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7 POLITICAL PARTIES 144
8–2 Why People Vote as They Do 172
8–2a
8–2b
Party Identification 172
Perception of the Candidates 172
Introduction 146
8–2c Policy Choices 173
7–1 A Short History of American Political Parties 146 8–2d Socioeconomic Factors 173
7–1a The First Political Parties 146 8–2e Ideology 177
7–1b From 1796 to 1860 147
8–3 Public Opinion Polls 177
7–1c From the Civil War to the Great Depression 149
8–3a Early Polling Efforts 177
7–1d After the Great Depression 149
8–3b How Polling Has Developed 179
7–2 America’s Political Parties Today 150 8–3c Problems with Opinion Polls 180
7–2a Red States versus Blue States 150
8–4 Voting and Voter Turnout 183
7–2b Shifting Political Fortunes 151
8–4a Factors Affecting Voter Turnout 184
7–2c Realignment, Dealignment, and Tipping 153
8–4b The Legal Right to Vote 184
7–3 What Do Political Parties Do? 154 8–4c Attempts to Improve Voter Turnout 187
7–3a Selecting Candidates and Running 8–4d Laws That May Discourage Voting 187
Campaigns 154
8–4e Attempts to Improve Voting Procedures 188
7–3b Informing the Public 155
8–4f Who Actually Votes 189
7–3c Coordinating Policymaking 155
AMERICA AT ODDS: How Important Is It to Target
7–3d Checking the Power of the Governing Independents? 169
Party 156
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Anti-Immigration Politics
7–3e Balancing Competing Interests 156 in Europe 178
7–4 How American Political Parties Are Structured 156 PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Do Politicians Always
7–4a The Party in the Electorate 157 Follow the Polls? 182
7–4b The Party Organization 158 2016 ELECTION 184
7–4c The Party in Government: Developing JOIN THE DEBATE: Should Felons Be Allowed to
Issues 160 Vote? 188
7–5 The Dominance of Our Two-Party System 161 AMERICA AT ODDS: Public Opinion and Voting 190
9
7–5a The Self-Perpetuation of the Two-Party
System 161
7–5b Third Parties in American Politics 162
CAMPAIGNS AND ELECTIONS 192
7–5c The Effects of Third Parties 164 Introduction 194
AMERICA AT ODDS: How Should the Republicans 9–1 How We Elect Candidates 194
Respond to Trump Voters? 145
9–1a Conducting Elections and Counting the
2016 ELECTION 153 Votes 194
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Demography Favors 9–1b Presidential Elections and the Electoral
the Democrats 155 College 194
JOIN THE DEBATE: Are Nonpartisan Elections a
Good Idea? 163 9–2 How We Nominate Candidates 195
AMERICA AT ODDS: Political Parties 165 9–2a Party Control over Nominations 196
9–2b A New Method: The Nominating
8
Convention 196
9–2c Primary Elections and the Loss of Party
PUBLIC OPINION AND VOTING 168 Control 196
Introduction 170 9–2d Nominating Presidential Candidates 199
8–1 How Do People Form Political Opinions? 170 9–3 The Modern Political Campaign 203
8–1a The Importance of Family 170 9–3a Responsibilities of the Campaign Staff 203
8–1b Schools and Churches 170 9–3b The Professional Campaign Organization 203
8–1c The Media 171 9–3c Opposition Research 203
8–1d Opinion Leaders 171 9–4 The Internet Campaign 204
8–1e Major Life Events 171 9–4a Fund-Raising on the Internet 205
8–1f Peer Groups 172 9–4b Targeting Supporters 206
8–1g Economic Status and Occupation 172 9–4c Support for Local Organizing 206
Contents vii
9–5 What It Costs to Win 207
9–5a
9–5b
Presidential Spending 207
The Federal Election Campaign Act 207 Part IV
9–5c
9–5d
Skirting the Campaign-Financing Rules 208
The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 209
INSTITUTIONS 236
9–5e The Current Campaign-Finance
Environment 210
AMERICA AT ODDS: Does Money Really Buy
Elections? 193
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Is the Word Socialism
Still Poison in U.S. Political Campaigns? 202
Orhan Cam/Shutterstock.com
2016 ELECTION 205
JOIN THE DEBATE: Should We Let Political Contributors
Conceal Their Identities? 212
AMERICA AT ODDS: Campaigns and Elections 213
10 POLITICS AND THE MEDIA 216
11
Introduction 218
10–1 The Role of the Media in a Democracy 218 THE CONGRESS 236
10–1a Media Characteristics 218
10–1b The New Media and the Old 218 Introduction 238
10–1c The Media and the First Amendment 219 11–1 The Structure and Makeup of Congress 238
10–1d The Agenda-Setting Function of the Media 220 11–1a Apportionment of House Seats 238
10–1e The Medium Does Affect the Message 221 11–1b Congressional Districts 238
10–1f Ownership of the Media 222 11–1c The Representation Function of Congress 242
10–2 The Candidates and Television 223 11–2 Congressional Elections 243
10–2a Political Advertising 223 11–2a Who Can Be a Member of Congress? 244
10–2b Television Debates 224 11–2b The Power of Incumbency 244
10–2c News Coverage 225 11–2c Congressional Terms 245
10–2d “Popular” Television 225 11–3 Congressional Leadership, the Committee System,
10–3 Talk Radio—The Wild West of the Media 226 and Bicameralism 246
10–3a Audiences and Hosts 226 11–3a House Leadership 246
10–3b The Impact of Talk Radio 227 11–3b Senate Leadership 248
10–4 The Question of Media Bias 227 11–3c Congressional Committees 248
10–4a Partisan Bias 228 11–3d The Differences between the House and the
Senate 250
10–4b The Bias against Losers 229
11–4 The Legislative Process 251
10–4c A Changing News Culture 229
10–5 Political News and Campaigns on the Web 230 11–5 Investigation and Oversight 254
10–5a News Organizations Online 230 11–5a The Investigative Function 254
10–5b Blogs and the Emergence of Citizen 11–5b Impeachment Power 255
Journalism 230 11–5c Senate Confirmation 255
10–5c Podcasting the News 231 11–6 The Budgeting Process 256
10–5d Cyberspace and Political Campaigns 231 11–6a Authorization and Appropriation 257
AMERICA AT ODDS: In a Digital World, Do We Still Need 11–6b The Actual Budgeting Process 257
Print Media? 217
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should It Take Sixty Senators to
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Who Controls the Pass Important Legislation? 237
Internet? 220
THE REST OF THE WORLD: The Size of Congress—
JOIN THE DEBATE: Could We Lose Our High-Speed How the United States Stacks Up 241
Internet? 232
JOIN THE DEBATE: Was Banning Pork-Barrel Spending
AMERICA AT ODDS: Politics and the Media 234 a Mistake? 243
viii Contents
2016 ELECTION 246 13–2d Independent Regulatory Agencies 296
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Congress 259 13–2e Government Corporations 296
12
13–3 How Bureaucrats Get Their Jobs 298
13–3a The Civil Service 298
THE PRESIDENCY 262 13–3b Origins of the Merit System 298
Introduction 264 13–3c The OPM Hacking Scandal 299
12–1 Who Can Become President? 264 13–4 Regulatory Agencies: Are They the Fourth Branch
12–1a Perks of the President 264 of Government? 300
12–1b Presidential Age and Occupation 265 13–4a Agency Creation 300
12–1c Race, Gender, and Religion 266 13–4b Rulemaking 301
12–2 The President’s Many Roles 266 13–4c Policymaking 301
12–2a Chief Executive 266 13–5 Curbing Waste and Improving Efficiency 303
12–2b Commander in Chief 267 13–5a Helping Out the Whistleblowers 303
12–2c Head of State 267 13–5b Improving Efficiency and Getting Results 304
12–2d Chief Diplomat 268 13–5c Another Approach—Pay-for-Performance
12–2e Chief Legislator 268 Plans 305
12–2f Political Party Leader 269 13–5d Privatization 305
13–5e Government in the Sunshine 305
12–3 Presidential Powers 269
13–5f Government Online 305
12–3a The President’s Constitutional Powers 269
AMERICA AT ODDS: Is Federal Regulation
12–3b The President’s Inherent Powers 271 Excessive? 289
12–3c The Expansion of Presidential Powers 272 JOIN THE DEBATE: Are Government Workers Paid
12–4 Congressional and Presidential Relations 278 Too Much? 299
12–4a Advantage: Congress 278 PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Must Apple Help the
FBI Hack a Terrorist’s iPhone? 307
12–4b Advantage: The President 279
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Bureaucracy 308
12–5 The Organization of the Executive Branch 280
12–5a The President’s Cabinet 280
12–5b The Executive Office of the President 281
12–5c The Vice Presidency and Presidential
14 THE JUDICIARY 310
Succession 283 Introduction 312
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should the New President Get 14–1 The Origins and Sources of American Law 312
Tough on the Middle East? 263 14–1a The Common Law Tradition 312
JOIN THE DEBATE: A Foreign-Born President? 265 14–1b Primary Sources of American Law 313
2016 ELECTION 268 14–1c Civil Law and Criminal Law 314
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Can the President 14–1d Basic Judicial Requirements 314
Really Fix the Economy? 275
14–2 The Federal Court System 316
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Presidency 285
14–2a U.S. District and Specialized Courts 316
13 THE BUREAUCRACY 288

14–2b U.S. Courts of Appeals 317
14–2c The United States Supreme Court 318
14–3 Federal Judicial Appointments 319
Introduction 290
14–3a The Nomination Process 320
13–1 The Nature and Size of the Bureaucracy 290
14–3b Confirmation or Rejection by the Senate 321
13–1a The Uses of Bureaucracy 290
13–1b The Growth of Bureaucracy 290
14–4 The Courts as Policymakers 322
13–1c The Costs of Maintaining the Government 291 14–4a The Issue of Broad Language 323
13–1d Where Does All the Money Go? 292 14–4b The Power of Judicial Review 324
14–4c Judicial Activism versus Judicial Restraint 324
13–2 How the Federal Bureaucracy Is Organized 293
14–4d Ideology and the Courts 325
13–2a The Executive Departments 293
14–4e Ideology and Today’s Supreme Court 325
13–2b A Typical Departmental Structure 294
14–4f Approaches to Legal Interpretation 327
13–2c Independent Executive Agencies 295
Contents ix
14–5 Assessing the Role of the Federal Courts 328 15–4c Fiscal Policy 348
14–5a Criticisms of the Federal Courts 328 15–4d The Federal Tax System 349
14–5b The Case for the Courts 328 15–4e The Public Debt 351
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should the People Elect AMERICA AT ODDS: Do We Send Too Many People
Judges? 311 to Prison? 335
JOIN THE DEBATE: Should Congress Ever Refuse to JOIN THE DEBATE: What Should We Do about
Consider a Supreme Court Nominee? 323 Unauthorized Immigrants? 338
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The Supreme Court PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Tax-Rate Cuts Allow
Legislates from the Bench 329 the Rich to Pay Lower Taxes 350
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Judiciary 331 AMERICA AT ODDS: Domestic Policy 353
16 FOREIGN POLICY 356
Part V
Introduction 358
Int
16–1 Who Makes U.S. Foreign Policy? 358
16
PUBLIC POLICY 334 16–1a The President’s Role 358

