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 PA L G R AV E S T U D I E S I N

GLOBAL
HIGHER
E D U C AT I O N

25 YEARS OF
T R A N S F O R M AT I O N S O F
H I G H E R E D U C AT I O N S Y S T E M S
I N P O S T- S O V I E T C O U N T R I E S
REFORM AND CONTINUITY

EDITED BY JEROEN HUISMAN,

A N N A S M O L E N T S E VA , I S A K F R O U M I N
Palgrave Studies in Global Higher Education

Series Editors
Roger King
School of Management
University of Bath
Bath, UK

Jenny Lee
Centre for the Study of Higher Education
University of Arizona
Tuscon, Arizona, USA

Simon Marginson
Institute of Education
University College London
London, UK

Rajani Naidoo
School of Management
University of Bath
Bath, UK
This series aims to explore the globalization of higher education and the
impact this has had on education systems around the world including East
Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and the US. Analyzing HE systems
and policy this series will provide a comprehensive overview of how HE
within different nations and/or regions is responding to the new age of
universal mass higher education.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14624
 Jeroen Huisman • Anna Smolentseva
Isak Froumin
Editors

25 Years of
Transformations of
Higher Education
Systems in Post-Soviet
Countries
Reform and Continuity
Editors
Jeroen Huisman Anna Smolentseva
University of Ghent National Research University
Ghent, Belgium Higher School of Economics
Moscow, Russia
Isak Froumin
National Research University
Higher School of Economics
Moscow, Russia

Palgrave Studies in Global Higher Education

ISBN 978-3-319-52979-0    ISBN 978-3-319-52980-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52980-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017964090

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This book is an open access
publication
Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use,
sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you
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Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
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exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
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nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
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Cover credit: Utamaru Kido / Getty Stock Images

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer

International Publishing AG part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This volume is dedicated to the memory of our colleagues, Dmitry Semyonov,
Evgeny Kniazev and Natalya Drantusova, in recognition of their original
contribution to the study of post-Soviet higher education and its
institutional landscape.
 Preface: Challenges and Advantages of
Exploring Post-Soviet Higher Education

The Soviet Union fell apart a quarter of a century ago. Fifteen newly born
countries started their independent development in 1991 and a formerly
unified higher education system was divided up. The basic commonality of
Soviet design at the beginning of the independent era and the dramatic
transformations of the post-Soviet period serve as the point of departure
for this study.
Post-Soviet countries have different histories, and their socialist past is
not the only thing that builds their identities. Yet, it would be incorrect to
deny the significance of such a long and intense period in their national
histories. This experience is still on the table. Politicians, experts and aca-
demics still often discuss the present while referring to the past. However,
such references are not enough to grasp the effect of the Soviet past on
modern states and bring insights to understand the further development
of these societies. Both academic and pragmatic discourse lack a wide sys-
temic picture.
The studies of post-socialist countries are especially crucial as they
debunk the myths. Soviet society was not monolithic. Norms and practices
changed over time and varied among communities. Identification of the
real differences and similarities beyond the proclaimed statements is
important and requires a generous amount of ambitious studies.
Nevertheless, even very general assumptions about the Soviet past can
result in great contributions to the discussion, especially if the research is
comparative. Juxtaposition can reveal the core rationales for changes and
the foundations of the current state of affairs. The simultaneous start of

vii
viii PREFACE: CHALLENGES AND ADVANTAGES OF EXPLORING POST-SOVIET...

