.
 The order of events is not strictly chronological.
o A flash of light appears, then we learn it's a neon sign.
o Iwona is described as being outlined in red light, even though the light has already
gone out (an afterimage).
o Faint music is heard, then identified as the veterans' band playing from afar.
 This creates a sense of immediacy and the narrator's thought process as he experiences
the scene.

Lost in Translation: The English Version (3.3.E.)

 The English translation rearranges the events in a more chronological order.

 This is because it follows the principle of iconicity, where the order of words reflects the
order of events.

o We learn Iwona is standing by the window before the light appears.
o The afterimage effect is explained with the past perfect tense ("had looked").
o The music is heard and then identified as the veterans' band, explicitly mentioned
as something heard earlier.
 This creates a more objective and distanced perspective, like an external observer
reporting on events.
 The original sense of immediacy and the narrator's thought process are lost.

Iconicity and Perspective

 The passage discusses the concept of iconicity, where language structure reflects the
order of events.
 The original Polish text plays with iconicity to create a specific perspective.
 The English translation prioritizes iconicity, but this results in a different perspective.

Narrow vs. Wide Lens: A Shift in Perspective

 The passage uses the metaphor of camera lenses to describe the shift in perspective.
 The Polish original uses a "narrow-angle lens," focusing on the immediate moment and
the narrator's experience.
 The English translation uses a "wide-angle lens," providing a more general and objective
view.

Tense and Linking Perspectives

  The original Polish uses tense to connect the immediate plot to the narrator's broader
reflections.

Key Points:

 The way time and tense are handled in Konwicki's "KP" significantly affects the reader's
experience.
 The Polish original uses a more subjective and immediate approach, while the English
translation is more objective and distanced.
 This analysis highlights the importance of considering how tense choices shape
perspective beyond just conveying the basic sequence of events.

what is the concept of iconicity?

Iconicity, in the context of language, refers to the idea that the form of a word or phrase has a
resemblance to its meaning. It's like a built-in connection between how something sounds or
looks written and what it represents.

Here are some key points about iconicity:

 Similarities in form and meaning: Iconic signs directly resemble what they represent.
For example, the word "bang" sounds a bit like the sound it describes.
 Not all languages are highly iconic: Most languages rely more on symbols (arbitrary
connections between form and meaning) than icons. The word "dog" doesn't bear any
inherent resemblance to a canine.
 Iconicity beyond words: Iconicity can extend to sentence structure as well. In some
languages, the order of words in a sentence might reflect the order of events they
describe.

Here are some examples of iconicity:

 Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate sounds, like "buzz," "pop," or "crash."

 Ideograms: These are characters in writing systems that directly represent concepts, like
the Chinese character for "tree" (木).
 Facial expressions: A frown icon frowning is an iconic representation of sadness.

It's important to note that iconicity is not a perfect system. Languages often have multiple words
for the same concept, and some iconic signs can be interpreted in different ways. However, the
concept of iconicity helps us understand how language can create meaning through resemblance
as well as arbitrary symbols.

Iconicity beyond words: Iconicity can extend to sentence

structure as well. In some languages, the order of words in a
sentence might reflect the order of events they describe.
illustrate by examples
Absolutely! Here are some examples of how sentence structure can reflect the order of events
(iconicity) across different languages:

1. English:

 While not as strictly iconic as some languages, English can sometimes show a connection
between word order and event order.
o "The boy chased the dog." - The subject ("boy") performs the action ("chased")
before the object ("dog"). This generally aligns with the typical sequence of
events in this sentence.

2. Japanese:

 Japanese is a more iconic language when it comes to sentence structure. The verb
typically comes at the end of the sentence.
o "Watashi wa inu o oimashita." (私は犬を追いました。) - This translates to "I
chased the dog." Here, "watashi" (I) comes first, followed by "inu" (dog), and
finally the verb "oimashita" (chased) at the end, reflecting the chronological order
of the action.

3. Yucatec Maya:

 Yucatec Maya is a verb-initial language, meaning the verb comes at the beginning of the
sentence.
o "K'inich ahau xook' ba'al pe'ech'e' ." (Kinich ahau shook' baal pe'ech'e'.) - This
translates to "The sun king danced in the palace." Here, "k'inich ahau" (sun king)
comes after the verb "shook'" (danced), indicating the action happened first,
followed by the subject.

4. Swahili:

 Swahili uses a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) order more consistently than English.

o "Mtoto alimpiga mbwa." (The child hit the dog.) - The sentence structure directly
reflects the order of events - "mtoto" (child) acting on "mbwa" (dog), followed by
the verb "alipiga" (hit).

5. Ngaanyatjarra (Australian Aboriginal language):

 Some languages like Ngaanyatjarra can even use word order to indicate the direction of
movement.
 o "Man walk tree behind" vs. "Man walk tree in front" - The order of "tree" and the
directional preposition ("behind" or "in front") changes the meaning of the
sentence based on where the man is walking in relation to the tree.

These are just a few examples. Remember, iconicity in sentence structure isn't universal, and
languages can have different ways of expressing the order of events. However, it's a fascinating
way language can create meaning through structure.

what about arabic language , can we find iconcity in

sentence structure?
Arabic can exhibit some iconicity in sentence structure, but it's not as prevalent as in languages
like Japanese or Yucatec Maya. Here's a breakdown:

Limited Iconicity:

 Word Order: Arabic follows a relatively fixed word order – Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)
in most declarative sentences. This doesn't inherently reflect the order of events
compared to languages that can freely change word order for emphasis.
 Focus and Emphasis: While word order is generally fixed, Arabic uses other
mechanisms to place emphasis or highlight specific elements in a sentence. This can
create a sense of what happened first or what's most important.
o Topic marking: Particles like "wa" (and) or "ama" (but) can introduce the main
topic of the sentence, putting it first for emphasis.
o Cleft sentences: These sentences split the subject and predicate, placing the
element in focus at the beginning.