16–1b The Cabinet 359
16–1c Other Agencies 360
16–1d Powers of Congress 360
16–2 A Short History of American Foreign Policy 360
16
16–2a Isolationism 361
16–2b The Beginning of Interventionism 361
Natalia Bratslavsky/Shutterstock
16–2c The World Wars 361

16–2d The Cold War 362
16–2e Post–Cold War Foreign Policy 364
16–3 Problems Requiring the Use of Force 364
16
16–3a The Problem of Terrorism 364
16–3b The U.S. Response to 9/11—The War in
Afghanistan 366
16–3c The Focus on Iraq 366
15 DOMESTIC POLICY 334

16–3d Again, Afghanistan 367
16–3e The Civil War in Syria and the Growth of ISIS 368
Introduction 336 16–4 Diplomacy in an Unstable World 369
15–1 The Policy-making Process 336 16–4a The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 369
15–1a Issue Identification and Agenda Setting 336 16–4b Weapons of Mass Destruction 372
15–1b Policy Formulation and Adoption 337 16–4c China—The Next Superpower? 374
15–1c Policy Implementation 337 AMERICA AT ODDS: How Much of a Threat Is
Putin’s Russia? 357
15–1d Policy Evaluation 338
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Europe under Siege 370
15–1e Policymaking and Special Interests 339
AMERICA AT ODDS: Foreign Policy 376
15–2 Health-Care Policy 339
15–2a Two Problems with U.S. Health Care 339 Appendix A The Declaration of Independence A–1
Appendix B The Constitution of the United States A–3
15–2b Medicaid and Medicare 340
Appendix C Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51 A–12
15–2c The Democrats Propose Universal Coverage 341
Appendix D Answers to Chapter Quiz Questions A–18
15–3 Energy and the Environment 342 Appendix E Information on U.S. Presidents (Online)
15–3a The Problem of Imported Oil 342 Appendix F Party Control of Congress since 1900 (Online)
15–3b Climate Change 343
Notes N–1
15–3c New Energy Sources 344
Glossary G–1
15–4 Economic Policy and Taxes 346 Index I–1
15–4a The Goals of Economic Policy 346 Chapter in Review Cards 1–32
15–4b Monetary Policy 346
x Contents
SKILL
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PREP
Welcome!
With this course and this
textbook, you’ve begun what we
hope will be a fun, stimulating,
A Study Skills Module and thought-provoking journey
into the world of American
government and politics.
In this course, you will learn about the foundation of the results when you study. You want to be able to under-
American system, culture and diversity, interest groups, stand the issues and ideas presented in the textbook, talk
political parties, campaigns, elections, the media, our about them intelligently during class discussions, and
governing institutions, public policy, and foreign policy. remember them as you prepare for exams and papers.
Knowledge of these basics will help you think critically This module is designed to help you develop the
about political issues and become an active citizen. skills and habits you’ll need to succeed in this course.
We have developed this study skills module to help With tips on how to be more engaged when you study,
you gain the most from this course and this textbook. how to get the most out of your textbook, how to
Whether you are a recent high school graduate or an adult prepare for exams, and how to write papers, this guide
returning to the classroom after a few years, you want will help you become the best learner you can be!
SP-1
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STUDY
PREP REPEAT
To read for learning, you have to read your textbook a
What does it take to be a successful student? You may number of times. Follow a preview-read-review process:
think success depends on how naturally smart you are. 1 . P R E V I E W: Look over the chapter title, section
However, the truth is that successful students aren’t headings, and highlighted or bold words. This will
born, they’re made. Even if you don’t consider yourself give you a good preview of important ideas in the
“book smart,” you can do well in this course by develop- chapter. Notice that each major section heading in this
ing study skills that will help you understand, remember, textbook has one or more corresponding Learning
and apply key concepts. Objectives. You can increase your understanding of the
material by rephrasing the headings and subheadings
in your textbook into questions, and then try to answer
Reading for Learning them. Note graphs, pictures, and other visual illustrations
Your textbook is the foundation for information in a of important concepts.
course. It contains key concepts and terms that are QUICK TIP! Log in to GOVT9 Online with the access
important to your understanding of the subject. For code in the front of your textbook to find interactive
this reason, it is essential that you develop good reading figures and tables from the chapters, to quiz yourself
skills. As you read your textbook with the goal of learning on the important material in the book.
as much of the information as possible, work on estab- 2 . R E A D : It is important to read with a few questions
lishing the following habits: in mind: What is the main point of this paragraph or
section? What does the author want me to learn from
FOCUS this? How does this relate to what I read before? Keep-
ing these questions in mind will help you be an attentive
Make an effort to focus on the book and tune out other reader who is actively focusing on the main ideas of the
distractions so that you can understand and remember passage.
the information it presents.
QUICK TIP! In GOVT9 Online, create StudyBits from Key
Terms and definitions, photos, figures, and your text
TAKE TIME
highlights. You can include notes in your StudyBits, and
To learn the key concepts presented in each chapter, you add your own tags—such as “Midterm Exam”—so you
need to read slowly, carefully, and with great attention. can collect them all later.
SP-2
Also during this phase, it is helpful to take notes The physical act of writing makes you a more effi-
while reading in detail. You can mark your text or write cient learner. In addition, your notes provide a guide to
an outline, as explained later in this module. Taking notes what your instructor thinks is important. That means you
will help you read actively, identify important concepts, will have a better idea of what to study before the next
and remember them. When it comes time to review for
exam if you have a set of notes that you took during class.
the exam, the notes you’ve made should make your
studying more efficient.
QUICK TIP! In GOVT9 Online, create practice quizzes
Make an Outline
from filtered StudyBits or use all quiz questions from As you read through each chapter of your textbook, you
the chapter to test yourself before exams. might want to make an outline—a simple method for
3 . R E V I E W: When reviewing each section of the text organizing information. You can create an outline as part
and the notes you’ve made, ask yourself this ques- of your reading or at the end of your reading. Or you can
tion: What was this section about? You’ll want to make an outline when you reread a section before moving
answer the question in some detail, readily identifying on to the next one. The act of physically writing an outline
the important points. Use the Learning Objectives in the for a chapter will help you retain the material in this text
text to help focus your review. and master it.
QUICK TIP! Tear out the Chapter Review cards in the To make an effective outline, you have to be selec-
back of the textbook for on-the-go review! tive. Your objectives in outlining are, first, to identify the
A reading group is a great way to review the chapter. main concepts and, second, to add the details that sup-
After completing the reading individually, group mem- port those main concepts.
bers should meet and take turns sharing what they Your outline should consist of several levels written
learned. Explaining the material to others will reinforce in a standard format. The most important concepts are
and clarify what you already know. Getting a different assigned Roman numerals; the second-most important,
perspective on a passage will increase your knowledge, capital letters; and the third-most important, numbers.
because different people will find different things impor- Here is a quick example.
tant during a reading.
Take Notes
Being engaged means listening to discover (and remem-
ber) something. One way to make sure that you are listen- I. What Are Politics and Government?
ing attentively is to take notes. Doing so will help you A. Defining Politics and Government
focus on the professor’s words and will help you identify 1. Politics and Conflict
the most important parts of the lecture. 2. Government and Authority
B. Resolving Conflicts
C. Providing Public Ser vices
1. Ser vices for All and Ser vices for Some
2. Managing the Economy
D. Defending the Nation and Its Culture
II. Different Systems of Government
A. Undemocratic Systems
1. Monarchy
2. Dictatorship
B. Democratic Systems
1. The Athenian Model of Direct Democracy
wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock
2. Direct Democracy Today

3. Representative Democracy
4. Types of Representative Democracy
C. Other Forms of Government
SP-3
Mark Your Text Researchers have shown Try These Tips
If you own your own textbook for Here are a few more hints that will
that the physical act of
this course and plan to keep it, help you develop effective study
you can improve your learning by marking, just like the skills.
marking your text. By doing so, ▸ Do schoolwork as soon as
you will identify the most impor-
physical acts of note-
possible after class. The longer
tant concepts of each chapter, and taking during class you wait, the more likely you will
at the same time, you’ll be making be distracted by television, the
a handy study guide for reviewing
increases concentration
Internet, video games, or friends.
material at a later time. Marking and helps you better ▸ Set aside time and a quiet,
allows you to become an active par-
retain the material. comfortable space where you
ticipant in the mastery of the mate-
can focus on reading. Your
rial. Researchers have shown that
school library is often the best place to work. Set
the physical act of marking, just like the physical acts of
aside several hours a week of “library time” to study
note-taking during class and outlining, increases con-
in peace and quiet. A neat, organized study space is
centration and helps you better retain the material.
also important. The only work items that should be on
your desk are those that you are working on that day.
WAYS O F M A R K I N G
▸ Reward yourself for studying! Rest your eyes
The most common form of marking is to underline and your mind by taking a short break every twenty
important points. The second-most commonly used to thirty minutes. From time to time, allow yourself
method is to use a felt-tipped highlighter or marker, in a break to do something else that you enjoy. These
yellow or some other transparent color. You can put a interludes will refresh your mind, give you more
check mark next to material that you do not understand. energy required for concentration, and enable you to
Work on better comprehension of the checkmarked study longer and more efficiently.
material after you’ve finished the chapter. Marking also
▸ To memorize terms or facts, create flash (or
includes circling, numbering, using arrows, jotting brief
note) cards. On one side of the card, write the ques-
notes, or any other method that allows you to remem-
tion or term. On the other side, write the answer or
ber things when you go back to skim the pages in
definition. Then use the cards to test yourself or have
your textbook prior to an exam.
a friend quiz you on the material.
QUICK TIP! Don’t forget about the StudyBit func- QUICK TIP! In GOVT9 Online, flash cards are available
tionality when highlighting in GOVT9 Online! for all key terms (with definitions). Create more flash
Change colors of your highlights to rate your under- cards from your StudyBits or anything in the online
standing of each StudyBit, and use them in your narrative, and rate your understanding on each while
review in the Studyboard. you study!
T W O P O I N T S TO R E M E M B E R ▸ Mnemonic (pronounced ne-mon-ik) devices

