Urban Environment, Travel Behavior,

Health, and Resident Satisfaction 1st

ed. Edition Anzhelika Antipova
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/urban-environment-travel-behavior-health-and-reside
nt-satisfaction-1st-ed-edition-anzhelika-antipova/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Travel Journalism and Travel Media: Identities, Places

and Imaginings 1st ed. Edition Ben Cocking

https://ebookmass.com/product/travel-journalism-and-travel-media-
identities-places-and-imaginings-1st-ed-edition-ben-cocking/

Autoethnographies on the Environment and Human Health

1st Edition Tara Rava Zolnikov (Auth.)

https://ebookmass.com/product/autoethnographies-on-the-
environment-and-human-health-1st-edition-tara-rava-zolnikov-auth/

Environment and Society 1st ed. Edition Magnus Boström

https://ebookmass.com/product/environment-and-society-1st-ed-
edition-magnus-bostrom/

Microorganisms for Sustainable Environment and Health

1st Edition Pankaj Chowdhary (Editor)

https://ebookmass.com/product/microorganisms-for-sustainable-
environment-and-health-1st-edition-pankaj-chowdhary-editor/
Urban Form and Accessibility: Social, Economic, and
Environment Impacts Corinne Mulley

https://ebookmass.com/product/urban-form-and-accessibility-
social-economic-and-environment-impacts-corinne-mulley/

Essentials of Health Behavior (Essential Public Health)

2nd Edition

https://ebookmass.com/product/essentials-of-health-behavior-
essential-public-health-2nd-edition/

Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and

Health 8th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/health-psychology-an-introduction-
to-behavior-and-health-8th-edition-ebook-pdf/

Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and

Health 9th Edition Linda Brannon

https://ebookmass.com/product/health-psychology-an-introduction-
to-behavior-and-health-9th-edition-linda-brannon/

Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and

Health 10th Edition Linda Brannon

https://ebookmass.com/product/health-psychology-an-introduction-
to-behavior-and-health-10th-edition-linda-brannon/
Urban Environment,
Travel Behavior, Health,
and Resident Satisfaction
Anzhelika Antipova
Urban Environment, Travel Behavior, Health,
and Resident Satisfaction
 Anzhelika Antipova

Urban Environment,
Travel Behavior,
Health, and Resident
Satisfaction
Anzhelika Antipova
The University of Memphis
Memphis, TN, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-74197-0    ISBN 978-3-319-74198-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74198-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018931918

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Cover Photo © GibsonPictures

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer

International Publishing AG part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my mom and family.
 Acknowledgments

This book could not have been written without the support of numerous
people. At the University of Memphis, Daniel Larsen, Jerry Bartholomew,
and David Dye, who friendly encouraged me to apply for a sabbatical leave
and provided moral and professional support. I am indebted to College of
Arts and Sciences and Department of Earth Sciences at the University of
Memphis for your generosity. I would not be able to focus on writing
otherwise. Thank you for creating a stimulating atmosphere in which to
work productively.
I would like to thank DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Austausch
Dienst e.V.) (German Academic Exchange Service) for granting me a
research scholarship. It gave me an amazing opportunity to design and
implement my research. This is where the idea was born. I want to express
my gratitude to the entire Geography Department at the University of
Duisburg-Essen (Essen, Germany) including a group of students who
assisted with questionnaire administration and all faculty including Prof.
Dr. Rudolf Juchelka, Friedrich Schulte-Derne, Ulrike Ohl, Ulrike
Overbeck, Svenja Böttcher, and others. Thank you for your help with
questionnaire design and translations into German, for hosting me, and
for your sincere support—I truly needed your friendship.
Thank you, my anonymous reviewers who greatly contributed to this
book.
I owe a great deal to my family. My mom’s love has helped me at every
stage of the project. I thank my husband, Yuri, for being there and keep-
ing me focused. Lastly, I thank my daughters Xenia and Julia for being my
friends and being very patient as I worked on the book.