countries’ own trajectories makes the observed period the field of ‘natural
experiment’ which should be described.
In studies of post-Soviet higher education, researchers usually focus on
particular issues. Academic discourse consists of a number papers that
investigate several topics of higher education development (e.g. outcomes
of reforms, internationalization, academic profession); they often consider
several countries of the post-Soviet space. Yet, we rarely see articles which
elaborate on higher education systemic development in its entirety. In
order to investigate a given problem, researchers naturally have to limit
the comprehensiveness of view. We therefore saw a niche for a book that
would contribute to building the background for further studies.
Context matters. That is why the design of this book reflects the diver-
sity of national pathways in higher education. At the start, we were faced
with several alternatives to proceed with the book composition. On the
one hand, the narrative could have flowed around particular aggregated
categories, with the chapters covering as many countries as possible. The
topics could have been major sets of reforms, fluctuations in basic system
indicators, or problems to be resolved in the context of higher education
development. However, after several discussions, we selected a more
demanding approach which, on the bright side, promised a deep and pro-
found contribution. This book is a collection of country cases, each of
them shaped in accordance with a common framework, yet each country
chapter provides a comprehensive view. The introduction chapter aims to
reveal a cumulative understanding of the object of study and the topic of
the higher education landscape in general.
Writing in this manner demanded extensive expertise from the contribu-
tors as well as their being personally embedded in the contexts. The search
for authors was a tricky task. The complicated process of finding academi-
cally relevant people required enlisting the efforts of several layers in our
professional networks. Fortunately, the idea behind the study and the ambi-
tion to cover the whole set of post-Soviet countries appealed to a number
of people around the globe, to whom we are thankful for their help.
The states examined have gone through hard times. We did not pur-
posefully pick the moment for the start of the project, but by chance the
two years of the study turned out to be an extraordinary period for this
part of the world. Under these conditions, the outstanding academic
integrity and ethics of the authors and editors became a real asset for the
project.
 PREFACE: CHALLENGES AND ADVANTAGES OF EXPLORING POST-SOVIET...
   ix

The second major challenge in the fulfilment of this task was obviously
the lack of data. First of all, due to a number of reasons, data is not likely
to be available for the countries studied. Our retrospective view intended
to involve some dynamic pictures. We faced difficulties in collecting and
comparing even aggregate numbers. At the beginning we were lacking
such common characteristics as number of higher education institutions
and student body in private sector, funding and research performance in
higher education, and so on.
Moreover, investigation of the institutional landscape requires a capa-
bility to differentiate the types of HEIs and their roles in the system. The
wide variations between countries, especially in the size of their higher
education systems, make it impossible to rely on a universalistic approach
to data collection and analysis. Such an approach might have weakened
the results. Due to these reasons a mixed approach was selected. The
authors used both qualitative and quantitative methods. Analyses were
based on a number of expert interviews, fragments of data and literature
reviews. In every case, the choice of relevant techniques and methodology
resulted from numerous discussions between the respective authors, edi-
tors and the coordination team.
We hope that this study will make one more step in the gradual move-
ment towards opening up opportunities for research on the post-Soviet
space built on transparent data and keen academic interest. Based on results
of the project, we created a web timeline of higher education key policy
events in all post-Soviet countries. We expect that the scope of this tool will
expand, and it will aggregate more useful information for further work.
The demand for a thorough grasp of post-Soviet higher education
transformations in each former Soviet Republic seemed natural at the
start. Basically, we assumed that national higher education systems reflect
changes in societies and the economic and political environment. The
institutional landscape of higher education, the structure of the system
and the set of ‘rules of the game’ can tell us a great deal about the society
in which they are rooted.

Moscow, Russia Dmitry Semyonov

 Daria Platonova
 Acknowledgements

This book is a result of the international research project ‘Higher Education

Dynamics and Institutional Diversity in Post-Soviet Countries’. The idea
of a study covering the national higher education systems of the entirety
of the former USSR emerged at the National Research University Higher
School of Economics (HSE) in 2012–2013.
This project continued two previous HSE studies. In 2012, Evgeny
Knyazev and Natalya Drantusova reopened the discussion about the insti-
tutional landscape in Russian higher education. They started to develop a
project framework to explore higher education institution types and their
transformations and released several papers on the issue. Regretfully, in
November 2013, a sudden tragedy in the sky terminated their lives. We
dedicate this book to the memory of our colleagues.
In 2013, Isak Froumin, Yaroslav Kouzminov and Dmitry Semyonov
attracted attention to the issue of the evolution of higher education institu-
tions in Russia. In their paper they conceptualized the idea of studying
institutional diversity as a result of transformations in the broader environ-
ment and higher education policy in particular. Obviously, the Soviet legacy
became a natural object to address, as well as the post-dissolution period.
This retrospective approach became the core for the post-Soviet research.
Hence, in 2014, thanks to the inspiration and tremendous support of
the Institute of Education (HSE), we took the opportunity to launch
research on higher education development in all 15 countries. From the
very beginning, we received full endorsement and strong support for
the study from Yaroslav Kouzminov, rector of the HSE, who shared his
­expertise and participated in discussions.

