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Microgrids
This page intentionally left blank
Microgrids
Modeling, Control, and
Applications

Edited by

JOSEP M. GUERRERO
Center for Research on Microgrids (CROM),
Aalborg University, Aalborg East, Denmark

RITU KANDARI
Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University
for Women, Delhi, India
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Publisher: Joe Hayton

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Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
 In the honor of
My father Late Mr. Matwar Singh Kandari

I cannot find words to express my gratitude to my late father who always

supported me unconditionally and made me an independent and deter-
mined person. He always pushed me to be more than what I think I'm
capable of doing!

I would also like to dedicate this to my beloved mother, Mrs. Trilochana

Devi, my siblings, Mrs. Manju, Mrs. Meenu, and Mr. Deepak Kandari, my
nephew and niece, Adit and Adhya without whom I would never be able
to achieve my objectives and succeed in life.

I am also thankful to my grandfather, Mr. Bhawan Singh Kandari, R/O

Paithani, Uttarakand for always being so supportive and understanding my
thought process.

I am grateful to my coeditor, Prof. Josep M. Guerrero and all the contri-

butors for working so hard with me for the timely completion of this
book.

Last, but not the least, I would like to express my gratitude to the pub-
lisher, Elsevier, Aleksandra Packowska, Prasanna Kalyanaraman, Greg Harris,
Lisa Reading, Joe Hayton and team for their continuous support, feedback,
and suggestions throughout this process and publishing this book with
Elsevier.

Ritu Kandari
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

List of contributors xiii

Section I Introduction to microgrids

1. Microgrids, their types, and applications 3
Ayush Mittal, Aryan Rajput, Kamya Johar and Ritu Kandari
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Microgrid classification 4
1.3 Structure 6
1.4 Modes of operation 8
1.5 Control of AC microgrid 9
1.5.1 Hierarchical control schemes 10
1.6 Control of DC microgrid 12
1.6.1 Control structures 13
1.7 Control of hybrid (AC/DC) microgrid 16
1.8 Microgrid research areas 17
1.9 Solar 20
1.9.1 Independent (or stand-alone) PV system 21
1.9.2 Grid-connected PV system 21
1.9.3 PV modeling 22
1.10 Maximum power point tracking 24
1.10.1 P&O method 24
1.11 Wind turbine system 25
1.12 Battery 26
1.12.1 Lithium-ion battery 26
1.12.2 Lead
acid battery 27
1.12.3 Battery modeling 27
1.12.4 Sizing batteries correctly 28
1.13 Fuel cell 29
1.14 Advantages and applications of microgrid 32
1.15 Conclusion 34
References 34

vii
viii Contents

Section II AC microgrids
2. Disturbance observer
aided adaptive sliding mode controller for
frequency regulation in hybrid power system 43
Vivek Patel, Dipayan Guha and Shubhi Purwar
2.1 Introduction 43
2.2 System modeling 46
2.2.1 Model of reheated thermal power system 47
2.2.2 Distributed energy resources 48
2.3 Disturbance observer
aided adaptive sliding mode load frequency
controller 51
2.3.1 Traditional sliding mode load frequency controller (SMLFC) 51
2.3.2 Adaptive sliding mode LFC with disturbance observer 52
2.4 Results and discussion 55
2.4.1 Performance analysis of isolated HPS against multiple load
perturbation 55
2.4.2 Performance analysis of isolated HPS with multiple-step loads and
random wind power perturbation 57
2.4.3 Performance analysis of isolated HPS with GRC and GDB 57
2.4.4 Performance analysis of interconnected two-area HPS with
multiple-step load and RWPP 58
2.4.5 Performance analysis of two-area HPS with GRC and GDB 61
2.4.6 Robust stability analysis 62
2.5 Conclusion 63
References 63