Examples:

 Basic SVO order: ‫( ضرب احمد عليا‬Daraba Ahmadu ‘alayya) - "Ahmed hit me." Here, the
order reflects the event (Ahmed hitting) followed by the recipient (me). However, it's not
the only possible structure.
 Emphasis with Topic Marking: ‫ فقد ضرب عليا‬،‫( أما أحمد‬Amma Ahmadu, fa qad daraba
‘alayya) - "As for Ahmed, he hit me." Here, "Ahmed" is introduced with "Amma" for
emphasis, highlighting him as the one who did the action.
 Cleft Sentence: ‫‘ ( علٌي هو الذي ضربني‬Alayun huwa al-ladhee darabani) - "It is Ali who hit
me." This structure emphasizes "Ali" as the one who performed the action.

Overall:

 While Arabic doesn't rely heavily on word order for iconicity, it uses other grammatical
tools to highlight the order of events or emphasize specific elements within a sentence,
achieving a similar effect.

Additional Notes:
  Some argue that certain verb forms in Arabic might have a faint echo of iconicity. For
instance, the perfect tense (past completed action) could be seen as placing the action
further back in time compared to the imperfect tense (ongoing or habitual past action).
However, this connection is debated and not as clear-cut as word order in other
languages.

The Weight of Time and Desire in Konwicki's "KP"

(Continued)
This passage delves into the tense choices in another excerpt from Konwicki's "KP" and
the English translation, focusing on how they shape meaning.

Polish Original ((3.4.)P.)

 The passage starts with a present tense construction, indicating the narrator's
feelings for Iwona right now.
 The narrator's desire to touch her is followed by the realization he never will. This
future tense expresses a strong prediction beyond the moment of speaking.
 The future tense then becomes a generalization – the narrator will never touch
any young girl.
 The following sentences ("they move along..." and "they swim...") use the present
tense to describe a general situation, the girls' existence and their different life
stages.
 The final sentence uses the simple past for the "designation of fate," presenting it
as a fixed and unchangeable event.

English Translation ((3.4.)E.)

 The translator omits the repeated statements of the narrator liking

Iwona, possibly due to the lack of a clear way to convey the "one instance right
now" meaning in English.
 The English simplifies the tense structure. Both the desire for Iwona and the
realization of its impossibility are expressed in the past tense.
 The generic statement about not touching young girls is also presented in the
past tense.
 The final sentence about fate remains in the past tense.

Lost Nuance: The Impact of Tense Choices

 The Polish original uses a more nuanced approach to tense, highlighting the
immediate feeling, the specific desire, and the broader generalization.
 The English translation simplifies the timeline and creates a sense of distance
from the narrator's emotions.
 The focus shifts from the present moment of desire to a more general reflection
on the narrator's situation.
Key Points:

 The passage analyzes how tense choices in the Polish original and English
translation contribute to different perspectives on the narrator's feelings and
desires.
 The Polish original emphasizes the immediacy of the experience, while the
English translation creates a more detached and reflective tone.

Lost in Translation: The Distance Grows in Konwicki's

"KP"
This passage concludes the analysis of tense choices in Konwicki's "KP" and the
resulting difference between the Polish original and the English translation.

The Cost of Consistency: The English Translation

 The consistent use of simple past tense in the English translation eliminates the
concept of absolute future in the original.
 The present tense used with "see" creates a shift, but the added phrase "any of"
makes it feel like a series of separate events rather than a general statement.
 The addition of "I do" is seen as unnecessary and creates a sense of
detachment, like an external observer.

Untranslatable Worlds: Beyond Language

 The passage acknowledges the difficulties of translating "KP" go beyond the

level of language.
 The translator might be facing a situation where the narrator's world
(preconceptual or cognitive level) is not easily understood by someone from a
different culture.

Irony Lost in Translation

 The "ironical distance" created by the narrator in the Polish original is lost in the
English translation.
 Instead, the English version creates a sense of emotional detachment and
distance in time and space.

Key Points:

 The analysis suggests that the challenges of translating "KP" lie not just in finding
equivalent words and phrases but also in capturing the underlying concepts and
the narrator's perspective.
 The translator's choices regarding tense and phrasing significantly alter the
reader's experience of the story.
Conspiracy in Language: Shaping Perspective in
Konwicki's "KP"
This passage explores the concept of "conspiracy" in language, using Konwicki's "KP"
as an example. It argues that different grammatical elements work together to create a
specific perspective in the narrative.

Enkvist's "Conspiracy" Metaphor

 The passage refers to a concept by Enkvist who views text cohesion as a result
of "conflicts" and "conspiracies."
 Here, "conspiracy" refers to elements working together for a single goal.

Beyond Grammar: Language and Style

 The analysis goes beyond individual grammatical devices

(tense, aspect, lexis, word order) and considers how they interact to shape
perspective.
 This analysis sits between linguistics (focusing on language) and literary studies
(focusing on style).

The Translator's Challenge: Understanding the "Texture"

 By understanding how language elements conspire to create an

image, translators can better capture the essence of the text.

A Case Study: Traugutt's Arrival (3.5.P.)

 The passage analyzes the opening of a fictional historical fragment in "KP"

featuring Romuald Traugutt.2
 Different elements contribute to shaping the perspective:
o Tense: The past tense ("descended," "was able to observe") creates a
sense of historical narration.
o Sentence Structure: Varied sentence length and use of participial
phrases create a sense of observation and detail.
o Lexis: Words like "leisurely," "skilled conspirator's eye," and "unhurriedly"
establish a sense of calm amidst potential danger.
o Word Order: Emphasis is placed on Traugutt's actions ("descended,"
"saw," "was busy") highlighting his awareness.

Combined Effect: A Multifaceted Perspective

 The "conspiracy" of these elements creates a multifaceted perspective.

 We see the scene through the eyes of an observer, yet we also get glimpses into
Traugutt's thoughts and awareness.
Key Points:

 This passage emphasizes the importance of understanding how language

elements work together to shape perspective in narrative text.
 By analyzing these "conspiracies," translators and readers can gain a deeper
appreciation for the writer's craft.