vii
 Contents

1 Introduction   1
1.1 Urban Growth  1
1.2 Urbanization and Problems  3
1.3 Urban Policy  5
1.3.1 Urban Policy of the Nineteenth Century  7
1.3.2 Urban Agenda  8
1.4 Urban Problems of the Twentieth and Early Twenty-First
Centuries  9
1.5 Negative Impacts of Urban Policy  9
1.6 Gautreaux Program 11
1.7 Federal Urban Policies and City Impact 12
1.8 The US National Housing Policy 13
1.8.1 Major Housing Programs and Impacts 13
1.8.1.1 Shortage of Affordable Housing 17
1.8.1.2 Housing Policy Change. Poverty
Deconcentration 17
1.8.2 Public Awareness of Housing Discrimination 18
1.8.3 Housing Discrimination 2001 Survey 18
1.8.3.1 Investigating Housing Discrimination 19
1.8.3.2 “Do We Know More Now?” Survey 20
1.8.3.3 Housing Discrimination Survey Findings 21
1.8.3.4 Housing Discrimination: Public
Awareness as a Public Policy Tool 21
1.8.4 Air Pollution Program and Brownfields 22
Bibliography  29

ix
x Contents

2 Urban Environment: The Differences between the City

in Europe and the United States  35
2.1 Urban Form Definitions 35
2.1.1 Urban Form Measures 35
2.1.2 Urban Form and Travel 37
2.1.3 Global Urban Form Differences 45
2.1.4 Remote Sensing Data Website 45
2.1.5 Landscape Spatial Analysis Website 46
2.1.6 Factors Influencing Urban Form:
Land-Use Patterns 50
2.1.6.1 Other Factors Influencing Urban Form 52
2.2 Transportation and Urban Growth 53
2.3 Costs Associated with Road Vehicles 61
2.4 European Cities 62
2.4.1 Automobile Use Is Limited 66
2.4.2 Measures to Halt Sprawl: Area Regeneration 67
2.4.3 Measures to Halt Sprawl: Greenbelts 70
2.4.4 Urban Sprawl and Contemporary Europe 71
2.4.5 Built-Up Data Website 72
2.5 North American Cities 72
2.5.1 Change in Urban Shape in the Nineteenth-
and Twentieth-Century United States 73
2.5.1.1 The 1800s: Dense Urban Cores 75
2.5.1.2 Era of Skyscrapers 76
2.5.1.3 Population and Manufacturing
Decentralization 77
2.5.2 Urban Growth Management 78
2.5.2.1 Government Home Programs
and Suburban Development 79
2.5.2.2 Technological Factors of Suburbanization 80
2.6 Comparison of Planning in the United States
and European Countries 81
2.6.1 Western European Planning 81
2.6.1.1 Overview of Western European Planning:
Centralized Planning 82
2.6.1.2 Regional Balance Is Encouraged 83
2.6.1.3 Property-Led Development 83
2.6.2 British Planning System 84
2.6.2.1 Wales Spatial Plan: The Emphasis
on Sustainability 85
 Contents 
   xi

2.6.2.2 Danish National Planning System 89

2.6.2.3 German Planning System 89
2.7 The US National Planning 91
2.7.1 Federal Legislation and US Territorial Expansion 91
2.7.1.1 1862 Legislation 91
2.7.1.2 Western States Development 92
2.7.2 Highway Legislation and Suburbanization 92
2.7.3 Federal Legislation and Metropolitan Expansion 93
2.7.4 US Regional Planning: Metropolitan and Regional
Planning Entities 94
2.7.4.1 Need for Comprehensive Regional
Planning 95
2.7.4.2 The 1920s: First Wave of Metropolitan
Regional Planning in Los Angeles 95
2.7.4.3 Chicago Metropolitan Regional Planning 96
2.7.4.4 Other Examples of Metropolitan Regional
Planning 96
2.7.4.5 Second Wave of Metropolitan Regional
Planning: SANDAG 97
2.7.4.6 Second Wave of Regional Planning:
DRCOG 98
2.7.5 US City Planning: Tools of Municipal Development100
2.7.5.1 Municipal Land-Use Controls 101
2.7.5.2 Municipal Zoning 101
2.7.5.3 Eminent Domain Versus Zoning 104
2.7.5.4 Zoning and Land-Use Separation 104
2.7.5.5 Environmental and Social Justice
and Zoning 106
2.7.5.6 Exclusionary Land-Use Regulation 106
2.7.6 Alternatives to Zoning107
Bibliography 110