3. Recent advancements in AC microgrids: a new smart approach

to AC microgrid monitoring and control using IoT 67
P. Madhumathy and Shweta Babu Prasad
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Problem statement 73
3.3 Literature survey 74
3.4 Block diagram 77
3.5 Methodology 79
3.6 Details of hardware and software used 79
3.6.1 LCD display (JDH162A): a 16 3 2 LCD is a display unit used in
different activities 79
3.7 Details about the web portal: ThingSpeak 80
3.8 Algorithm 81
3.9 Software development flowchart 81
 Contents ix

3.10 Results and discussions 82

3.10.1 Hardware section of the model 82
3.11 Graphical analysis 83
3.12 Conclusion and future scope 85
References 86
Further reading 87

Section III DC microgrids

4. DC microgrid 91
Ritu Kandari, Neeraj and Ayush Mittal
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 DC microgrid 92
4.3 Mode of operation 96
4.4 Advantages of DC microgrid 101
4.5 Standards 101
4.6 DC microgrid architecture 102
4.6.1 Photovoltaics cell/solar 106
4.6.2 DC
DC converters 110
4.7 Principle of chopper 111
4.8 Boost converter 111
4.9 Case-I (switch S is ON) 111
4.10 Case-II (switch S is OFF) 112
4.11 Buck-boost converter 112
4.12 Case-I (switch S is ON) 113
4.13 Case-II (switch S is OFF) 113
4.13.1 Maximum power point tracking controller 114
4.13.2 Storage device—battery 118
4.14 Working principle 118
4.15 Discharging mechanism 119
4.16 Charging mechanism 119
4.17 State of charge and state of health 121
4.18 Types of batteries 121
4.18.1 Modeling 124
4.19 Types of modeling methods 127
4.20 Equivalent circuit model 128
4.21 Data-driven model 130
4.22 Case study 131
4.23 Conclusion 134
References 134
x Contents

5. Role of dual active bridge isolated bidirectional DC-DC

converter in a DC microgrid 141
Anupam Kumar and Abdul Hamid Bhat

5.1 Introduction 141

5.2 Microgrid 142
5.3 Dual-active bridge converter 143
5.3.1 DAB parameter design 146
5.4 Fuzzy logic controller 148
5.5 Performance evaluation 149
5.5.1 Single-phase shift technique 149
5.5.2 Forward conduction mode 151
5.5.3 Reverse conduction mode 151
5.6 Experimental verification 153
5.7 Conclusion 154
References 155

Section IV Hybrid AC/DC microgrids

6. Introduction to hybrid AC/DC microgrids 159
Shivani Mishra and R.K. Viral
6.1 Introduction 159
6.1.1 Hybrid micro-grid 160
6.1.2 The topographies of hybrid micro-grid 162
6.1.3 Need of hybrid micro-grid 162
6.1.4 Comparison between conventional grid and hybrid micro-grid 162
6.2 Architecture of hybrid micro-grid 163
6.3 Architecture of AC-coupled hybrid micro-grid 164
6.4 Architecture of DC-coupled hybrid micro-grid 165
6.5 Architecture of AC-DC coupled hybrid micro-grid 166
6.6 Modeling of hybrid micro-grid components 167
6.6.1 PV system model 167
6.6.2 Wind energy system model 168
6.6.3 Biomass energy model 169
6.6.4 Small-hydro system model 169
6.6.5 Battery model 170
6.6.6 Fuel cell model 171
6.7 Power quality issues in hybrid micro-grid 172
6.8 Control strategies and energy management system for hybrid micro-grid 172
 Contents xi

6.8.1 AC-coupled hybrid micro-grid 172

6.8.2 DC-coupled hybrid micro-grid 173
6.8.3 AC-DC coupled hybrid micro-grid 174
6.8.4 Transition between grid-connected and standalone operation
mode for energy management 175
6.9 Modeling of hybrid micro-grid 176
6.9.1 Modeling of PV and wind hybrid micro-grid 176
6.9.2 Modeling of PV, wind and biomass hybrid micro-grid 177
6.9.3 Modeling of PV, wind, biomass and small hydro hybrid micro-grid 177
6.10 Mathematical modeling of hybrid micro-grid 178
6.10.1 Modeling of AC micro-grid 178
6.10.2 Modeling of DC micro-grid 179
6.11 Coordination control of the converters 179
6.11.1 Isolated mode 179
6.12 Grid-connected mode 180
6.13 Economic potential and their benefits for hybrid micro-grid 181
6.13.1 Credit risk 183
6.13.2 Commercial risk 183
6.13.3 Returns 184
6.14 Case study regarding hybrid micro-grid 184
6.15 Conclusion 186
References 187