WHEN MARKING are tricks that increase our ability to mem-
▸ Read one section at a time before you do
orize. A well-known mnemonic device is the
any extensive marking. You can’t mark a phrase ROY G BIV, which helps people remem-
section until you know what is important, ber the colors of the rainbow—red, orange, yel-
and you can’t know what is important until low, green, blue, indigo, violet. You can create
you read the whole section. your own mnemonic devices for whatever you
▸ Don’t overmark. Don’t fool yourself into need to memorize. The more fun you have com-
thinking that you have done a good job ing up with them, the more useful they will be.
just because each page is filled with arrows, ▸ Take notes twice. First, take notes in class.
y lav Danilin/Shutterstock
terstock
tock
Vladyslav Danilin/Shutterstock.com
Shutters
circles, and underlines. Be selective in your Writing down your instructor’s key points will
lin/Shut
marking, so that each page allows you to see help you be a more active, engaged listener. Tak-
Danilin/
the most important points at a glance. You ing notes will also give you a record of what your
can follow up your marking by writing out
instructor thinks is important. Later, when you
Vladyslav
© Vladys
more in your subject outline.

have a chance, rewrite your notes. The rewrite
will act as a study session for you to think about
SP-4 the material again.
bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock.com
TEST
PREP
You have worked hard throughout the term, reading fill in the dots on a machine-graded answer sheet. Other
the book, paying close attention in class, and taking exams require underlining or circling. In short, you have
good notes. Now it’s test time, and you want to show to read and follow the instructions carefully.
mastery of the material you have studied. To be well
prepared, you should know which reading materials
and lectures will be covered. You should also know
Objective Exams
whether the exam will contain essays, objective ques- An objective exam consists of multiple-choice, true/
tions, or both. Finally, you should know how much time false, fill-in-the-blank, or matching questions that have
you will have to take the exam. The following steps can only one correct answer. Students usually commit one
help to reduce any anxiety you may feel, allowing you of two errors when they read objective exam questions:
to approach the test with confidence. (1) they read things into the questions that do not exist,
or (2) they skip over words or phrases. Most test ques-
tions include key words such as:
Follow Directions
Students are often in a hurry to start an exam, so they > ALL > NEVER
take little time to read the instructions. The instructions > A LWAYS > O N LY
can be critical, however. In a multiple-choice exam, for
example, if there is no indication that there is a penalty If you miss any of these key words, you may answer the
for guessing, then you should never leave a question question incorrectly even if you know the information
unanswered. Even if only a few minutes are left at the being tested.
end of an exam, you should guess on the questions that Whenever the answer to an objective question is not
you remain uncertain about. obvious, start with the process of elimination. Throw out
Additionally, you need to know the weight given the answers that are clearly incorrect. Typically, the easi-
to each section of an exam. In a typical multiple-choice est way to eliminate incorrect answers is to look for those
exam, all questions have equal weight. In other types of that are meaningless, illogical, or inconsistent. Often,
exams, particularly those with essay questions, different test authors put in some answers that make perfect sense
parts of the exam carry different weights. You should use and are indeed true, but do not answer the question
these weights to apportion your time. If the essay portion under study. Here are a few more tips that will help you
of an exam accounts for 20 percent of the total points on become an efficient, results-oriented student.
the exam, you should not spend 60 percent of your time ▸ Review your notes thoroughly as part of your exam
on the essays. preparation. Instructors usually lecture on subjects
Finally, you need to make sure you are marking the they think are important, so those same subjects are
answers correctly. Some exams require a No. 2 pencil to also likely to be on the exam.
SP-5
▸ Create a study schedule to reduce stress and give
yourself the best chance for success. At times, you
will find yourself studying for several exams at once.
When this happens, make a list of each study topic
and the amount of time needed to review that topic.
▸ Form a small group for a study session. Discuss-
ing a topic out loud can improve your understand-
ing of that topic and will help you remember the key
GaudiLab/Shutterstock
points that often come up on exams.
▸ Study from old exams. Some professors make old
exams available, either by posting them online or byy
putting them on file in the library. Old tests can givee
you an idea of the kinds of questions the professorr
likes to ask. WRITE
▸ Avoid cramming just before an exam. Cramming
g
tires the brain unnecessarily and adds to stress, which
h
PREP
can severely hamper your testing performance. Iff
you’ve studied wisely, have confidence that you willl
be able to recall the information when you need it.
▸ Be sure to eat before taking a test so you will have A key part of succeeding as a student is learning how
the energy you need to concentrate. to write well. Whether writing papers, presentations,
▸ Be prepared. Make sure you have everything you essays, or even e-mails to your instructor, you have to
will need for the exam, such as a pen or pencil. Arrive be able to put your thoughts into words and do so with
at the exam early to avoid having to rush, which will force, clarity, and precision. In this section, we outline
only add to your stress. Good preparation helps you a three-phase process that you can use to write almost
focus on the task at hand. anything.
▸ When you first receive your exam, make sure

that you have all the pages. If you are uncertain,
ask your professor or exam proctor. This initial scan
Phase 1: Getting Ready to Write
may uncover other problems as well, such as illegible First, make a list. Divide the ultimate goal—a finished
print or unclear instructions. paper—into smaller steps that you can tackle right
away. Estimate how long it will take to complete each
▸ With essay questions, look for key words such
step. Start with the date your paper is due and work
as “compare,” “contrast,” and “explain.” These will
backward to the present: For example, if the due date
guide your answer. Most important, get to the point
is December 1, and you have about three months to
without wasting your time (or your professor’s) with
write the paper, give yourself a cushion and sched-
statements such as “There are many possible reasons
ule November 20 as your targeted completion date.
for . . . .”
Then list what you need to get done by October 1 and
▸ Review your answers when you finish a test early. November 1.
You may find a mistake or an area where some extra
writing will improve your grade. P I C K A TO P I C
▸ Keep exams in perspective. Worrying too much To generate ideas for a topic, any of the following
about a single exam can have a negative effect on your approaches work well:
performance. If you do poorly on one test, it’s not the ▸ Brainstorm with a group. There is no need to cre-
end of the world. Rather, it should motivate you to do ate in isolation. You can harness the energy and the
better on the next one. natural creative power of a group to assist you.
SP-6
▸ Speak it. To get ideas flowing, There is no need to create in ▸ If your purpose is to move
start talking. Admit your confu- the reader into action, explain
sion or lack of clear ideas. Then
isolation. Brainstorm ideas exactly what steps to take,
just speak. By putting your for a topic with a group. and offer solid benefits for
thoughts into words, you’ll start doing so.
thinking more clearly. Ask for feedback from your
To clarify your purpose, state it
▸ Use free writing. Free writ- instructor or a friend as in one sentence—for example,
ing, a technique championed “The purpose of this paper is to
“T
by writing teacher Peter
you prepare an outline and discuss and analyze the role of
di
Elbow, is also very effective women and minorities in law
w
revise your first draft. enforcement.”
en
when trying to come up with a
topic. There’s only one rule in
free writing: Write without stopping.
ping Set a time limit—
limit BEGIN RESEARCH
say, ten minutes—and keep your fingers dancing
At the initial stage, the objective of your research is not
across the keyboard the whole time. Ignore the urge
to uncover specific facts about your topic. That comes
to stop and rewrite. There is no need to worry about
later. First, you want to gain an overview of the subject.
spelling, punctuation, or grammar during this process.
Say you want to advocate for indeterminate sentenc-
ing. You must first learn enough about determinate
R E F I N E YO U R I D E A and indeterminate sentencing to describe the pros and
After you’ve come up with some initial ideas, it’s time to cons of each one.
refine them:
MAKE AN OUTLINE
▸ Select a topic and working title. Using your
instructor’s guidelines for the paper, write down a list An outline is a kind of map. When you follow a map, you
of topics that interest you. Write down all of the ideas avoid getting lost. Likewise, an outline keeps you from
you think of in two minutes. Then choose one topic. wandering off topic. To create your outline, follow these
The most common pitfall is selecting a topic that is steps:
too broad. “Political Campaigns” is probably not a 1 . Review your thesis statement and identify the
useful topic for your paper. Instead, consider “The three to five main points you need to address in your
Financing of Modern Political Campaigns.” paper to support or prove your thesis.
▸ Write a thesis statement. Clarify what you
want to say by summarizing it in one concise
sentence. This sentence, called a thesis state-
ment, refines your working title. A thesis is the
main point of the paper—it is a declaration of
some sort. You might write a thesis statement
such as “Recent decisions by the Supreme
Court have dramatically changed the way that
political campaigns are funded.”
SET GOALS
Effective writing flows from a purpose. Think

about how you’d like your reader or listener to
Jamie Grill/Getty Images
respond after considering your ideas.

▸ If you want to persuade someone, make your
writing clear and logical. Support your asser-
tions with evidence.
SP-7
2 . Next, focus on the three to five major points that If you get stuck, ask for help.
support your argument and think about what minor
points or subtopics you want to cover in your paper. Most schools have writing
Your major points are your big ideas. Your minor
points are the details you need to fill in under each of resource centers where
those ideas. you can go for assistance
3 . Ask for feedback. Have your instructor or a class-
mate review your outline and offer suggestions for and guidance.
improvement. Did you choose the right points to sup-
port your thesis? Do you need more detail anywhere?
Does the flow from idea to idea make sense?
DO IN-DEPTH RESEARCH
Phase 2: Writing a First Draft
To create your draft, gather your notes and your out-
Dig in and start reading. Keep a notebook, tablet, or lap-
line (which often undergoes revision during the research
top handy and make notes as you read. It can help to
process). Then write about the ideas in your notes. It’s
organize your research into three main categories:
that simple. Just start writing. Write in paragraphs, with
1. Sources (bibliographical information for a source), one idea per paragraph. As you complete this task, keep
2 . Information (nuggets of information from a correctly the following suggestions in mind:
quoted source) ▸ Remember that the first draft is not for keeps.
3 . Ideas (thoughts and observations that occur to you as You can worry about quality later. Your goal at this
you research, written in your own words) point is simply to generate words and ideas.
▸ Write freely. Many writers prefer to get their first
You might want to use these categories to create three
draft down quickly and would advise you to keep
separate documents as you work. This will make it easy
writing, much as in free writing. You may pause to
to find what you need when you write your first draft.
glance at your notes and outline, but avoid stopping
When taking research notes, be sure to:
to edit your work.
▸ Copy all of the information correctly.
▸ Be yourself. Let go of the urge to sound “scholarly”
▸ Include the source and page number while gathering and avoid using unnecessary big words or phrases.
information. With Internet searches, you must also Instead, write in a natural voice.
record the date a site was accessed.
▸ Avoid procrastination. If you are having trouble get-
▸ Stay organized; refer to your outline as you work. ting started, skip over your introduction and just begin
writing about some of your findings. You can go back
later and organize your paragraphs.
▸ Get physical. While working on the first
draft, take breaks. Go for a walk. From
time to time, practice relaxation tech-
niques and breathe deeply.
▸ Put the draft away for a day. Schedule
time for rewrites, and schedule at least
one day between revisions so that you
can let the material sit. After a break,
problems with the paper or ideas for
improvement will become more evident.
Phase 3: Revising Your Draft