3 Local Amenities and Neighborhood Perception 119

3.1 Introduction119
3.2 Local Urban Amenities and Neighborhood Perception
and Satisfaction123
3.3 Study Area125
3.4 Methodology127
3.5 Factor Analysis130
xii Contents

3.6 Ordinal Logistic Regression134

3.7 Results and Findings140
3.8 Discussion and Conclusion144
Bibliography 146

4 City Structure and Spatial Patterns 153

4.1 Introduction153
4.2 Internal City Structure Models154
4.2.1 Concentric (Ring) Model155
4.2.2 Limitations of Concentric Circle Theory156
4.2.3 Sector (Wedge) Model158
4.2.3.1 Delineating Rent Areas 159
4.2.3.2 Rent Areas Are Generalizable 160
4.2.4 Monocentric Urban Structure161
4.2.5 Polycentric Urban Structure. Multiple Nuclei Model164
4.3 Urban System Models166
4.3.1 Urban Systems Modelling168
4.3.1.1 Lowry’s Residential and Retail Location
Model (1964) 170
4.3.2 Early Urban Models Limitations176
4.3.3 Harris and Wilson’s (1978) Retail Location Model177
4.3.3.1 Entropy Maximization 179
4.3.4 Spatial Structure and Spatial Interaction Models180
4.3.5 Dynamic Models181
4.3.5.1 Entropy Maximization and Spatial
Interaction Models 182
4.3.5.2 Location-Interaction Integrated Models 183
4.4 Urban Subsystems184
4.5 Contemporary Urban Modeling Development185
4.6 Recent Applications of Spatial Interaction Models186
4.7 Case Study: Urban Structure and Commuting Patterns
in the Baton Rouge Metropolitan Statistical Area187
4.7.1 Introduction187
4.7.2 Study Area and Data189
4.7.3 Identification of the Employment Centers:
Methodology190
4.7.3.1 1990–2000 Employment Concentrations 194
4.7.4 Examining Impacts of Urban Structure
on Commuting Patterns195
 Contents 
   xiii

4.7.4.1 Commuting and Monocentric

Versus Polycentric Structure:
Hypothetical Scenario 195
4.7.4.2 Commuting and Monocentric
Versus Polycentric Structure: Observed Data 196
4.8 Conclusions 198
Bibliography 199

5 The Relationship Between Urban Environment and Travel

Behavior 205
5.1 Urbanization and Travel Growth205
5.2 Active Travel: Walking and Cycling as an Alternative
to Vehicle Travel206
5.2.1 Design Features Favorable to Walking/Cycling209
5.2.2 Safety and Active Travel213
5.2.3 Active Travel in Germany and the United States216
5.3 Evidence of Impact of Environmental Factors on Active
Travel222
5.3.1 Active Travel224
5.4 Limitations of Transportation Studies224
5.5 Physical Activity Programs226
5.6 Built Environment and Cycling229
5.7 Active School Transport (AST)233
5.7.1 AST and Safety Perceptions 235
5.8 Use of Public Transportation237
5.9 Built Environment and Travel Behavior243
5.10 What Is TOD?247
5.10.1 Impact of TOD on Land Use250
5.10.2 Impact of TOD on Urban Mobility252
5.10.3 Solving Urban Congestion252
5.10.4 TOD and Urban Mobility254
5.10.5 Corridor Planning255
5.10.6 Recommendations on TOD Implementation256
5.10.7 TOD Impacts on Residential and Business
Location and Travel Decisions257
5.11 Changing Urban Demographics and Travel Behavior259
5.11.1 TOD Impacts on the Elderly’s Travel Behavior260
Bibliography 261
xiv Contents