7. Control of hybrid AC/DC microgrids 191

P. Shambhu Prasad, Alivelu M. Parimi and L. Renuka
7.1 Introduction 191
7.1.1 Microgrid stability 194
7.1.2 Frequency stability 195
7.2 Literature review 196
7.3 Theoretical approach—different control techniques 198
7.3.1 Structures of robust controllers 199
7.3.2 General mixed sensitivity problem 202
7.3.3 H Infinity control problem 205
7.3.4 Structured singular value- μ control theory 206
7.4 Methodology 209
7.5 Results and discussion—case studies 212
7.5.1 H infinity controller frequency response 212
7.5.2 Mu synthesis controller frequency response 214
7.5.3 μ synthesis controller with parametric variations 215
7.5.4 Order reduction of the controller 216
xii Contents

7.5.5 Case studies—comparison of control techniques 216

7.6 Conclusion 220
7.7 Summary 220
References 223

8. Recent advancements in hybrid AC/DC microgrids 227

P. Shambhu Prasad and Alivelu M. Parimi
8.1 Introduction 228
8.2 Challenges in hybrid AC/DC microgrid and possible solutions 231
8.2.1 Operational aspects 231
8.2.2 Compatibility issues 232
8.2.3 Uncertainty, and perturbations in the renewable sources of energy 232
8.2.4 Protection 233
8.2.5 Reliability 234
8.3 Advances in hybrid microgrids 234
8.3.1 System modeling 235
8.3.2 K-nearest neighbors 236
8.3.3 Control law formulation 236
8.4 Case study 238
8.4.1 Preparation of data set 238
8.4.2 Data labeling 238
8.4.3 Data division for training and testing 240
8.4.4 Training the model 240
8.4.5 Training accuracy 240
8.4.6 Testing accuracy 240
8.4.7 Making predictions 241
8.4.8 Evaluating testing accuracy 241
8.4.9 Evaluating training accuracy 242
8.4.10 Plotting 242
8.4.11 Using logistic regression 242
8.5 Conclusion 243
References 244

Index 247
List of contributors

Abdul Hamid Bhat

National Institute of Technology, India
Dipayan Guha
Electrical Engineering Department, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
Allahabad, India
Kamya Johar
IEEE Member, India
Ritu Kandari
Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, India
Anupam Kumar
Modern Institute of Technology and Research Centre, India
P. Madhumathy
Dayananda Sagar Academy of Technology and Management, India
Shivani Mishra
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and
Technology, Amity University, India
Ayush Mittal
Open Systems International, Inc., India
Neeraj
Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, India
Alivelu M. Parimi
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus,
India
Vivek Patel
Electrical Engineering Department, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
Allahabad, India
P. Shambhu Prasad
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus,
India
Shweta Babu Prasad
Dayananda Sagar Academy of Technology and Management, India
Shubhi Purwar
Electrical Engineering Department, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
Allahabad, India
Aryan Rajput
HMR Institute of Technology and Management, India

xiii
xiv List of contributors

L. Renuka
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus,
India
R.K. Viral
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and
Technology, Amity University, India
SECTION I

Introduction to
microgrids
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 1

Microgrids, their types, and

applications
Ayush
1
Mittal1, Aryan Rajput2, Kamya Johar3 and Ritu Kandari4
Open Systems International, Inc., India
2
HMR Institute of Technology and Management, India
3
IEEE Member, India
4
Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, India