GaudiLab/Shutterstock
During this phase, keep in mind the saying,

“Write in haste; revise at leisure.” When you
are working on your first draft, the goal is to
produce ideas and write them down. During
SP-8
the revision phase, however, you need to slow down and
take a close look at your work. One guideline is to allow
50 percent of writing time for planning, researching, and
writing the first draft. Then use the remaining 50 per-
cent for revising.
Here are some good ways to revise your paper:
1. READ IT OUT LOUD. The combination of speaking
and hearing forces us to pay attention to the details. Is
the thesis statement clear and supported by enough
evidence? Does the introduction tell your reader
what’s coming? Do you end with a strong conclusion
that expands on your introduction rather than just
restating it?
2 . H AV E A F R I E N D LO O K O V E R YO U R PA P E R .
This is never a substitute for your own review, but a
friend can often see mistakes you miss. With a little
practice, you will learn to welcome feedback, because
Izabela Habur/iStockphoto.com
it provides one of the fastest ways to approach the
revision process.
3 . C U T. Look for excess baggage. Also, look for places
where two (or more) sentences could be rewritten as
one. By cutting text you are actually gaining a clearer,
more polished product. For efficiency, make the larger
6 . P R E PA R E. Format your paper following accepted
cuts first—sections, chapters, pages. Then go for the
smaller cuts—paragraphs, sentences, phrases, words. standards for margin widths, endnotes, title pages,
and other details. Ask your instructor for specific
4 . PA S T E . The next task is to rearrange what’s left of instructions on how to cite the sources used in writ-
your paper so that it flows logically. Look for con- ing your paper. You can find useful guidelines in the
sistency within paragraphs and for transitions from MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. If
paragraph to paragraph and section to section. you are submitting a hard copy (rather than turning
5 . F I X . Now it’s time to look at individual words and it in online), use quality paper for the final version.
phrases. Define any terms that the reader might not For an even more professional appearance, bind your
know. In general, focus on nouns and verbs. Too paper with a plastic or paper cover.
many words add unnecessary bulk to your writing. 7 . P R O O F R E A D. As you ease down the home stretch,
Write about the details, and be specific. Also, check read your revised paper one more time, and look for
your writing to ensure that you: the following:
▸ Prefer the active voice. Write “The research ▸ A clear thesis statement.
team began the project” rather than “A project was
▸ Sentences that introduce your topic, guide the
initiated,” which is a passive statement.
reader through the major sections of your paper,
▸ Write concisely. Instead of “After making a and summarize your conclusions.
timely arrival and observing the unfolding events,
▸ Details—such as quotations, examples, and
I emerged totally and gloriously victorious,” be
statistics—that support your conclusions.
concise with “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
▸ Lean sentences that have been purged of needless
▸ Communicate clearly. Instead of “The speaker
words.
made effective use of the television medium, ask-
ing in no uncertain terms that we change our belief ▸ Plenty of action verbs and concrete, specific nouns.
systems,” you can write specifically, “The senatorial ▸ Spelling and grammar mistakes. Use contractions
candidate stared straight into the television camera sparingly, if at all. Use spell-check by all means,
and said, ‘Take a good look at what my opponent is but do not rely on it completely, as it will not catch
doing! Do you really want six more years of this?’ ” everything.
SP-9
Academic Integrity: date, article title, and the name of the magazine or
journal as well. If you found the article in an aca-
Avoiding Plagiarism demic or technical journal, also include the volume
Using another person’s words, images, or other origi- and number of the publication. A librarian can help
nal creations without giving proper credit is called identify these details.
plagiarism. Plagiarism amounts to taking someone else’s ▸ Cite online sources correctly. If your source is a
work and presenting it as your own—the equivalent of website, record as many identifying details as you can
cheating on a test. The consequences of plagiarism can find—author, title, sponsoring organization, URL,
range from a failing grade to expulsion from school. publication date, and revision date. In addition, list
To avoid plagiarism, ask an instructor where you the date that you accessed the page. Be careful when
can find your school’s written policy on this issue. Don’t using Internet resources, as not all sites are consid-
assume that you can resubmit a paper you wrote for ered legitimate sources. For example, many profes-
another class for a current class. Almost all schools will sors don’t regard Wikipedia as an acceptable source.
regard this as plagiarism even though you wrote the
▸ Include your sources as endnotes or footnotes
paper. The basic guidelines for preventing plagiarism
to your paper. Ask your instructor for examples of
are to cite a source for each phrase, sequence of ideas,
the format to use. You do not need to credit wording
or visual image created by another person. While ideas
that is wholly your own. Nor do you need to credit
cannot be copyrighted, the specific way that an idea is
general ideas, such as the suggestion that people use
expressed can be. You also need to list a source for any
a to-do list to plan their time. But if you borrow some-
idea that is closely identified with a particular person.
one else’s words or images to explain the idea, do give
The goal is to clearly distinguish your own work from the
credit.
work of others. There are several ways to ensure that you
do this consistently: ▸ When in doubt, don’t. Sometimes you will find
▸ Identify direct quotes. If you use a direct quote yourself working against a deadline for a paper, and
from another source, put those words in quotation in a panic, you might be tempted to take “shortcuts.”
marks. If you do research online, you might copy text You’ll find a source that expressed your idea perfectly,
from a website and paste it directly into your notes. but you must cite it or completely rephrase the idea
This is a direct quote. You must use quotation marks in your own words. Professors are experts at notic-
or if the quote is long, an indented paragraph. ing a change in tone or vocabulary that signals plagia-
rism. Often, they can simply Google a phrase to find
▸ Paraphrase carefully. Paraphrasing means restat-
its source online. Do not let a moment’s temptation
ing the original passage in your own words, usually
cause you to fail the course or face an academic integ-
making it shorter and simpler. Students who copy a
rity hearing.
passage word for word and
then just rearrange or delete
a few phrases are running a
serious risk of plagiarism.
Remember to cite a source
for paraphrases, just as you
do for direct quotes. When
you use the same sequence
of ideas as one of your
sources—even if you have
not paraphrased or directly
quoted—cite that source.
▸ Note details about each
source. For books, include
the author, title, publisher,
LOFTFLOW/Shutterstock
publication date, location

of publisher, and page num-
ber. For articles from print
sources, record the author,
SP-10
Rawpixel/Shutterstock.com
TAKE It’s easy to think of politics as
a spectator sport—something
ACTION
that politicians do, pundits
analyze, and citizens watch.
But there are many ways to
get engaged with politics, to
A Guide to Political Participation interact with the political
world and participate in it, and
even to effect change.
GET • Which Founder Are You? The National Constitutional Cen-

ter can help you with that. Go to constitutioncenter
INFORMED .org/foundersquiz to discover which Founding Fa-

ther’s personality most resembles your own.
• The U.S. Constitution is an important part of the

context in which American politics takes place. Do you
Find Out Where You know what the Constitution says? Take the Constitution
I.Q. Quiz: constitutionfacts.com. Was your score
Fit and What You Know higher than the national average?
• You already have some opinions about a variety of po-
litical issues. Do you have a sense of where your views • At the National Constitution Center, you can explore
place you on the political map? Get a feel for your ideo- the interactive Constitution and learn more about the
logical leanings by taking The World’s Smallest Political provisions in that document: constitutioncenter.
Quiz: theadvocates.org/quiz. org/interactive-constitution.
TA-1
Rich Koele/Shutterstock.com
GET
• Find out what those who want to become U.S. citizens
have to do—and what they have to know. Go to the U.S. CONNECTED
Citizenship and Immigration Services Web site at uscis.
gov/. What is involved in applying for citizenship?
Take the Naturalization Self-Test at https://my.uscis.
gov/prep/test/civics. How did you do? News
Keep up with news—print, broadcast, and online. Don’t
Think about How Your avoid certain news sources because you think you might
Political Views Have Been Shaped not agree with the way they report the news. It’s just as
important to know how people are talking about issues as
• Consider how agents of political socialization—your
it is to know about the issues themselves.
family, your schools, and your peers, for example—
have contributed to your political beliefs and atti- • One way to follow the news is to get your information
tudes. Then have conversations with people in your from the same place that journalists do. Often they
classes or where you live about the people, institu- take their cues or are alerted to news events by news
agencies such as the nonprofit cooperative Associated
tions, and experiences that influenced the way they
Press: ap.org.
view the political world. Try to understand how and
why your views might differ. • Installing a few key apps on your phone or tablet can
help you stay informed. Try downloading the Associ-
• Explore how your views on political issues compare
ated Press (AP) app for timely updates about news
with those of a majority of Americans. There are a around the world. There are tons of other great politi-
number of good polling sites that report public opin- cal apps—some are fairly polarizing, some are neutral,
ion on a range of topics. and still others are just plain silly.
o The Pew Research Center for the People & the
Press conducts monthly polls on politics and policy Blogs
issues: people-press.org.
The blogosphere affords views of politics that tend to be
o Public Agenda reports poll data and material on
slanted according to the political orientation of the blog
major issues: publicagenda.org.
sponsor. In the last several decades, blogs have surged
o The results of recent polls and an archive of past in popularity as a source for political news and opinion.
polls can be found at Gallup: gallup.com.
o The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research
is a leading archive of data from surveys of public
opinion: ropercenter.cornell.edu.
TA-2
Social Media
Staying connected can be as simple as following local,
national, or international politics on social media.
President Barack Obama, Senator Elizabeth War-
ren, House Speaker Paul Ryan, and even the White
House have Instagram accounts worth following. Most
politicians and political outlets are also on Twitter and
Facebook.
Check the Data

• It’s not always easy to figure out whether a news report
or public statement is accurate. PolitiFact, a project of
the Tampa Bay Times, is a good place to go to get the
facts: politifact.com. Check out the Truth-O-Meter,
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock
and get it on your smartphone or tablet.
• A project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center,
factcheck.org is a nonpartisan, nonprofit “consumer
advocate” for voters that monitors the factual accuracy
of what political players are saying in TV ads, speeches,
and interviews.
Keep Up during Election Season Monitor Money and