Traugutt's Arrival: Lost in Translation (Continued)

This passage focuses on the differences between the Polish original and the English
translation of the scene depicting Traugutt's arrival. It argues that these differences alter
the perspective from which the scene is experienced.

Language as a Tool for Perspective

 The passage reiterates that language choices create a mental space for the
scene and the character's perspective.
 The use of present tense in a subordinate clause reflects the character's
observation time, not the narrator's.
 The use of imperfective verbs for ongoing actions reinforces the character's
observation.
 The perfective verb "zdołał spostrzec" (managed to notice) at the end of the initial
scan highlights the completion of that specific action within the character's
observation.

The Original Polish Text: Traugutt's Perspective

 The original uses the non-perfective aspect ("zstępował") for Traugutt's

descent, creating a backdrop for his observation.
 The lack of emphasis on the completion of the action reinforces the focus on
Traugutt's ongoing observation.

The English Translation: A Shift in Perspective

 The translation uses the simple past tense for "descended," which can imply both
the duration and completion of the action.
 This introduces the possibility of an external observer perspective, where the
action itself becomes a foregrounded element.
 The use of the same simple past tense throughout creates a sense of sequential
events as seen by an external observer, breaking the focus on Traugutt's
perspective in the original.

Iconicity Principle and Lost Meaning

 The principle suggests that the order of sentences in the simple past tense
reflects the order of events.
  The English translation, by using the same tense for all actions, loses the
distinction between Traugutt's initial scan and his subsequent focused
observations.

Lost in the Details: Traugutt's Arrival and the Power of

Description
This passage delves deeper into the stylistic choices in the Polish original of Traugutt's
arrival scene and the consequences of their omission in the English translation.

Iconic Order Disrupted: Focus on Observer's Knowledge

 The original uses a specific sentence order to reflect Traugutt's scanning

process.
 The English translation changes the order to a subject-predicate-locative
structure, suggesting an omniscient narrator who already knows everyone.

"Traceried": A Window into Perspective

 The adjective "traceried" for the steps, though technically inaccurate, is a good
choice in the translation.
 It implies a non-standard viewpoint, aligning with Traugutt looking down from the
train.

Selection and Specificity: Traugutt's Priorities

 Langacker's theory suggests that descriptions involve choosing salient elements

and the level of detail.
 In the scene, Traugutt focuses on identifying people (selection) with minimal
description of the surroundings.
 This reflects his primary concern - recognizing potential threats.

Order of Description Reflects Observation

 The order of details in describing the porter ("tall" and "bearded") reflects the
sequence of Traugutt's observation.
 Similarly, the officer is described in more detail than the non-commissioned
officers, reflecting Traugutt's focus on the potential source of arrest.

Punctuation and Sequentiality

 The comma separating "tall" and "bearded" emphasizes the sequential nature of
Traugutt's observation.

Lost Nuance: The Importance of Detail

  The choices regarding description and order create a scene filtered through
Traugutt's awareness.
 The English translation, by omitting these details, creates a less nuanced and
more objective portrayal.

Key Points:

 This passage emphasizes the importance of seemingly minor details in creating

a character's perspective.
 By analyzing these details, we can appreciate the author's craft in crafting a
scene steeped in a character's specific experience.

Traugutt's Arrival: A Masterclass in Subjectivity

(Continued)
This passage concludes the analysis of Traugutt's arrival scene, focusing on
how the original Polish text creates a subjective experience for the reader.

English Translation: A Shift in Focus

 The English translation uses simple past tense for the police patrol,
making it a foregrounded element unlike the original where it's
backgrounded by the imperfective aspect.
 The use of "non-coms" is a colloquial addition not present in the original,
potentially altering the tone and formality of the scene.

"Non-coms" - A Colloquial Addition:

 "Non-coms" is a shortened, informal term for "non-commissioned officers." It's

commonly used in spoken language or informal writing.

Impact on Tone and Formality:

 By using "non-coms," the translation adopts a more casual tone compared to the original
text. It sounds less formal and more conversational.

Potential Alterations:

 Depending on the context of the scene, this shift in tone could have various effects:
o Might lessen the seriousness of the situation: If the original scene depicts a
tense or serious situation, using "non-coms" might downplay the gravity.
 o Could make the dialogue sound more natural: In some cases, using a
colloquial term like "non-coms" in dialogue can make it sound more natural and
reflect how people speak in everyday situations.

Importance of Context:

The specific impact of using "non-coms" depends on the overall tone and style of the original
work and the intended tone of the translation.

Here's an analogy: Imagine a news report using "cops" instead of "police officers." The tone
becomes less formal and more conversational, which might be appropriate for some contexts but
not for others.

Overall:

While "non-coms" is a perfectly understandable term, it's important to consider the potential shift
in tone and formality when translating from a more formal source material.

Foreground vs. Background:

 Foreground: These are the main events or actions in a story, the ones that receive the
most focus and attention from the reader.
 Background: Background elements provide context or setting for the main events but are
not the central focus.

Tense and Aspect:

 Tense: This refers to the grammatical form of a verb that indicates when an action or
event took place (past, present, future).
 Aspect: This focuses on how an action or event unfolds over time (completed, ongoing,
repeated). Some languages, like Slavic languages, have a grammatical category for aspect
separate from tense. English relies more on context and verb phrases to convey aspect.

How Tense and Aspect Indicate Foreground/Background:

 Simple Past Tense (Foreground): In English, the simple past tense (e.g., walked,
talked) typically indicates a completed action at a specific point in the past. This
emphasizes the action and makes it stand out as a foreground event.
 Imperfective Aspect (Background): The imperfective aspect describes actions that are
ongoing, habitual, or unfinished in the past. English doesn't have a single grammatical
marker for imperfective aspect, but it can be conveyed through verb phrases (e.g., was
walking, used to walk) or context. These imperfective constructions often depict
background events or setting.