xi
xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Such a voluminous and complex study would not be meaningful with-

out discussions with our colleagues around the world. Martin Carnoy
(Stanford University) took a significant part in shaping the idea.
With such a scale and diversity of cases, it is hard to overestimate the
heroic work of the editors: Anna Smolentseva, Jeroen Huisman, Isak
Froumin. After several rounds of discussions with them, the research
became focused on the two key issues—higher education policy changes
and institutional diversity in all post-Soviet countries.
Jeroen Huisman came up with a framework which laid out the ground
for all the authors. The straightforward and consistent design of the com-
parative research vitalized the whole idea. Thanks to his efforts, the case
studies remained focused on the most important issues. His accurate and
careful attention to each chapter has ensured that this book complies with
modern academic standards.
The enormous efforts of Anna Smolentseva, both in content develop-
ment and communication with the authors, made this book come to life.
Her ability to assemble the whole picture gave the common output its
consistency. The extensive expertise and enthusiasm of Isak Froumin wid-
ened the book’s ambition and outlook. His passionate approach pushed
the matter through even the most problematic situations.
We would like to thank the World Bank Moscow Office for its organi-
zational support. Our personal thanks are extended to Denis Nikolaev and
Kirill Vasiliev for their help in the recruitment of the research teams, as
well as for fruitful discussions and participation in the project workshops.
Support from the Basic Research Programme of the National Research
University Higher School of Economics is also gratefully acknowledged.
We would also like to thank Amanda Schimunek for her high-quality
language editing and Natalia Rosyaikina for the administrative support.
The team of the Laboratory for University Development (Institute of
Education, HSE) backed us throughout. Their engagement imparted a lot
of confidence and provided the solid base for thoughts and coordination.
The spin-off of the study, the web timeline of higher education changes,
was developed by Lukas Bischof as a leader, Zumrad Kataeva and Daria
Platonova.
In 2016 the summary articles on the country cases of the prospective
book were published in the newsletter Higher Education in Russia and
Beyond (HERB), #2(8)-2016.1 The issue Higher Education Landscape in
Post-Soviet Countries: 25 Years of Changes gained a lot of interest from the
readers around the globe, which reassured our belief in the relevance of
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
   xiii

the book to the academic demand. The credit for this goes to the HERB
editorial team and coordinators, who came up with an idea and got the
issue perfectly fulfilled.
Our greatest acknowledgement is reserved for the 31 researchers for
the country case studies, who committed themselves to this project for
two years, who were so involved in discussions, who hunted down the pre-
cious data and who so patiently worked through the several versions.
Thanks to their energies, the project was enriched by the several work-
shops and panels around the world. During the Conference of the Russian
Association of Higher Education Researchers (RAHER) in 2014 and in
2015, we held project workshops in Moscow (Russia), where all the
research teams presented the results. We would like to thank Mark Johnson
for his great contribution to the discussion and fruitful comments.
With active participation of the research teams, we had project panels
and roundtables at the CIES Annual Conference in Washington D.C.
(USA) in 2015, where Stephen Heyneman (Vanderbilt University) pro-
vided very helpful feedback to the idea and preliminary findings. Also, some
reflections had been presented at the session at the European Conference
on Educational Research (ECER) in 2015 in Budapest (Hungary).
This book could only have happened thanks to the efforts of this large
and diverse team of ambitious researchers.

Postscript
When this book was ready for print we received tragic news. Dmitry
Semyonov, director of our research project, died in a car crash at the age
of 31. During his short life he created the strong academic unit at the
Institute of Education – Laboratory for Universities Development focused
on higher education studies. He was a very creative leader who proposed
exciting new topics for study. His studies and publications informed
Russian higher education policies.
He was a real leader of our project. He managed to mobilize 15 research
teams and the editors. He raised funds, organized seminars and work-
shops, was involved in data collection and initiated substantive discussions.
We will always remember the joy of working with him.