• Project Vote Smart offers information on elections Influence in Politics
and candidates: votesmart.org.
The Center for Responsive Politics Web site is an excel-
• Nate Silver’s FiveThirtyEight features election anal- lent source for information about who’s contributing
ysis, in addition to covering sports and economics: what amounts to which candidates: opensecrets.org.
fivethirtyeight.com. You can also use the lobbying database to identify the top
• Stay connected to the horse-race aspect of electoral lobbying firms, the agencies most frequently lobbied, and
politics by tracking election polls. There are many the industries that spend the most on lobbying activities.
good sources:
o For a comprehensive collection of election polls, go Connect with Congress
to the RealClearPolitics website: realclearpolitics
.com/polls. RealClearPolitics is a good source for You can, of course, learn a lot about what’s going on in
other political news and opinions as well. Congress from the Web sites of the House of Representa-
tives and the Senate: house.gov and senate.gov. Look
o Polls for U.S. federal elections, including state-by-
up the names and contact information for the senators
state polls, can be found at electoral-vote.com.
and the representative from your area. If you want your
o HuffPost Pollster publishes pre-election poll voice to be heard, simply phone or e-mail your senators
results combined into interactive charts: elections or your representative. Members of Congress listen to
.huffingtonpost.com/pollster. During presiden- their constituents and often act in response to their con-
tial elections, additional maps and electoral vote stituents’ wishes. Indeed, next to voting, contacting those
counts can be found at HuffPost Politics Election who represent you in Congress is probably the most
Dashboard. effective way to influence government decision making.
• If you have the opportunity, attend a speech by a Check GovTrack to find out where your represen-
candidate you’re interested in. tative and senators fall on the leadership and ideology
charts, and learn about their most recently sponsored
bills and votes on legislation: govtrack.us.
TA-3
financial health, account-
ability and transparency,
and reporting of results.
Design Your
Own Ways to
Take Action
• Start a network to
match those who need
assistance and those
who want to help.
For example, there may
be people on your cam-
Dragon Images/Shutterstock
pus who, because of a
disability or recent injury,
need someone to help
carry belongings, open
doors, or push wheel-
chairs.
• Do you want to raise awareness about an issue? Is
there a cause that you think needs attention? Talk with
friends. Find out if they share your concerns. Turn your
GET discussions into a blog. Create videos of events you

think are newsworthy and share them online. Sign or
INVOLVED start a petition.
Join a Group on Campus

You probably see flyers promoting groups and recruiting
Take an Interest in Your members posted all over campus. Chances are, there’s a
Community—Offer to Help group organized around something you’re interested in
Every community—large and small—can use energetic or care about.
people willing to help where there is a need. Local non- Maybe it’s an organization that works to bring clean
profit agencies serving the homeless, battered women, water to remote parts of the world. The American Red
or troubled teens often welcome volunteers who are Cross may be looking for help with campus blood drives.
willing to pitch in. You’ll find groups organized around race, culture, or
The Internet also has abundant resources about political parties; groups that go on spring break trips to
nonprofits and charities and how you can get involved: serve communities in need; service organizations of all
kinds; and groups that focus on the environment. The
• Idealist.org is a great place to find organizations and
list goes on and on.
events that are looking for employees, interns, and
If you have an interest that isn’t represented by the
volunteers. Filter by type and area of focus (women,
groups on your campus, start your own. Your college
disaster relief, animals, etc.) to find a cause that
or university should have an office of campus life (or
fits you.
something similar) that can help you establish a student
• Tinyspark.org is a watchdog for nonprofits and organization.
charity organizations. It highlights individuals and
groups that are doing good things around the globe
and investigates those who may not be doing as much
Vote (but Don’t
good as you’d think. Tinyspark also has a podcast. Forget to Register First)
• Charitynavigator.org is another tool for check- • You can learn about the laws governing voting in your
ing on charities. It evaluates and rates charities on state by going to the Web site of the National Confer-
TA-4
ence of State Legislatures and its link to Voter lowest-level conventions (or, in some states, caucuses)
Identification Requirements: ncsl.org/research/ are open to anyone who shows up. Voting rights at a
elections-and-campaigns/voter-id. convention, however, may be restricted to those who
• Register: Enter “register to vote in [your state]” in a are elected as precinct delegates in a party primary.
search engine. The office in your state that administers In much of the country, precinct delegate slots go
voting and elections will have a Web site that outlines unfilled. If this is true in your area, you can become a
the steps you will need to follow. You can also find out precinct delegate with a simple write-in campaign, writ-
how to obtain an absentee ballot. ing in your own name and persuading a handful of friends
• If you want to view a sample ballot to familiarize your- or neighbors to write you in as well. Whether you attend
self with what you’ll see at the polls, you will probably a convention as a voting delegate or as a guest, you’ll
be able to view one online. Just enter “sample bal- have a firsthand look at how politics operates. You’ll hear
lot” in a search engine. Your local election board, the debates on resolutions. You might participate in electing
League of Women Voters, or your district library often delegates to higher-level conventions—perhaps even the
post a sample ballot online. national convention if it is a presidential election year.
• Vote: Familiarize yourself with the candidates and
issues before you go to the polls. If you’d like to
influence the way things are done in your Work for a Campaign
community, state, or Washington, D.C., Candidates welcome energetic volun-
you can do so by helping to elect local, teers. So do groups that are support-
state, and federal officials whose views
ing (or opposing) ballot measures.
you endorse and who you think would
While sometimes tiring and frus-
do a good job of running the govern-
trating, working in campaign poli-
ment. Make sure you know the loca-
tion and hours for your polling place. tics can also be exhilarating and very
rewarding.
Find the contact information
Support a Political Party
©
HF for a campaign you’re interested in on

L
Gr
ph a
Getting involved in political parties is as sim- ic s
/Sh
u t ter s
its website, and inquire about volunteer
t ock
ple as going to the polls and casting your vote for opportunities. Volunteers assemble mail-
the candidate of one of the major parties—or of a third ings, answer the telephone, and make calls to encour-
party. You can also consider becoming a delegate to a age voters to support their candidate or cause. Even if
party convention. Depending on the state, parties may you have little free time or are not comfortable talking
hold conventions by U.S. House district, by county, to strangers, most campaigns can find a way for you to
or by state legislative district. In many states, the participate.
Be Part of
Campus
Media
Do you have a nose
for news and do
you write well? Try
reporting for the
university newspa-
per. Work your way
up to an editor’s
position. If broad-
Joseph Sohm/Shutterstock
cast media are your

thing, get involved
with your college
radio station or go
on air on campus TV.
TA-5
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
a) J’ai constaté, après d’autres observateurs, dans les gassis du
Grand Erg Oriental, l’existence de galets d’origine
vraisemblablement lointaine.
Si l’oued Igharghar ne traverse pas la Hamada de Tinghert
actuellement, il semble donc, ainsi que d’autres oueds de cette
région, qu’il l’ait traversée autrefois, avant d’être décapité peut-être
par l’accentuation du creusement de la dépression Sud-Tinghert[10] ;
b) A quoi attribuer la constitution des masses considérables de
sable du Grand Erg Oriental si l’oued Igharghar ne traverse pas la
Hamada, cet erg étant considéré jusqu’à maintenant comme les
alluvions de sa zone d’épandage remaniées et modelées par le vent.
On doit admettre que le vent a étalé et entassé, étale et entasse
encore, en des endroits de prédilection, et suivant une manière qui
lui est propre, le sable obtenu par une sorte de vannage, soit des
plages détritiques marines, ou fluvio-marines, ou fluvio-lacustres (les
plus dépourvues d’humidité), soit des formations d’atterrissements
(les plus sèches) des nombreux oueds descendant des bords élevés
de la cuvette crétacico-tertiaire (Zab, Gantra, Tademaït, Tinghert,
Hamada El Homra, Hamada Neïla), oueds ayant alluvionné et
alluvionnant beaucoup dans cette partie à pente faible de leur cours
et en raison du peu de résistance des formations drainées crétacico-
tertiaires ; oueds dont certains, parmi lesquels l’ancien Igharghar
(dont on a peut-être exagéré l’importance quant à sa contribution à
la formation des sables du Grand Erg Oriental) poussaient peut-être
leur cours supérieur jusque dans le Massif Central Saharien avant
que le fossé Sud-Tinghert ne se soit creusé profondément suivant le
processus indiqué plus loin.
On doit admettre également une production importante de sable
aux dépens des formations crétacico-tertiaires par travail combiné
de la gelée, de l’insolation, des orages violents, de la sécheresse et
du vent[11] ;
c) Enfin, à quoi attribuer le creusement ou l’achèvement et
l’accentuation du creusement de la dépression Sud-Tinghert si
l’Igharghar ne traverse pas, ou, plus exactement, ne traverse plus la
Hamada, pour donner une pente à des affluents latéraux et une
évacuation aux produits de leur travail.
Il y a lieu d’étudier cette dépression et de voir si c’est une
dépression fermée :
1º Peut-être suit-elle le « Bâten » de Tinghert vers la Tripolitaine
avec une légère pente vers l’Est plus ou moins cachée par les
sables. Alors elle aurait une issue vers l’Est : c’est peu probable.
Un écoulement vers l’Ouest, vers In Salah, ne semble pas plus
probable ;
2º Peut-être y a-t-il une issue vers El-Biodt où je n’ai pas passé
et le lit de Tanezrouft serait un ancien lit abandonné par un de ces
phénomènes de capture si fréquents au Sahara et dont j’ai observé
des cas si typiques dans les Tassilis (par exemple le haut de l’oued
Tassirt capté au profit du Tahihaout, et l’oued Tounourt, dont on voit
un débouché abandonné sur la vallée de l’Irrarar près d’Amguid).
Des personnes ayant passé par El-Biodt, que j’ai consultées,
n’ont pas eu cette impression ;
3º Peut-être doit-on voir là une sorte d’ancien lac, peut-être
permanent, en lequel s’élargissait l’Igharghar dans les formations
tendres de la base du Crétacé, avant de traverser les formations
plus dures du haut de la série en défilé, peut-être avec légère
contre-pente, dans lequel on doit expliquer, par cette légère contre-
pente du thalweg, par des mouvements très récents, ou par des
éboulements et des barrages limites de venues d’oued, le
changement de sens de l’oued qui, n’ayant plus son cours régulier et
actif d’autrefois, aurait été impuissant à rétablir son sens primitif ;
4º Peut-être enfin est-ce une véritable dépression fermée, c’est-
à-dire qui n’a pas d’écoulement superficiel facile possible, pas
d’issue.
Et alors le creusement de la dépression ou du système de
dépressions qui se trouve le long du versant méridional de la
Hamada de Tinghert se serait fait ou plus vraisemblablement achevé
depuis l’accentuation du caractère désertique du climat saharien, et
par suite de la mise à nu des couches tendres du Crétacé, par
combinaison de l’action alternée des orages violents[12], de la
sécheresse, de la gelée, de l’insolation et de la corrasion (pour
attaquer et réduire en poudre ces formations particulièrement peu
résistantes de la base du Crétacé supérieur) et de l’action continue
du vent, balayant au fur et à mesure les produits du travail de ces
agents.
Le capitaine Cortier a déjà signalé que l’oued Oahnet, dans la
Hamada de Tinghert, finissait en daia fermée sans traverser le
troisième kreb de la Hamada.
L’oued Igharghar s’arrêterait également à Tanezrouft sans
traverser ce troisième kreb dit d’In-Eddi — et ne serait donc pas un
cas unique.
Non loin de là, la dépression de l’oued El-Chiati également au
bas de la Hamada El-Homra (le prolongement de la Hamada de
Tinghert dans le Sud-Tripolitain) semble un cas analogue, car je n’en
connais pas d’écoulement certain.
L’oued Ech Chergui, au Fezzan, semble également finir dans la
sebkra de l’oasis Djedid sans écoulement superficiel.
Enfin, il y aurait là en l’espèce de la dépression ou du système de
dépressions Sud-Tinghert un cas analogue comme formation à celui
des dépressions d’Egypte dont on attribue le creusement aux
mêmes agents. (La dépression de Beharieh en particulier présente
un caractère de similitude très remarquable ; elle est creusée,
suivant Beadnelle, par ces mêmes agents dans les mêmes
formations tendres crétacées).
*
* *
Mais, jusqu’à maintenant on niait qu’il y ait dans le Sahara