Your Example:
In your example, the English translation uses the simple past tense for the police patrol,
indicating a specific completed action. This puts the patrol in the foreground, making it seem like
a significant event.

The original text, by using the imperfective aspect, might portray the police patrol as a more
routine or ongoing occurrence, placing it less prominently in the background.

Ground and Figure: A Different Perspective

 The original uses the imperfective aspect to establish Traugutt's overall

scanning of the platform as the ground (background).
 The figure (foreground) is his specific observations triggered by that
scan (e.g., noticing the patrol).
 The English translation uses simple past tense throughout, creating a
sequence of events without this distinction in focus.

Subjectification: Seeing Through Traugutt's Eyes

 Langacker's concept of subjectification refers to how narrative creates a

subjective experience for the reader.
 The original text avoids directly describing Traugutt, but the scene
unfolds as he observes it.
 This is similar to Velazquez's "Las Meninas" where the viewer sees the
scene through a character's perspective.

Traugutt's Concealment and the Power of Choice

 The Polish original uses "bez pośpiechu" (without hurry) to describe

Traugutt's descent, potentially reflecting his effort to appear
inconspicuous.
 The English "leisurely" might imply an internal state rather than a direct
observation, missing the potential tension of Traugutt's concealment.

Key Points:

 This passage highlights how the original Polish text uses various
techniques to create a scene filtered through Trauggett's subjective
experience.
 By analyzing these choices, we gain a deeper appreciation for the
author's skill in crafting a scene rich in character perspective.
The English translation uses simple past tense for the
police patrol, making it a foregrounded element unlike the
original where it's backgrounded by the imperfective
aspect. what is imperfective aspect?
The imperfective aspect is a grammatical feature used in some languages to
describe actions that are ongoing, habitual, or repetitive. Unlike the perfective
aspect, which focuses on the completion of an action, the imperfective aspect
emphasizes the duration or the unfolding of the action itself.

Here's a breakdown to help you understand it better:

 Perfective aspect: Focuses on the completion of the action. It tells you

when the action started and finished (e.g., "I ate the sandwich").
 Imperfective aspect: Focuses on the duration or the unfolding of the
action. It tells you that the action was happening, is happening, or will
happen in general, without specifying the exact start or end (e.g., "I was
eating a sandwich" or "I usually eat a sandwich for lunch").

does the simple past tense only indicate to Perfective aspect?

The simple past tense in English doesn't necessarily indicate only the perfective aspect. It's a bit
more nuanced than that. Here's a breakdown:

 Simple Past Tense: This tense refers to actions completed at a specific point in the past.
It emphasizes the completion of the action itself.
 Perfective Aspect: The perfective aspect focuses on actions that are viewed as complete
at a specific point in time. It doesn't necessarily require the simple past tense.

The Nuance:

 Overlap: The simple past tense often does coincide with the perfective aspect because
completed actions typically happen at specific points in the past. (e.g., "I ate dinner
yesterday" - simple past tense indicates a completed action (eating) at a specific time
(yesterday) which aligns with the perfective aspect).
 Simple Past and Imperfective Aspect: However, the simple past tense can also be used
with the imperfective aspect in some situations. Here are a couple of examples:
o Habitual Actions: When describing repeated actions in the past, the simple past
tense can be used with an implied imperfective aspect. (e.g., "I walked to school
every day" - simple past tense, but describes a repeated action, imperfective
aspect).
 o Background Events: Sometimes, the simple past tense sets the stage for a story
and describes background events that were ongoing but not the main focus. (e.g.,
"The train arrived as the sun was setting" - simple past tense for both arrival and
setting, but the focus might be on the train arrival, with the sunset as background,
which is imperfective).

Key Point:

While the simple past tense often aligns with the perfective aspect, it's not the only indicator. The
context and surrounding information can help determine whether the simple past tense is
conveying a completed action at a specific point (perfective) or an ongoing or habitual action
(imperfective) in the past.

what tenses refer to Perfective aspect?

In English, unlike some other languages, there isn't a single perfect tense that directly
corresponds to the perfective aspect. However, several verb tenses can be used to convey the
perfective aspect depending on the context. Here's a breakdown:

 Simple Past Tense: As discussed earlier, the simple past tense (e.g., walked, talked)
often aligns with the perfective aspect when it describes a completed action at a specific
point in the past. ("I ate dinner yesterday" - action completed at a specific time)
 Present Perfect Tense: This tense (has walked, has talked) emphasizes the completion
of an action before the present moment, regardless of the specific timing. ("I have eaten
dinner" - completed action sometime before now)
 Past Perfect Tense: This tense (had walked, had talked) focuses on an action that was
completed before another past action. ("I had eaten dinner before they arrived" -
emphasizes dinner being finished before their arrival)
 Future Perfect Tense: This less common tense (will have walked, will have talked)
indicates an action that will be completed before a future time. ("I will have eaten dinner
by the time you come home" - dinner will be finished before their arrival)

Choosing the Right Tense:

The choice of tense depends on the specific situation and the speaker's intent:

 Simple Past: For a single completed action in the past at a specific time.
 Present Perfect: To emphasize completion of an action relevant to the present.
 Past Perfect: To show completion of an action before another past event.
 Future Perfect: To indicate completion before a future time.

Additional Notes:

 Context is Key: The surrounding information plays a crucial role in interpreting the
aspect of a verb tense.
  Other Verb Phrases: English can also use verb phrases with auxiliary verbs like "get" or
"be" to convey perfectivity. (e.g., "I got the job done" or "The work was finished")

While English doesn't have a dedicated perfective tense, these various verb tenses and
constructions allow us to express the completion of actions with different nuances depending on
the context.

is passive Perfective aspect?

No, the passive voice itself doesn't indicate perfectivity (completion of an action). Perfective
aspect and passive voice are two separate grammatical concepts that can be combined in a
sentence, but they don't inherently depend on each other.