1.1 Introduction
With an exponential rise in the demand of electrical energy, a huge
change in the utilization of energy is observed. To fulfill the growth and
cutoff the dependency on fossil fuels and aged power transportation net-
works, numerous renewable energy resources, including and not limited
to—solar photovoltaics (PV), wind energy, and fuel cells (FCs) are
explored along with the evolution of various techniques, including—geo-
graphically distributed (and interfaced) energy resources, power electronic
converter(s) (PECs), and energy storage systems (ESSs). The proficiency in
the researched techniques paved the path for the operation of a new
entity which came to be known as microgrid.
Several engineers and researchers along with institutions have prof-
fered varied definitions for the term “microgrid.” For example, the defi-
nition accepted by the International Electro-Technical Commission as
proposed by Advance Grid Research at US Department of Energy for
the microgrid is, “A microgrid is a group of interconnected loads and
distributed energy resources within clearly defined electrical boundaries
that acts as a single controllable entity with respect to the grid. It can
connect and disconnect from the grid to enable it to operate in grid-
connected or island-mode.” Nejabatkhah, Li, and Tian (2019), Olivares
et al. (2014), Parhizi, Lotfi, Khodaei, and Bahramirad (2015) define
microgrid as, “the concept of roaming DERs and various loads in the
existing power system, such as solar-PV, wind turbines, micro-turbines,
and storage devices which can be operated either in grid-connected
mode or in stand-alone mode.”

Microgrids © 2022 Elsevier Inc.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85463-4.00008-3 All rights reserved. 3
4 Microgrids

Generally, microgrid is the composition of distributed generation

(DG), loads, ESS, PECs, and control devices; but the basis of microgrid is
distributed resource (DR) that is the summation of DGs and ESS, that is,
DR 5 DG 1 ESS. DGs refer to small-scale power system that may be
independent of the large electrical grid and are primarily located on the
consumer side to meet their demands, whereas ESS stores energy in bat-
teries, flywheel, regenerative FC, and other devices. The DG and DR
technologies are subset of distributed energy resources (DER) that is
defined as the generation or production of electricity or heat on the load
(or demand) end for local application (Gupta, Kandari, & Kumar, 2021).

1.2 Microgrid classification

The base for the classification of microgrids can be broadly divided into
two categories—system topology and market segments (or, utility areas).
System topology (or, architecture) can classify microgrids in three
subsets—(1) DC microgrid, (2) AC microgrid, and (3) hybrid AC/DC
microgrid, whereas the area of application can classify the same into five
broad categories—(1) utility, (2) commercial/industrial, (3) institutional,
(4) transportation, and (5) remote-area microgrid(s). The same is depicted
in the next flowchart (Fig. 1.1) (Mohammed, Refaat, Bayhan, & Abu-
Rub, 2019).

Figure 1.1 Classification of microgrid.

 Microgrids, their types, and applications 5

1. DC microgrid
Owing to the advancements in technology and PECs, DC microgrid
has emerged as a modern marvel in the power system. The flexibility
due to its capability of natural interfacing with DC-based DG, renew-
able energy source (RES), loads, and ESS along with the efficiency due
to minimal power conversion has created an opportunity for the DC
microgrids. Moreover, an increased research in the fields such as RES
and DC microgrid has showed the pros of the same that helps in bring-
ing the technology one step closer to real-time application.
Fig. 1.2 shows the basic architecture of the DC microgrid (Che,
Shahidehpour, Alabdulwahab, & Al-Turki, 2015; Ferreira, Barbosa,
Braga, & Ferreira, 2013; Lonkar & Ponnaluri, 2015).
2. AC microgrid
This is the commonly applied conventional type of microgrid. Several
types of DERs such as PV, wind turbines, and FCs are connected and
merged into the large power network or existing utility grids. Due to
laid down network, AC microgrid requires minimum modification and it
brings out minimal alteration to the topology. This system is commonly
merged with low and medium voltage levels due to its capability to
inflate the distribution network with reduced transmission losses.
Though the interconnection of microgrid with conventional archi-
tecture is beneficial, it brings in additional cons, such as system stabil-
ity, power quality, reactive power deficiency, and DERs
synchronization.

Figure 1.2 Schematic of DC microgrid architecture.

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