français des dépressions pour la formation desquelles la part de
l’action du vent soit si considérable.
Le cas de la « dépression Sud-Tinghert » me semble obliger à ne
pas être affirmatif et à admettre la possibilité du rôle essentiel de
l’action du vent combinée à celle alternée des orages violents, de la
gelée, de la sécheresse, de l’insolation et de la corrasion, dans la
formation de grandes dépressions dans les sédiments crétacés du
Sahara français sud-constantinois, en attendant que de nouvelles
observations sur cette dépression nous fixent définitivement sur son
origine.
On doit admettre que l’action du vent, jointe à celle des autres
agents énumérés plus haut, n’est pas négligeable et contribue au
moins à donner de l’ampleur aux effets de l’action des oueds.
Des troncs d’arbres silicifiés.
Quelle est la date à laquelle il faut faire remonter la constitution

des amas de bois et de troncs d’arbres, depuis silicifiés, que l’on
rencontre au Sahara ?
Flamand les place dans l’Albien.
Je m’élève contre cette affirmation.
Certains au moins des bois silicifiés du Sahara sont de date
postérieure. J’ai trouvé en effet au Nord de la Hamada de Tinghert,
près de Hassi Pujat (que les Arabes appellent Hassi Bekbort), des
formations considérables de bois silicifiés dont certains troncs
avaient plus de 50 centimètres de diamètre et 1 ou 2 mètres de long.
Ces superbes débris jonchaient le sol et témoignaient par leur
abondance et la taille de certains d’entre eux, de la formation de ces
amoncellements de bois flottés et de leur silicification en cet endroit
même.
Or, ces dépôts reposent sur des formations post-crétacées, ce
qui me fait admettre pour ces bois silicifiés l’âge tertiaire.
Cette date ne semble pas exceptionnelle : Beadnelle, donne à
certains bois silicifiés de Beharieh, en Egypte, qui semblent tout à
fait comparables, l’âge post-éocène.
Quant aux bois silicifiés déclarés albiens ou crétacés, je crois
qu’une sévère révision de leurs conditions de gisement pourrait bien
amener un changement dans l’âge attribué à certains d’entre eux.
Il est intéressant de noter que la silicification des bois semble à
certains auteurs avoir toujours été liée à l’existence d’un climat
désertique.
La démonstration de la présence de bois silicifiés dans plusieurs
niveaux du complexe crétacico-tertiaire sud-constantinois pourrait
donc être considérée, en admettant que la silicification n’ait pas été
opérée partout à la même date, comme un argument en faveur de
l’hypothèse de l’antiquité récurrente du climat désertique dans ces
régions, de l’existence de plusieurs époques de ce climat au Crétacé
et au Tertiaire avant l’époque actuelle.
Du Crétacé de Tinghert et du Djoua.

Ainsi donc, au Sud, au voisinage du Massif Central Saharien
primaire, les bords relevés (peut-être par des mouvements alpins)
de la cuvette crétacico-tertiaire constituent la Hamada de Tinghert.
Les formations crétacées y forment des plateaux doucement
inclinés vers le Nord et terminés en falaises ou krebs au Sud.
On distingue trois gradins principaux dont les krebs ont été
désignés par Cortier sous les noms de kreb d’In-Eddi, kreb de Tefist
et kreb du Djoua. (Le kreb du Djoua étant le plus méridional et
correspondant aux formations les plus basses de la série crétacée.)
Les étages représentés d’une façon certaine sont le
Cénomanien, le Turonien et le Sénonien, à facies en général marno-
calcaire (les argiles multicolores à gypse sont très développées à la
base du kreb du Djoua où elles sont, semble-t-il, cénomaniennes et
du kreb d’In-Eddi où elles paraissent sénoniennes).
Une étude de cette série crétacée de Tinghert avec la distinction
de ses niveaux fossilifères paraîtra ultérieurement.
Quant à l’existence de l’Albien marin à la base de la série, elle
n’est pas certaine (pas plus qu’en Tripolitaine d’ailleurs).
Le kreb du Djoua nous a fourni en abondance à sa partie
supérieure des fossiles marins cénomaniens.
Ces formations fossilifères sont supportées par des argiles
multicolores à gypse et à niveaux gréseux — formations lagunaires
— d’âge indéterminé.
Ce sont ces argiles avec leurs formations de sables et grès
tendres qui constituent le fond de la dépression du Djoua, qui longe
le kreb du Djoua au Sud.
Dans ce fond, Foureau a recueilli des fossiles[13] ; ils ont été
étudiés par M. Haug. Parmi eux, il n’est aucune espèce
caractéristique de l’Albien qui permette d’attribuer avec certitude à
l’Albien ces argiles, plutôt qu’au Cénomanien.
Plus au Sud, la dépression du Djoua est limitée par les sables de
l’Erg d’Isaouan.
Il semble que vers ce contact les argiles multicolores, à niveaux
sableux de plus en plus abondants passent à un complexe argilo-
sableux et argilo-gréseux, d’âge indéterminé également, qui
représente pour une part peut-être des formations continentales
constituées au cours de la période d’émersion post-carbonifère,
ante-cénomanienne, sans qu’il soit possible de préciser davantage.
Ainsi, il n’est pas prouvé, pour le moment, que la transgression
méso-crétacée ait atteint la région de Tinghert dès l’Albien.
On ne connaît pas d’Albien marin certain à la base du Crétacé.
Les formations crétacées marines les plus basses datées d’une
façon incontestable sont cénomaniennes.
La transgression crétacée marine n’est certaine que pour
l’époque cénomanienne.
A partir de l’Erg d’Isaouan vers le Sud on ne trouve plus de
formations crétacées ou secondaires avant le Soudan où le Crétacé
affleure au Sud du Massif Central Saharien ancien, suivant une
bande continue, entre le 16e et le 18e degrés de latitude, allant de la
région d’Agadès à Tabanckort, dans laquelle l’on retrouve le pendant
des krebs de Tinghert dans ceux de Tamaïa.
Au Sud de l’Erg d’Isaouan s’étendent donc les pays primaires du
Massif Central Saharien.
[2] Ou des mouvements épirogéniques.

[3] Ou, si l’on préfère, « que l’Afrique du Nord ayant été moins
émergée au Pliocène qu’aujourd’hui la mer ait occupé alors par le
seuil de Gabès une partie de cette cuvette pour en disparaître, etc. »
[4] Altitude du seuil : 47 mètres ; le seuil rocheux a été trouvé par les
sondages de la mission Roudeyre à 15 mètres seulement d’altitude.
Ce seuil rocheux aurait provoqué la formation d’une barre. Cette
barre aurait contribué à l’établissement d’un milieu de salure et de
faune spéciale.
[5] Ou, si l’on préfère, des mouvements épirogéniques de la région
méditerranéenne.
[6] Il est vrai que dans les dépressions de l’oued Mzezem et du Houd-
ech-Cheb sur les bords sud-tunisiens du Grand Erg Oriental, au Nord
de Rhadamès et sur la frontière tripolitaine, Pervinquière a signalé la
présence en abondance du Cardium edule et que ces cuvettes par
leurs dépôts ne semblent pas pouvoir être considérées comme ayant
été nettement marines (absence de NaCl dans les dépôts). Mais ces
cuvettes peuvent avoir eu un étroit voisinage marin ou des
connexions éphémères avec la mer ; par leur altitude (280 m.), elles
ne pouvaient être très loin du golfe méditerranéen ; enfin il a pu se
produire une sorte de lessive ou autre opération chimique dans ces
dépôts qui expliquerait cette absence de NaCl.
[7] Je rappelle également la découverte d’une proue de galère dans
la région des Chotts.
Les Chotts, actuellement, ne se prêteraient guère à la vie active
d’une galère ; cette trouvaille peut faire penser ainsi que le
desséchement des résidus des golfes sahariens plio-pléistocènes
s’est parachevé pendant la période historique ; et l’on ne saurait ne
pas évoquer ici le souvenir du lac Triton des écrivains latins.
[8] Car la question de ce golfe se pose non moins sérieusement ;
mais j’ai traité plus particulièrement dans ce paragraphe du golfe
méditerranéen sud-constantinois qui rentre seul dans le cadre de ce
chapitre intitulé : « du Sahara arabe sud-constantinois ».
[9] Tinrert en Tamahak est un diminutif de inrer qui veut dire ravin.
[10] Ou que cette présence soit due à l’influence de la mer dont il est
parlé plus haut ; mais cette hypothèse est peu probable. Le golfe
lagunaire ne semble pas avoir eu une si vaste extension, et son
caractère lagunaire ne permet peut-être pas d’imaginer de pareils
transports de galets qui paraissent d’ailleurs originaires de l’Ahaggar.
[11] Cette formation de sable aux dépens du sous-sol s’impose
particulièrement à l’esprit dans des régions voisines : les régions
d’affleurement des formations sableuses de la base de la série
crétacée.
[12] L’action des orages violents se traduit en particulier par l’action
dissolvante des eaux de ruissellement pour dissoudre les éléments
solubles si abondants dans les formations crétacées de cette région
et jouer un rôle important dans leur désagrégation.
[13] Il convient de remarquer que cette faune du Djoua peut être
constituée par des éléments de dates diverses réunis par les hasards
de l’inondation, et qu’on ne sait pas bien ce qu’il convient de
considérer comme réellement originaire des argiles et lentilles
sableuses ou gréseuses du fond du Djoua. M. Haug a cru pouvoir
admettre que la Desertella Foureaui avait été apportée par les eaux.
Cela ne donne pas grande confiance en l’homogénéité réelle de cette
faune.
DU PROJET DE TRANSSAHARIEN SOULEYRE
APTITUDE DU SOL A RECEVOIR UNE VOIE FERRÉE