Here's a breakdown:

 Passive Voice: This voice construction focuses on the recipient of the action (the object)
rather than the doer (the subject). It changes the sentence structure (e.g., "The house was
built" instead of "They built the house").
 Perfective Aspect: This aspect emphasizes the completion of an action at a specific point
in time or before another point in time. It's not directly tied to tense, but various tenses
can convey perfectivity (e.g., simple past tense, present perfect tense).

Examples:

 Passive Voice, Imperfective Aspect: "The house was being built" (passive voice, but the
action of building is ongoing, imperfective).
 Active Voice, Perfective Aspect: "They finished the painting" (active voice, but the
action of painting is complete, perfective, using the simple past tense).
 Passive Voice, Perfective Aspect: "The report has been submitted" (passive voice, and
the action of submitting is complete at a point before the present, perfective aspect, using
present perfect tense).

Combining Passive and Perfective:

You can definitely combine the passive voice with tenses that convey perfectivity, like the
present perfect or past perfect tense. This can be helpful to emphasize the completion of an
action and to keep the recipient of the action in focus.

Key Point:

Passive voice focuses on who or what receives the action, while the perfective aspect focuses on
the completion of the action itself. They can be used independently or together depending on
what you want to emphasize in your sentence.


In the passage you quoted, the original Polish text uses the imperfective
aspect to describe Traugutt's observation of the scene. This makes the
observation the background element, while the specific details he notices (like
the police patrol) become the foreground. The English translation, by using
the simple past tense for everything, loses this distinction and makes the
entire sequence of events seem equally important.

Traugutt's Arrival: Conclusion and the Power of the

Translator
This passage wraps up the analysis of Traugutt's arrival scene, highlighting how the
translator's choices affect the reader's experience.

Traugutt and the Police Patrol: A Gaze in Two Directions

 The original Polish uses "widzieć" (to see) for the police patrol, placing them
within Traugutt's visual field.
 Traugutt, aware of their gaze, wants to keep them in his own field of vision.
 The English "they already saw Traugutt" (past perfect) introduces the information
from the narrator's perspective, altering the focus.

Lost in Translation: Tense Choices and Perception

 The English uses past perfect ("had seen") and simple past ("was busy")
suggesting Traugutt reacted to seeing the patrol by checking his watch.
 The original Polish has Traugutt simply "seeing" the patrol while simultaneously
checking his watch.
 This act of checking the watch becomes a performance for the potential threat, a
way to appear nonchalant.
 The difference in tense choices disrupts the original "Las Meninas effect" where
the scene unfolds through Traugutt's eyes.

The Translator's Role and the Power of Perspective

 The translator creates a scene with the same elements but from a different
perspective, the narrator's.
 This shift alters how the reader interprets the scene and the character's actions.
 The passage acknowledges the limitations of linguistics and the need for literary
criticism to analyze the broader impact.

Key Points:

 This passage emphasizes the significant role of the translator in shaping the
reader's experience.
  By analyzing the choices made, we gain a deeper appreciation for the
complexities of translating perspective in narrative text.

Diminutives: Beyond Small Size

This passage dives into the concept of diminutives in language, using Polish and
English as examples. Here are the key points:

 Diminutives: Suffixes added to words to indicate a smaller size or something

related to smallness.
 More Than Just Size: Diminutives can also convey emotions, value
judgments, and other abstract concepts.
o Positive connotation: Smallness associated with affection ("small is
beautiful").
o Negative connotation: Smallness associated with worthlessness ("small
is cheap").
 Radial Category: "Small size" is the central meaning, and other meanings
radiate outward based on metaphor.
 Polish vs. English: Polish has a richer system of diminutive suffixes, while
English has fewer.
o This can cause translation problems between Polish and English.

The passage then focuses on examples from the original Polish text of Konwicki's novel:

 Diminutives for Smaller Objects: Certain diminutives refer to objects inherently

smaller than their non-diminutive counterparts.
o "zegarek" (watch) vs. "zegar" (clock)
o "lusterko" (small mirror) vs. "lustro" (mirror)
 Basic Level Terms: These diminutives and their non-diminutives function as
established vocabulary terms for objects of everyday use.

This excerpt lays the groundwork for further analysis of how diminutives are used in the
text and the challenges of translating them effectively.

Beyond Literal Size: Diminutives for Scale

 The passage introduces the concept of diminutives being used for scale, not just
physical size.
 These diminutives are used for objects or concepts typically considered large.
 This creates a subjective and ironic effect, emphasizing the speaker's
perspective.

Example: Earth in the Solar System

 The original Polish text (3.6.P) uses diminutives for "Earth" ("malutki") and "walks
in space" ("króciutkie spacerki").
  This creates a sense of Earth and humanity's achievements being insignificant
compared to the vast cosmos.
 The English translation (3.6.E) uses neutral terms ("little" and "short
walks"), losing the ironic effect.

Scale Manipulation and Irony

 The original text uses diminutives to manipulate the scale of the

scene, contributing to the irony.
 The English translation, lacking the diminutives, fails to convey the author's
intended meaning.

Objectification: Seeing the World from Afar

 Langacker's concept of objectification suggests the author creates distance by

adopting an external observer's perspective.
 This perspective allows the author to see things typically perceived as large as
being very small.

Key Points:

 This passage highlights the challenge of translating diminutives when they are
used for subjective or ironic purposes.
 By analyzing the example, we appreciate how the original text uses diminutives
to create a specific perspective on humanity's place in the universe.