Note
1. https://herb.hse.ru/en/2016--2(8).html
 Contents

1 Transformation of Higher Education Institutional

Landscape in Post-Soviet Countries: From Soviet Model
to Where?   1
Anna Smolentseva, Jeroen Huisman, and Isak Froumin

2 Common Legacy: Evolution of the Institutional

Landscape of Soviet Higher Education  45
Isak Froumin and Yaroslav Kouzminov

3 Armenia: Transformational Peculiarities of the Soviet

and Post-Soviet Higher Education System  73
Susanna Karakhanyan

4 Higher Education Transformation, Institutional Diversity

and Typology of Higher Education Institutions
in Azerbaijan  97
Hamlet Isakhanli and Aytaj Pashayeva

5 Belarus: Higher Education Dynamics and Institutional

Landscape 123
Olga Gille-Belova and Larissa Titarenko

xv
xvi Contents

6 Inverted U-shape of Estonian Higher Education: Post-

Socialist Liberalism and Postpostsocialist Consolidation 149
Ellu Saar and Triin Roosalu

7 Georgia: Higher Education System Dynamics

and Institutional Diversity 175
Lela Chakhaia and Tamar Bregvadze

8 Looking at Kazakhstan’s Higher Education Landscape:

From Transition to Transformation Between 1920
and 2015 199
Elise S. Ahn, John Dixon, and Larissa Chekmareva

9 Institutional Strategies of Higher Education Reform

in Post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan: Differentiating to Survive
Between State and Market 229
Jarkyn Shadymanova and Sarah Amsler

10 Latvia: A Historical Analysis of Transformation

and Diversification of the Higher Education System 259
Ali Ait Si Mhamed, Zane Vārpiņa, Indra Dedze, and Rita
Kaša

11 Lithuanian Higher Education: Between Path Dependence

and Change 285
Liudvika Leišytė, Anna-Lena Rose, and Elena
Schimmelpfennig

12 Moldova: Institutions Under Stress—The Past,

the Present and the Future of Moldova’s Higher
Education System 311
Lukas Bischof and Alina Tofan
 Contents 
   xvii

13 Russia: The Institutional Landscape of Russian Higher

Education 337
Daria Platonova and Dmitry Semyonov

14 Higher Education in Tajikistan: Institutional Landscape

and Key Policy Developments 363
Alan J. DeYoung, Zumrad Kataeva, and Dilrabo Jonbekova

15 The Transformation of Higher Education

in Turkmenistan: Continuity and Change 387
Victoria Clement and Zumrad Kataeva

16 Ukraine: Higher Education Reforms and Dynamics

of the Institutional Landscape 407
Nataliya L. Rumyantseva and Olena I. Logvynenko

17 Uzbekistan: Higher Education Reforms and

the Changing Landscape Since Independence 435
Kobil Ruziev and Umar Burkhanov

Appendix  461
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Governance of Soviet higher education and research in the

1980s (Source: Zinov’ev and Filippov 1983) 54
Fig. 2.2 Number of HEIs in the USSR (Source: Authors using
data from Narodnoye obrazovaniye i kultura v USSR:
Statisticheskiy ezhegodnik [Education and Culture
in the USSR: Statistic Yearbook] (1989). Moscow:
Finansy i statistika) 61
Fig. 2.3 Graduates by form of education (Source: Authors
using data from Narodnoye obrazovaniye i kultura v USSR:
Statisticheskiy ezhegodnik [Education and Culture in
the USSR: Statistic Yearbook] (1989).
Moscow: Finansy i statistika) 65
Fig. 3.1 Number of HEIs with total enrolment figures (in thousands)
at the start of selected academic years (Data collected from
different sources: UNESCO, HE in the USSR, Monographs
on HE edited by L. C. Barrows; Khudaverdyan, K. S, 1960) 75
Fig. 3.2 Enrolment in tertiary education institutions in Armenia
(Statistical Yearbook of Armenia: http://www.armstat.am/
en/?nid=45&year=2014)80
Fig. 3.3 Student enrolment per major (BA level) (Statistical Yearbook of
Armenia): http://www.armstat.am/en/?nid=45&year=2014)80
Fig. 3.4 Official labour force demand submitted by employers
(Statistical Yearbook of Armenia: http://www.armstat.am/
en/?nid=45&year=2014)81
Fig. 3.5 Distribution of HEIs and number of students (Statistical
Yearbook of Armenia: http://www.armstat.am/
en/?nid=45&year=2014)89

xix
xx List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Student enrolment in higher education (1960–2014) (Source:

SSC 2014) 104
Fig. 4.2 Number of private and public HEIs in Azerbaijan, 1960–2014
(Source: State Statistical Committee 2014) 105
Fig. 4.3 International students based on home country (2013–2014)
and Dynamics in International Student Participation since 2000
(Source: SSC (2014), *Commonwealth of Independent States) 109
Fig. 4.4 Student body characteristics for 2014/2015 (Source: State
Statistical Committee 2014) 112
Fig. 5.1 Change in the number of HEI students in Belarus (thousands),
1940–2015 (Source: MORB 2001, 2013b; NSCRB 2013,
2014, 2015) 130
Fig. 5.2 Change in the number of HEIs in Belarus, 1940–2015
(Source: MORB 2001, 2013a; NSCRB 2013, 2014, 2015) 130
Fig. 5.3 Change in the number of students by study profile between
1990–1991 and 2012–2013 (Source: MORB 2001, 2013a) 134
Fig. 6.1 Number of HEIs in Estonia 1990–2015 (Source: Statistics
Estonia; Estonian ministry of education) 156
Fig. 6.2 Number of students in Estonian HEIs, 1980–2015 (Source:
Statistics Estonia) 158
Fig. 6.3 Number of state-financed and fee-paying students in
Estonian HEIs, 1993–2015 (Source: Ministry of education
and research) 159
Fig. 7.1 Number of HEIs and enrolments in Soviet Georgia (Source:
Savelyev et al. 1990) 176
Fig. 7.2 Number of HEIs 182
Fig. 7.3 Absolute student enrolments 183
Fig. 7.4 Classification of Georgian HEIs in the 1990s by prestige
and rank 187
Fig. 7.5 Number of admitted students in HEIs 191
Fig. 8.1 Demographic trends (1985–2012) (Source: Adopted from
the Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2013)) 204
Fig. 8.2 Education reform timeline (1991–2020) (Source: Adopted
from OECD (2007, 112)) 205
Fig. 8.3 HEI trends over time by institutions 1940–2014 (Sources:
Adopted from Brunner and Tillett (n.d.); MoES (2014, 2015);
Ministry of Economics (2015); Moskva-Finansy i Statistika
[Moscow Finance and Statistics] (1989, 202); OECD (2007,
40); Zhakenov (n.d.)) 207
Fig. 8.4 Distribution of universities in Kazakhstan in AY2014–15
(Source: MoES (2015)) 208
 List of Figures 
   xxi

Fig. 9.1 Number of HEIs in the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic,

1932–1991 (Source: Authors using data from Orusbaeva
1982 and NSC 2008) 232
Fig. 9.2 The HEI landscape in Kyrgyzstan (Source: Authors using
data from Orusbaeva 1982) 234
Fig. 9.3 Number of HE students in the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic,
1932–1991 (Source: Authors using data from Orusbaeva 1982
and NSC 2008) 235
Fig. 9.4 Secondary school graduates and student enrollment in
vocational and higher education institutions, 1991–2013
(Source: Authors using data NSC 2014c) 239
Fig. 9.5 Part-time and full-time, day, and evening-class students
(Source: Authors using data from NSC 2014a) 244
Fig. 9.6 Dynamics of higher education enrollment by fields of study,
2000–2014 (Source: Source: Authors using data from
NSC 2008, 2015) 245
Fig. 9.7 The HEI landscape in Kyrgyzstan, 2015 (Source: Authors
using data from NSC 2008, 2015) 246
Fig. 10.1 Milestones in the development of the higher education
system in Latvia, 1990–2014 (Source: Authors) 264
Fig. 10.2 The dynamics of HEIs in Latvia, 1990–2014 (Source:
Authors based on data from MoES, 1991 to 2014) 265
Fig. 10.3 The dynamics of HE student enrolment in Latvia,
1990–2014 (Source: Authors based on data from MoES,
1991 to 2014) 266
Fig. 10.4 Proportion of the number of students in different fields
of study (Source: Authors based on data from MoES 1998
to 2014) 271
Fig. 10.5 Proportion of students by age group (Source: Authors
based on data from MoES 1998 to 2014) 272
Fig. 11.1 Number of schools of higher education and number of
students in Lithuanian SSR (1970–1990) (Source: Statistics
Lithuania: Official Statistics Portal) 288
Fig. 12.1 Timeline of important developments in higher education
policy in the Republic of Moldova 316
Fig. 12.2 Number of public and private HEIs in the Republic of
Moldova320
Fig. 12.3 Development of the total number of students enrolled
on a budget and tuition-fee basis (in both private and
public HEIs) 321
Fig. 12.4 Government expenditure on education 2000/2005–2013 327
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 12.5 Admission numbers by type of prior schooling