ET RESSOURCES EN EAU
DANS LES PAYS CRÉTACICO-TERTIAIRES
SUD-CONSTANTINOIS
(Extrait d’un rapport fait pour M. Fock.)
I
Aptitude du sol à recevoir une voie ferrée dans les régions du
Gassi Touil et du Tinghert.
a) Gassi Touil.
J’ai longé le Gassi Touil par son bord Ouest[14] sur une longueur
de 100 kilomètres environ, jusqu’à sa terminaison Sud à Hassi Pujat.
J’ai pu constater que le Gassi Touil offre dans cette partie, qui est
sa partie méridionale, à travers les masses considérables de sable
du Grand Erg Oriental, un passage dégagé de sable — très large
(de 10 à 20 km. en moyenne, parfois 30 km. et même 40) — au sol
de cailloutis, de « reg » remarquablement plat.
Dans cette partie du Gassi Touil que j’ai vue, on trouve des îlots
de dunes d’une ampleur assez considérable, mais je n’ai pas
observé de chaînes de dunes traversant le Gassi Touil d’une rive à
l’autre, ainsi que cela est fréquent dans les autres gassis.
Il semble donc que l’on puisse dans cette partie du Gassi Touil se
maintenir constamment sur un sol de reg, poser la voie ferrée
partout sur du reg.
Je ne puis donner sur le reste du Gassi Touil un avis fondé
autrement que sur des renseignements car je ne l’ai pas vu moi-
même.
Mes renseignements me donnent lieu d’espérer que le Gassi
Touil, au point de vue qui nous intéresse, est de nature homogène et
que sa partie septentrionale est assez semblable à la partie
méridionale que je connais.
Ainsi donc, le Gassi Touil se prête, par la nature et la forme de
son sol, à l’établissement d’une voie ferrée — dans sa partie
méridionale, je peux l’affirmer — dans sa partie septentrionale, cela
me paraît vraisemblable.
La nature du pays n’est inquiétante qu’au point de vue des suites
de cet établissement.
Que résultera-t-il à son point de vue de la naissance de cette
voie ferrée dans le Gassi Touil ?
N’est-il pas à craindre que, obstacle opposé au libre
déchaînement des vents sahariens dans l’immensité si dépourvue
d’aspérités du Gassi Touil et au cœur du vaste pays de sable du
Grand Erg Oriental, la voie ne provoque son ensablement ?
Quelle ampleur pourrait prendre cet ensablement ? Arriverait-il à
empêcher la circulation des trains, ou resterait-il négligeable ou
seulement gênant ?
Au cas où cet ensablement se produirait et deviendrait inquiétant,
y aurait-il des moyens de lutter efficacement, y aurait-il moyen de
triompher indéfiniment ; si l’on ne pouvait que lutter temporairement,
la durée de cette lutte jusqu’au moment inéluctable où la voie
deviendrait inutilisable serait-elle suffisamment longue et son prix de
revient suffisamment faible pour permettre, malgré cet ensablement
prévu, de considérer l’établissement de cette voie ferrée comme
légitime cependant et comme une bonne affaire ?
Telles sont les questions qui se présentent immédiatement — et
qu’il est nécessaire de soulever au passage dans cet aperçu rapide
— questions relatives à l’ensablement éventuel de la voie du Gassi
Touil.
J’ai tendance à croire qu’en prenant, par prudence, certaines
précautions, en particulier en faisant toujours passer la voie à la
distance la plus grande possible des rives du Gassi et des îlots de
dunes, l’ensablement de la voie ferrée du Gassi Touil — s’il se
produisait — n’arriverait pas à devenir désastreux dans des délais
inacceptables.
Mais, pour pouvoir tabler sur des certitudes, il conviendrait de
faire l’expérience suivante, par exemple : poser une centaine de
mètres de voies ferrées dans le Gassi Touil et observer si un
ensablement se produit au bout de quelques mois et ses
proportions.
On ne peut guère considérer la voie ferrée Biskra-Touggourt
comme susceptible de donner des bases de prévision sur la
question ensablement dans le Gassi Touil, ces régions étant peu
comparables à ce point de vue spécial.
b) La région du Tinghert.
J’ai traversé la Hamada de Tinghert par Hassi Pujat et Tanezrouft

pour aboutir à Fort Flatters.
A Hassi Pujat et à Tanezrouft, j’ai ainsi eu l’occasion de voir ce
que l’on considère comme le lit de l’Igharghar.
Sans doute, il y a là un passage tentant pour l’établissement
d’une voie ferrée ; mais il convient de faire remarquer : d’une part,
qu’à Tanezrouft l’oued vient avec une grande violence après la
pluie[15] et qu’une voie ferrée suivant le fond de la vallée sans
dispositifs spéciaux en vue de la venue de l’oued aurait à subir
éventuellement de graves dommages[16] ; d’autre part, que certaines
des formations des flancs de la vallée, au Nord de Tanezrouft
(argiles à gypse), présentent de graves inconvénients pour
l’établissement d’une voie ferrée à flanc de coteau (possibilités de
glissements, eaux séléniteuses attaquant les ciments, etc. (il est vrai
qu’on fabrique maintenant des ciments résistant aux eaux
séléniteuses)[17].
Telles sont les difficultés à envisager pour l’établissement d’une
voie ferrée à travers la Hamada de Tinghert par la vallée attribuée à
l’Igharghar passant à Tanezrouft.
Je n’ai pas suivi la vallée au Sud de Tanezrouft, ayant dû passer
à travers la Hamada pour gagner directement Fort Flatters ; je n’en
ai eu qu’un aperçu du haut de la gara Tanezrouft : elle va[18] vers le
Sud-Ouest, vers la dépression Sud-Tinghert, en s’élargissant, calme
et majestueuse et offrant un passage évidemment tentant.
Pour la traversée de la Hamada de Tinghert, après avoir franchi
le défilé de Hassi Pujat qui s’impose pour échapper aux sables qui
couvrent les premiers plateaux, je crois qu’il serait bon de rechercher
un tracé passant sur les plateaux plutôt que par la vallée de
Tanezrouft.
Cela nécessiterait quelques travaux d’art pour franchir les krebs,
mais on y gagnerait un bon sol de hamada et la tranquillité lors des
pluies (on n’aurait plus alors à craindre les crises de violence de
l’oued Tanezrouft).
C’est une étude à faire.
II
Ressources en eau.
Sur le parcours dont je viens d’étudier la viabilité, je conçois
l’établissement d’une Centrale d’eau au voisinage de Temassinin.
Centrale d’eau de Temassinin.
a) Eaux artésiennes.
Il existe à la Zaouia de Sidi Moussa un puits artésien. A mon

passage, j’y ai abreuvé mes chameaux et ai pu constater que l’eau y
jaillissait en abondance (pour ces régions).
Je ne saurais donner d’indication précise sur le débit de ce puits,
n’ayant fait que passer très rapidement et ayant eu d’autres
préoccupations. Ce n’est qu’une vague impression que je peux
indiquer ici : ce puits atteindrait un débit d’une dizaine de litres à la
seconde que je n’en serais pas surpris.
Le puits artésien de la Zaouia est déjà un élément précieux et
peut-être suffisant (j’ignore quels seraient les besoins de la voie
ferrée) ; son eau pourrait être amenée, par gravité et par conduites,
jusqu’au voisinage immédiat de la voie ferrée (20 km. environ,
puisqu’on est obligé de passer à cette distance de Fort Flatters pour
éviter les sables).
Il est vraisemblable que des recherches d’eau artésienne
auraient du succès dans cette dépression Sud-Tinghert, dans
laquelle se trouve Temassinin.
On peut espérer un sondage heureux, mais il faut escompter des
déboires et ne pas compter sur le succès du premier sondage.
Les eaux artésiennes sont vraisemblablement emprisonnées
dans les niveaux de grès sableux crétacés plus ou moins
lenticulaires qui sont pincés dans les marnes et argiles
imperméables de la base du Cénomanien ou leur sont inférieurs.
Tous ces niveaux sableux ne sont pas forcément des asiles
d’eaux artésiennes ; il faut qu’ils soient dans certaines conditions
particulières, et nous ne connaissons pas encore suffisamment le
bassin de Temassinin pour donner un diagnostic sûr.
On comprend dès lors que nous déclarions qu’il faut espérer un
sondage heureux.
Si l’on désire rechercher des eaux artésiennes dans la
dépression Sud-Tinghert, il conviendrait de ne pas agir par coups de
sonde désordonnés, ainsi que cela fut trop souvent le cas dans
l’oued Rhir.
Il conviendrait, croyons-nous, de pousser des sondages
méthodiquement, c’est-à-dire faire un premier sondage à un
emplacement indiqué sur le terrain par un géologue ayant quelque
expérience à ce sujet.
Faire suivre le sondage par le géologue en question qui serait en
observateur sur les lieux. Ce géologue aurait qualité pour arrêter le
sondage lorsqu’il estimerait que, par suite de l’âge ou de la qualité
des formations atteintes, il n’y a plus lieu de continuer.
Puis, avec l’enseignement de ce premier sondage, il pourrait en
être entrepris d’autres aux emplacements désignés par lui et
toujours suivis.
Le géologue se prononcerait également sur l’opportunité de
poursuivre chacun de ces sondages ou de les arrêter.
Ainsi, on évitera : de poursuivre un sondage alors que
scientifiquement il n’y a plus d’espoir d’un ordre dont on puisse tenir
compte ; de ne pas tirer de chaque sondage la leçon précieuse qu’il
peut procurer pour les recherches ultérieures ou en cours.
Enfin, en cas d’insuccès répétés, dès qu’il estimera avoir
suffisamment d’éléments pour juger de la question, le géologue se
prononcera sur la nécessité de poursuivre l’ensemble des
recherches ou de les arrêter.
Au besoin, il pourra être adjoint un sourcier au géologue,
l’expérience ayant montré que, malgré beaucoup d’insuccès, les
indications de certains baguettisants peuvent parfois se trouver
justes, quoique la réalité de la sensibilité à l’eau ne soit pas encore
démontrée scientifiquement.
Le géologue pourrait choisir de préférence les points de sondage
qui lui seraient indiqués comme particulièrement propices à la fois
par sa science et par le sourcier. Cela pour mettre le plus de
chances de son côté.
Mais il conviendrait, croyons-nous, de donner tout pouvoir au
géologue, qui ne tiendrait compte des indications du sourcier que s’il
hésitait entre plusieurs emplacements également indiqués au point
de vue scientifique.
Le sourcier ne serait nullement nécessaire. Le géologue
absolument nécessaire si l’on veut travailler méthodiquement et
arriver au succès par le moins grand nombre de sondages.
Le géologue devrait auparavant se familiariser avec les
recherches, très spéciales, d’eaux artésiennes dans l’oued Rhir par
exemple, en suivant quelques sondages et en consultant les
archives des sondages passés, car les recherches d’eaux
artésiennes ne sont pas si simples qu’il paraît à première vue : un
sondage placé à 15 mètres d’un autre qui a trouvé l’eau à 50 mètres
pourra ne la trouver qu’à 70 mètres, etc.
Je n’ai pas la place dans ce rapport rapide de tenter d’exposer
comment il peut en être ainsi, mais je tiens à attirer l’attention sur la
complexité de la recherche des eaux artésiennes.
Il est vrai que dans les archives on ne trouverait peut-être pas de
renseignements géologiques bien précis sur les couches
rencontrées par chaque sondage ; la méthode du géologue
observateur n’ayant malheureusement pas, à ma connaissance, été
suivie avec continuité dans l’oued Rhir.
Cette campagne de recherches d’eaux artésiennes, en cas de
succès, pourrait avoir une grande importance pour le développement
de la région de Temassinin.
Elle pourrait également, éventuellement, dans ces conditions,
nous révéler des choses intéressantes sur les ressources du sous-
sol.
Profondeur des sondages. — Il me semble me rappeler que