In linguistics, diminutives are words formed from a root word to convey a smaller or less
significant version of the original meaning. They typically involve adding suffixes like "-let," "-
ette," "-kin," or "-y" to the root word. Here's a breakdown of diminutives:

 Function: They are used to indicate:

o Smallness: This is the most common use, indicating a physically smaller version
of something (e.g., "dog" becomes "doggie" or "table" becomes "tabletop").
o Affection: Diminutives can express endearment or tenderness (e.g., "mommy" or
"honey").
o Informality: They can create a more casual or informal tone (e.g., "party"
becomes "partytime").
o Scale: As the passage mentions, diminutives can be used for irony or to
emphasize the speaker's perspective, even for things not typically small (more on
this below).
 Examples:
o Size: booklet, booklet, birdie, kitty
o Affection: mommy, sweety, sis, grandpa
o Informality: movie buff (buff from aficionado), chatty (chat from conversation)
 Importance of Context: The specific meaning conveyed by a diminutive depends on the
context and the speaker's intent.
The passage highlights an interesting use of diminutives: applying them to concepts or objects
that are typically large or grand. This creates a subjective and ironic effect. Here are some
examples:

 Referring to a vast mountain range as "the little hills"

 Calling a powerful corporation a "tiny company" (notice the use of "tiny" which is
another diminutive form)

By using diminutives for large things, the speaker downplays their size or significance. This can
be a humorous or critical device, emphasizing the speaker's perspective and potentially
challenging the way something is normally perceived.

Lost in Irony: The Deceitful Charm of Diminutives

(Continued)
This passage delves into the irony created by diminutives in the Polish text and the
challenges of capturing it in translation.

A Mountain of Negativity: The Power of "Niziutka"

 The original Polish text (3.7.P) uses "niziutka lewitacja" (very low levitation) to
describe a negative experience.
 Even though "levitation" has positive connotations, "niziutka" makes it part of a
series of negative things.
 This "low-level exaltation" emphasizes the speaker's subjective judgment and
dissatisfaction.

Lost in Translation: "Levitation" vs. "Exaltation"

 The English translation (3.7.E) uses "exaltation" instead of "levitation."

 "Exaltation" inherently implies a positive connotation of being high up.
 This creates an apparent contradiction with "low-level" and loses the original
irony based on contrasting heights.

Seeing from a Distance: The Key to Irony

 Both examples (3.6) and (3.7) use a metaphor of distance to create a sense of
detachment from the scene.
 In (3.6), the distance is spatial (Earth as tiny in the vast cosmos).
 In (3.7), the distance is temporal (looking back and judging past experiences).
 Irony often involves contrasting viewpoints, and seeing things from a distance
allows for this juxtaposition.
Diminutives and the Art of Irony

 The passage reiterates that the ability to manipulate scale is crucial for irony in
languages like Polish.
 Diminutives like "niziutka" effectively achieve this manipulation.

Key Points:

 This passage analyzes how the original Polish text uses diminutives to create
irony through subjective judgments and contrasting scales.
 By comparing the translation, we see how these nuances can be lost, making it
difficult to capture the full effect of the author's intended meaning.

The Deceitful Charm of Diminutives: A Boon for Irony,

a Challenge for Translation (Conclusion)
This passage wraps up the analysis of diminutives in the Polish text, focusing on their
role in expressing emotions and how translation can struggle to capture their nuances.

Irony and Manipulation: The Power of Diminutive Nuance

 The passage emphasizes the role of diminutives in creating irony.

o They can be used for "pseudo quotations," reflecting how a character
wants to be perceived (e.g., the "elegant lady" with her tiny glasses).
 The original text uses diminutives strategically to create specific emotional
effects, often contrasting with the literal meaning.
o "Niziutka lewitacja" (very low levitation) describes an unpleasant
experience.
o A character's "cienki plaszczyk" (thin coat-DIM) emphasizes their pitiful
state.

Lost in Translation: The Challenge of Emotional Nuance

 The analysis highlights several instances where the English translation loses the
emotional weight of the diminutives in the Polish text.
o "Exaltation" vs. "levitation" creates a contradiction where the original
intended irony.
o "Coat" vs. "coat-DIM" removes the emphasis on the character's poor
condition.

Diminutives and Emotional Reduction

 In some cases, diminutives are used to "reduce matters to proportions"

emotionally manageable for the speaker.
 o The beggar in (3.11) uses "za żeberka" (for ribs-DIM) to downplay the
seriousness of the situation.

Comfort and Coziness

 Diminutives can also convey a sense of comfort or coziness.

o The passage mentions an example (not provided) where a diminutive
suggests a comforting experience.

Conclusion

This analysis demonstrates the complexity of translating diminutives. They can carry a
range of emotional and ironic meanings that are not always easily captured in another
language. By understanding these nuances, translators can strive to better preserve the
author's intended meaning.

The Deceitful Charm of Diminutives: A Challenge for

Translation (Continued)
This passage focuses on the difficulties of translating diminutives used for emotional
closeness and solidarity, specific to Polish.

Lost in Translation: The Emotional Nuance of Diminutives

 The passage discusses how diminutives in Polish can convey a speaker's

emotional connection to the listener.
o Offering something with a diminutive (e.g., "papieroska" - little cigarette)
suggests friendliness and care.
 This is exemplified in passages (3.15.P) and (3.16.P) where characters use
diminutives to connect with others.
 The English translations ("cig" and "small tin box") lose this emotional nuance.

Diminutives in Drunkard's Jargon: A World of Their Own

 The passage introduces the concept of diminutives used in the language of

drunkards.
o These diminutives ("kieliszek" - small glass) use the "SMALL IS NICE"
extension but with a specific meaning.
 They create a sense of solidarity among the speakers, who share a certain
understanding.
 This is contrasted with augmentatives ("kielich" - large glass) used in the same
context, signifying "macho" qualities.

Challenges and Strategies in Translation

  The translator sometimes uses compensation strategies to capture the intended
meaning (e.g., "little pill" for "ampule").
 However, as the passage concludes, these attempts are not always successful.
 The core challenge lies in translating metaphorical extensions specific to
diminutives, which may not exist in the target language.

This passage dives into the complexities of translating the Polish particle "TO" within the
framework of Cognitive Linguistics (CL).