(2000/2005–2013)328
Fig. 13.1 Timeline of key higher education reforms in Russia,
1991–2015 (Source: Developed by the authors) 342
Fig. 13.2 Number of graduates by study field (Source: Aggregative
groups calculated by authors based on data from the Federal
State Statistics Service (2015)) 343
Fig. 13.3 Number of students in HEIs and age cohort participation
(17–25), 1991–2014, Russia (Source: Calculated by the
authors. Data from Federal State Statistics Service (2015)) 344
Fig. 13.4 Enrolment by source of financing and type of HEIs, 1995–2013,
Russia (Source: Calculated by authors. Data from: before 2000,
Education in the Russian Federation (2006); for 2000–2010,
Education in the Russian Federation (2012); after 2010,
Federal State Statistics Service (2015)) 346
Fig. 13.5 Public spending on higher education as a share of total public
expenditure on education and public spending on education
as a share of total public expenditure (per cent) (Source:
Calculated by authors. Data for expenditure from: before
2003, Education in the Russian Federation (2006); after 2003,
Roskozna (2015) and FSSS (2015)) Note: Due to the reform
of the financial system in 2003, the data before and after 2003
cannot be directly compared. 347
Fig. 13.6 Russian HEIs by nominal types, 1998–2012 (Source:
Education in the Russian Federation 2006; Federal State
Statistics Service, 2015) 352
Fig. 14.1 HEIs in Tajikistan, 1991–2013 369
Fig. 14.2 Student enrolments in Tajikistan (in thousands): 1991–2013 369
Fig. 14.3 Number of enrolled students by specialization, 1991 and
2010 (Source: The Ministry of Education and Science) 374
Fig. 14.4 Higher education institutions by presidential quota,
2014/2015375
Fig. 15.1 Higher education participation rate 1991–2011, in %
(age cohort 20–24) (Sources: http://www.cisstat.com)395
Fig. 16.1 Numbers of HEIs by levels of accreditation, 1990–2015
(The data for 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 are not fully
comparable to data from previous years as they do not take
into account institutions that remained in the occupied
territories and the zone of military conflict in Donetsk,
Lugansk and Crimea. Source: State Office of Statistics of
Ukraine (2016)) 415
 List of Figures 
   xxiii

Fig. 16.2 Numbers of students in HEIs by levels of accreditation,

1990–2015 (The data for 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 are
not fully comparable to data from previous years as they do
not take into account institutions that remained in the
occupied territories and the zone of military conflict in
Donetsk, Lugansk and Crimea. Source: State Office of
Statistics of Ukraine (2016)) 415
Fig. 17.1 Share of GDP by industrial origin in Uzbekistan, 1993–2012
(Source: ADB (2015)) 439
Fig. 17.2 Employment by economic sector in Uzbekistan, 1991–2012
(Source: ADB (2015)) 440
Fig. 17.3 Timeline of key changes in HE since independence 443
Fig. 17.4 Hierarchical structure of the higher education system
in Uzbekistan 450
Fig. 17.5 Geographic distribution of HEIs and student population
in 2012–13 (Source: MHSSE (2013)) 453
Fig. 17.6 Demand for and supply of higher education places,
1996–2014 (Source: MHSSE (2015)) 454
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