le sondage heureux de la Zaouia de Temassinin ne dépasse pas 20
mètres.
Quoi qu’il en soit, ainsi que je l’ai indiqué plus haut, les eaux
artésiennes semblent se rencontrer à la base du Cénomanien.
Il en est de même en différents endroits du pourtour de la vaste
cuvette crétacico-tertiaire du Sud-Constantinois.
Les formations primaires, jusqu’à maintenant, ne se sont pas
révélées dans ces régions, d’une façon positive, détentrices d’eaux
artésiennes.
C’est donc aux formations primaires qu’il conviendrait d’arrêter
les sondages dans ces recherches d’eaux artésiennes.
Or, l’épaisseur des formations qui surmontent le Primaire dans la
dépression Sud-Tinghert ne semble pas considérable, quoique les
sables cachant le contact en surface au Sud de Temassinin
empêchent de donner des précisions avec sûreté.
Je crois qu’elles peuvent être considérées en moyenne comme
d’une épaisseur inférieure à 70 mètres, au maximum à 100 mètres.
Le succès peut évidemment se révéler avant cette profondeur,
puisqu’à la Zaouia, ainsi que je l’ai indiqué plus haut, il me semble
me rappeler qu’il fut obtenu avant 20 mètres.
Mais il est sage, pour le premier sondage, de partir de la
prévision de 100 mètres, c’est-à-dire partir avec un tubage de
diamètre suffisamment grand pour atteindre cette profondeur avec
un bon calibre.
En cas d’insuccès de ce premier sondage, c’est-à-dire au cas où
l’on aurait atteint les formations primaires sans rencontrer d’eaux
artésiennes, on pourra en déduire pour les autres sondages à quelle
profondeur approximative on rencontrera pour chacun le Primaire et
ainsi la profondeur approximative à laquelle on devra pousser
chaque sondage tant qu’il ne rencontrerait pas d’eaux artésiennes,
avant de l’arrêter.
Quant à pousser plus profond que le contact crétacico-primaire,
cela serait évidemment intéressant et satisferait la curiosité de
certains, mais ce ne serait pas les eaux artésiennes qui ont « montré
le nez » à la Zaouia, qui sont donc bien une réalité — dont on ignore
seulement l’extension et la répartition — que l’on rechercherait, ce
seraient des eaux artésiennes qui, si elles existent, n’ont encore
« montré le nez » nulle part d’une façon décisive, dont on n’a encore
aucune preuve de l’existence, dont l’on peut tout juste prétendre
considérer comme des indices certains points d’eau situés dans le
Carbonifère et certaines sources très timides qui se rencontrent au
contact des Pays pré-tassiliens et de l’Enceinte tassilienne, contre
les Grès supérieurs des Tassilis, lorsqu’ils se dressent pour former
les bombements ou plateaux de l’Enceinte tassilienne, tels que Aïne
Ksob, Aïne Redjem, Tanelak, Tazzait, etc.
Et en admettant que ces points d’eaux et sources soient en
relation avec des eaux artésiennes en pression dans et sous les
formations des Pays pré-tassiliens, dans la région de Temassinin
ces eaux ne pourraient être rencontrées qu’à une grande
profondeur, et on ne peut conseiller la recherche d’eaux encore
hypothétiques à cette profondeur. Il faudrait qu’il n’y en ait pas
d’autres à envisager, ce qui n’est pas le cas, ou que l’on tienne à
s’édifier sur les ressources en eau de ces formations primaires.
Si l’on peut perdre quelque argent pour s’édifier à ce sujet, l’on
pourra pousser le premier sondage très profond (300 m.). Quant aux
autres sondages, naturellement il conviendra toujours — à moins
que le premier sondage n’ait révélé du nouveau — de les arrêter aux
formations primaires, car la recherche jusqu’à ces formations est
seule conseillée par la réalité.
On devra, dans le choix des emplacements de sondages, choisir
de préférence, à chance égale, les emplacements les plus près de la
voie ferrée.
Au total, pour la Centrale d’eau de la dépression Sud-Tinghert,
comme eaux artésiennes :
1º On peut compter sur un débit assez sérieux déjà existant à la

Zaouia de Sidi Moussa à Temassinin et que l’on pourrait amener par
conduite jusqu’à la voie ferrée ;
2º On peut espérer légitimement, par une campagne de
sondages méthodiques, faire jaillir d’autres eaux artésiennes.
Dans la dépression Sud-Tinghert, et en étant plutôt pessimiste

(car j’ai été volontairement plutôt pessimiste), on peut espérer que la
profondeur des sondages n’aura pas à dépasser 100 mètres.
b) Eaux non artésiennes.
En plus de ces eaux artésiennes, il convient d’indiquer qu’il existe

un puits à Fort Flatters, d’une profondeur, à mon lointain souvenir,
d’environ 80 mètres, fournissant une excellente eau potable.
On peut compter sur le succès certain de puits du même ordre
de profondeur dans la dépression Sud-Tinghert et, en raison de
l’existence de puits beaucoup moins profonds (Tab-Tab), il est très
fondé de l’espérer à une profondeur beaucoup moindre, tout en
étant plutôt pessimiste, comme je m’en fais un devoir dans cette
étude, afin de ne pas exposer à des désillusions.
L’emplacement exact en devrait être désigné autant que possible
par un géologue.
c) Conclusions.
On voit que les ressources en eaux, dont pourrait disposer la

Centrale d’eau de la dépression Sud-Tinghert, sont très
satisfaisantes, soit par les éléments déjà existants, soit par ceux que
l’on est en droit d’espérer.
d) Recherches d’eau dans le Gassi Touil.
Cette eau pourra être refoulée sur une hauteur de la Hamada de

Tinghert pour alimenter par gravité la voie du Gassi Touil, car au
Nord de Tanezrouft, dont l’étude suit, l’étude des puits existants,
d’ailleurs rares et souvent morts[19], n’encourage pas beaucoup à
faire des recherches d’eau dans ces régions. Elles ne donneraient
probablement, vers 80 ou 100 mètres seulement semble-t-il, que des
eaux très mauvaises, non artésiennes, peut-être peu abondantes et
dont on ne peut affirmer qu’elles dureraient longtemps, et au delà, si
elles parvenaient à des eaux artésiennes, ce qui serait sans
précédent dans la région, ces recherches n’obtiendraient
vraisemblablement ce succès qu’à une profondeur difficile à estimer
en l’absence de précédents, mais que l’on ne peut guère espérer, je
crois, devoir être inférieure à 200 mètres (profondeur à laquelle on
peut espérer rencontrer les argiles à niveaux sableux de la base du

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Neuroscience for Neurosurgeons (Feb 29,

10 POLITICS AND THE MEDIA 216

13 THE BUREAUCRACY 288

16 FOREIGN POLICY 356

PUBLIC POLICY 334 16–1a The President’s Role 358

16–2c The World Wars 361

15 DOMESTIC POLICY 334

2. Direct Democracy Today

T W O P O I N T S TO R E M E M B E R ▸ Mnemonic (pronounced ne-mon-ik) devices

more in your subject outline.

▸ When you first receive your exam, make sure

Effective writing flows from a purpose. Think

respond after considering your ideas.

Phase 3: Revising Your Draft

During this phase, keep in mind the saying,

publication date, location

GET • Which Founder Are You? The National Constitutional Cen-

INFORMED .org/foundersquiz to discover which Founding Fa-

• The U.S. Constitution is an important part of the

Check the Data

Keep Up during Election Season Monitor Money and

GET discussions into a blog. Create videos of events you

INVOLVED start a petition.

Join a Group on Campus

HF for a campaign you’re interested in on

cast media are your

Mais, jusqu’à maintenant on niait qu’il y ait dans le Sahara

Des troncs d’arbres silicifiés.

Quelle est la date à laquelle il faut faire remonter la constitution

Du Crétacé de Tinghert et du Djoua.

[2] Ou des mouvements épirogéniques.

APTITUDE DU SOL A RECEVOIR UNE VOIE FERRÉE

J’ai traversé la Hamada de Tinghert par Hassi Pujat et Tanezrouft

Centrale d’eau de Temassinin.

Il existe à la Zaouia de Sidi Moussa un puits artésien. A mon

Profondeur des sondages. — Il me semble me rappeler que

1º On peut compter sur un débit assez sérieux déjà existant à la

Dans la dépression Sud-Tinghert, et en étant plutôt pessimiste

b) Eaux non artésiennes.

En plus de ces eaux artésiennes, il convient d’indiquer qu’il existe

On voit que les ressources en eaux, dont pourrait disposer la

d) Recherches d’eau dans le Gassi Touil.

Cette eau pourra être refoulée sur une hauteur de la Hamada de

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