The Elusive "TO": A Problem Child for Grammar and Translation

 The particle "TO" (literally "this") in Polish is notoriously difficult to categorize and
translate.
 Unlike English, Polish has many discourse markers like "TO" that don't have
direct equivalents.
 This section will analyze how "TO" is used in the play "The Wedding" by Witold
Gombrowicz.

"TO" as a Character Trait: Mother's Idiolect

 The playwright uses "TO" excessively in the character Mother's speech.

 This use of "TO" becomes a defining feature of Mother's way of speaking
(idiolect).
 In CL terms, it's a "mental transfer" - the author creates a unique voice for the
character.

The Many Faces of "TO": Homonymy vs. Polysemy

 Traditionally, grammarians see "TO" as having multiple meanings based on

context (homonymy).
 CL proposes "TO" is polysemous, with various meanings related to a central
prototype.
 This suggests there's a unifying concept behind "TO" rather than separate
grammatical categories.

Beyond Grammar: "TO" as a Discourse Marker

 The analysis argues for treating "TO" as a "discourse marker" - a broader

category.
 This avoids the limitations of traditional grammar and focuses on its function in
communication.

Next Steps: Analyzing Translations and Equivalence

 The passage suggests applying the concept of "discourse marker" to analyze

translations of "TO."
  The following sections will likely explore how effectively translations capture the
meaning and function of "TO" in Gombrowicz's play.

The Elusive "TO": A Problem Child for Grammar and Translation

 The particle "TO" (literally "this") in Polish is notoriously difficult to

categorize and translate.
 Unlike English, Polish has many discourse markers like "TO" that don't
have direct equivalents.
 This section will analyze how "TO" is used in the play "The Wedding" by
Witold Gombrowicz.

"TO" as a Character Trait: Mother's Idiolect

 The playwright uses "TO" excessively in the character Mother's speech.

 This use of "TO" becomes a defining feature of Mother's way of
speaking (idiolect).
 In CL terms, it's a "mental transfer" - the author creates a unique voice
for the character.

The Many Faces of "TO": Homonymy vs. Polysemy

 Traditionally, grammarians see "TO" as having multiple meanings based

on context (homonymy).
 CL proposes "TO" is polysemous, with various meanings related to a
central prototype.
 This suggests there's a unifying concept behind "TO" rather than
separate grammatical categories.

Beyond Grammar: "TO" as a Discourse Marker

 The analysis argues for treating "TO" as a "discourse marker" - a

broader category.
 This avoids the limitations of traditional grammar and focuses on its
function in communication.

Next Steps: Analyzing Translations and Equivalence

 The passage suggests applying the concept of "discourse marker" to

analyze translations of "TO."
 The following sections will likely explore how effectively translations
capture the meaning and function of "TO" in Gombrowicz's play.
Homonymy:

 Two (or more) unrelated words that share the same form: These words have
completely different origins and meanings.
 Example:
o "Bat" (the flying mammal) and "bat" (a wooden club)
o "Bank" (the financial institution) and "bank" (the edge of a river)
 How to tell: There's no clear etymological (origin) connection between the meanings,
and they often belong to different grammatical categories (e.g., noun vs. verb).

Polysemy:

 One word with multiple related meanings: These meanings are all connected to a
single historical source, even if they have diverged over time.
 Example:
o "Head" (the top part of your body) and "head" (the leader of a group)
o "Fair" (light in color) and "fair" (just and impartial)
 How to tell: The meanings are usually related conceptually, and the word can often be
traced back to a single origin.

what is the Discourse Marker?

In linguistics, a discourse marker is a word or phrase that helps manage the
flow and structure of conversation or written text. They don't directly add
meaning to the content itself, but rather act like cues that guide the listener or
reader in understanding the intended message. Here are some key points
about discourse markers:

 Function: They signal relationships between ideas, indicate the

speaker's attitude, or organize the flow of information.
 Examples: English has many discourse markers, like "so," "because,"
"however," "well," "you know," and "actually."
 Role in Translation: Translating discourse markers can be tricky
because they don't have direct equivalents in other languages. The
translator needs to consider the overall function of the marker and find a
natural way to convey it in the target language.

This passage delves into the concept of deixis in language, specifically comparing
Polish and English.

From Gestures to Words: The Universality of Deixis

  The passage acknowledges that using language to point (deixis) likely originates
from physical gestures (e.g., pointing with a finger).
 This core function of deixis seems to be present across various languages
(e.g., "this" and "that" in English and Polish).
 When these core deictic words are used, translation between Polish and English
is relatively straightforward (example: "soup from horse gut" translates well).

Beyond the Basics: Where Things Get Interesting

 The passage suggests that complexities arise when dealing with less common
uses of deixis.
 The example mentions "metonymic extensions," where a part of something
represents the whole (e.g., saying "wheels" to refer to a car).

Deixis as Highlighting: Figures and Grounds

 The passage introduces the concept of deixis as a way to "outline figures against
grounds."
 Imagine a picture: deixis helps us focus on specific elements (figures) within the
broader context (ground).
 This metaphorical framework (figures and grounds) will likely be used further to
analyze more intricate examples of deixis in Polish and how they might pose
challenges in translation.

The Power of "TO": Highlighting the Salient in Polish

Discourse
This passage explores the particle "TO" in Polish and its role in highlighting specific
elements in communication (deixis).

Deixis: The Shortcut of Pointing with Words

 Deictic elements like "this" and "that" act as shortcuts, pointing to something in
the context without a full description.
 They are especially common in informal speech where context is readily
available.
 Some languages use word order or intonation for deixis, while Polish uses the
particle "TO".

"TO" as a Highlighter: Bringing Focus to the Figure

 In Polish, "TO" is used to emphasize a specific part of the sentence (the "figure")
in relation to the broader context (the "ground").
 This helps the speaker direct the listener's attention to what they consider most
important.
  The passage uses the example of Matka's comments in the play "The Wedding"
to illustrate this.

Challenges and Strategies in Translation

 Translating "TO" can be tricky because it doesn't have a direct equivalent in

English.
 The translations in (3.19.E) and (3.20.E) use different strategies:
o (3.19.E) instructs the listener to look ("Look at him slobber!")
o (3.20.E) captures the emotional emphasis using an inverted exclamation
("Heaven help us - what a pig!")
 In (3.21.E), the translator uses a similar strategy to convey surprise ("And did she
ever blush!").

Key Takeaways

 "TO" plays a significant role in Polish discourse by highlighting specific elements

within a sentence.
 Translating "TO" requires finding creative solutions to capture its emphasis and
point the listener's attention in the intended way.

The "container schema" is a fundamental mental structure that humans use to

understand the world. It's a basic building block of our perception and cognition. Here's
a breakdown of the concept:

Core Idea:

 It represents the distinction between "inside" and "outside."

 It evokes notions like:
o Interior (what's contained)
o Boundary (the dividing line)
o Exterior (what surrounds the container)

Importance:

 This schema is simple yet powerful because it's based on our early physical
experiences.
 We interact with containers throughout our lives (cups, boxes, rooms, etc.).
 This basic understanding of "in" and "out" becomes a foundation for more
complex concepts.

Applications:

 The container schema is often "mapped" onto other, more abstract ideas. This
creates metaphors.
Examples of Container Metaphors:

 Mind as a container: "She couldn't get the idea out of her head." (Mind holds
ideas)
 Emotions as containers: "He was filled with rage." (Rage is a substance filling
him)
 Time as a container: "We're running out of time." (Time is a limited space for
actions)
 Relationships as containers: "Our marriage is on the rocks." (Relationship is a
fragile container)

Understanding Container Schema in Literature:

 Analyzing metaphors based on the container schema can reveal deeper

meanings in texts.
 It can help us understand how authors use these metaphors to shape our
understanding of characters, themes, and emotions.

By recognizing the container schema, we gain a deeper understanding of how our basic
experiences shape our thinking and language. It's a powerful tool for analyzing
metaphors and unlocking hidden meanings in various contexts.

Cracking the Code of Dickinson's Poetry: Container

Metaphors and Translation Challenges
This passage delves into the concept of "container metaphors" in Emily Dickinson's
poetry and the challenges of translating them into Polish.

Container Schema: A Core Building Block

 The passage explains the "container schema" as a fundamental mental structure.

 It represents the distinction between "inside" and "outside."
 This schema is used to create metaphors where something abstract is contained
within something concrete.

Container Metaphors in Dickinson's Poetry

 The analysis highlights the centrality of container metaphors in Dickinson's work.

 These metaphors often revolve around "circumference" (enclosed space) and
"home" (inner world).
 Examples are provided:
o "Brain is the container for pain/thoughts/feelings/fears"
o "One need not be a Chamber—to be Haunted" (Brain as a haunted
house)
Challenges in Translation

 Translating these metaphors can be difficult because they are based on a shared
cultural understanding.
 The passage acknowledges Stanisław Barańczak's translations.
 It suggests potential issues:
o Balancing conceptual meaning with the poem's form.
o Missing the overall pattern of container metaphors.

Case Study: Analyzing a Translation

 The passage uses a specific example (poem stanza) to illustrate the challenge.
 Original (English): Pain expands time, contained within "a single Brain."
(Circumference as enclosure)
 Polish translation: Pain expands time, splits the narrow sphere of the
skull, swelling into an era. (Skull as container that explodes)
 The translation uses a more conventional and forceful metaphor (exploding
skull).
 This loses the original image of pain expanding time within the mind.

Impact on Interpretation

 The original metaphor emphasizes the inwardness of pain and its effect on
perception.
 The translated metaphor portrays pain as an outward force that cannot be
contained.
 This shift can alter the reader's understanding of the poem's meaning.

The Importance of Understanding Container Metaphors

 Analyzing container metaphors can help explain the "intuitive feeling of

inadequacy" in some translations.
 It highlights the importance of preserving the core concept behind the metaphor
during translation.

Looking Ahead

 The passage suggests that further analysis of Barańczak's translations is needed

to understand his choices.
 It emphasizes the value of cognitive linguistics in evaluating poetry translations.

Lost in Translation: The Challenge of Container

Metaphors in Dickinson's Poetry (Continued)
This passage continues the analysis of container metaphors in Emily Dickinson's poems
and how they are translated into Polish by Stanisław Barańczak.

Another Example: Lost Inclusiveness

 The original poem (3.27.E) uses a container metaphor for love.

o "Heart in harbor" (safe and contained)
o "You are a safe container for me" (feeling of being included)
 The Polish translation (3.27.P) captures the "safe harbor" metaphor but misses
the inclusivity.
o "Heart in harbor" (translated correctly)
o "To touch your shore" (focuses on physical closeness, not emotional
security)
 This shift changes the image from being "contained" in love to being near it.

Journey Metaphor and Distorted Distance

 The original poem (3.27.E) uses a "journey through Eden" metaphor.

 "Rowing in Eden" suggests a limited journey within the safe space of Eden.
 The Polish translation (3.27.P) alters this image.
 "Rowing through Eden and through the sea" implies a vast, open space, not a
contained journey.

Brain as a Container: Lost in Translation

 The original poem (3.29.E) uses the metaphor "Brain is a container for
experience."
 "Funeral in my brain" refers to an internal emotional experience.
 The Polish translation (3.29.P) doesn't fully capture this concept.
 It translates the literal meaning ("funeral") but misses the metaphorical container
aspect.

Overall Impact

 These examples show how translating container metaphors can be challenging.

 Literal translations can miss the deeper meaning and emotional impact.
 The "container" aspect helps understand the inwardness and limitations of the
experience.
 Losing this aspect changes the reader's interpretation of the poem.

Conclusion (to be continued)

This passage highlights the importance of understanding container metaphors for

accurate translation of Dickinson's poetry. It emphasizes the need to go beyond literal
meaning and capture the core concept behind the metaphor.