6 The Relationship Between Urban Environment and Health 267

6.1 Introduction267
6.2 Obesity and Inactive Lifestyles271
6.3 Physical Activity273
6.3.1 Walking, Walkability, and Health Outcomes274
6.3.2 Neighborhood Changes and Health-Related
Outcomes276
6.3.3 Physical Activity and Road Safety Barriers276
6.4 Pedestrian and Cycling Safety in Europe and the United
States280
6.5 Transportation and Health: Traffic Fatalities and Injuries281
6.6 Transportation and Health: Commuting Impacts283
6.7 Transportation and Health: Exposure to Transport-­
Generated Air Pollution289
6.8 Transportation and Health: Commuters’ Exposure
to Particulate Matter Air Pollution292
6.8.1 Transportation and Health: School Buses
and Childhood Air Pollution Exposure294
6.9 Transportation and Health: Residential Traffic Exposure296
6.10 Social Stress and Air Pollution297
6.11 Measures to Reduce Air Pollution Exposure298
6.12 Air Pollution and Births300
6.13 Health Benefits of Air Quality Improvements304
6.14 China305
6.14.1 Urbanization305
6.14.2 Demographic Profile307
6.14.3 Active Travel and Health308
6.14.4 Chinese Large-Scale Migration and Hukou308
6.14.5 Urbanization and Health: Potential
Mechanism in China311
6.14.5.1 China: Access to Urban Health Care
and Risk Factors 313
6.14.6 China: Exposure to Air Pollution314
6.14.6.1 China: Spatial Variation in Air
Pollution 317
6.14.6.2 Urbanization and Air Quality 317
6.14.7 Impact of Urban Form on Air Quality318
6.14.8 Beijing322
Bibliography 325
 Contents 
   xv

7 Conclusions 335
7.1 Introduction335
7.2 How Changing Demographics and Travel Behavior Are
Related339
7.3 What Are Housing/Working Perceptions and Motivations
of Transit Access?340
7.4 What Is the Role of Urban Built Environment in Pollution
Exposure?342
7.5 What Are the Trends in Urban Air Pollution and Its
Health Effects?344
7.5.1 What Are the Global Health Impacts of Air
Pollution?345
7.5.2 How Does School Travel Relate to Pollution
Exposure?348
7.5.3 Commuting Has Important Effects on Health,
and Work Experience349
7.6 What Are the Links Between Health and Active
Transportation?351
7.7 There Are Safety Aspects of Active Travel352
7.7.1 What Can Be Done to Prevent Obesity?353
Bibliography 355

Index  359
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Major city growth in the US in 1790–1990 2

Fig. 1.2 Housing crowding rates, 1940 and 2000 5
Fig. 1.3 The US conventional car-dependent, low-density suburban
neighborhood where light trucks are the preferred personal
vehicles (Author, 2017) 10
Fig. 2.1 Moving 12-month total vehicle miles traveled, 1970–2017 40
Fig. 2.2 Urban form and retail viability relationship in the Memphis
metropolitan area (Source: Author) 42
Fig. 2.3 Open space is an important amenity: Madison Square lawn
in New York (Author 2013) 46
Fig. 2.4 Many more Europeans live on far less space than in the
USA. Residential zone in Essen, Germany (Author 2010) 51
Fig. 2.5 The contour of Lake Michigan affects the shape of Chicago
(Author 2016) 52
Fig. 2.6 Invented in 1873 by Andrew Smith Hallidie, historical cable
car in San Francisco (Author 2016) 54
Fig. 2.7 Elevated rail lines in Chicago are an important form of
intraurban transportation (Author 2016) 57
Fig. 2.8 Number of cars bought by year, 1922–1929 59
Fig. 2.9 Historical buildings are important urban form elements in
European cities. A palace in Potsdam, Germany (Author 2016) 63
Fig. 2.10 Cathedral in Berlin, Germany (Author 2016) 64
Fig. 2.11 Residential zone in Berlin (Author 2016) 66
Fig. 2.12 Speed limit is 30 km per hour in a residential area in Berlin
(Author 2016) 68
Fig. 2.13 US Immigrant population and share over time, 1850–present 74
Fig. 2.14 Number of legal admitted permanent residents by year 75

xvii
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 2.15 Climate-proof urban development of an inner-city quarter

(University Duisburg-Essen) in Essen, Germany. This urban
redevelopment aims at 50% reduction in CO2 by 2020
(Author 2010) 90
Fig. 2.16 Stepped-back structure design in New York (Author 2013) 103
Fig. 2.17 Form-based zoning in Seaside, FL (Author 2012) 110
Fig. 3.1 Nearby parks are an important amenity in Berlin (Author
2016)120
Fig. 3.2 Nearby education facilities enhance the quality of life:
The music school in Berlin (Author 2016) 121
Fig. 3.3 A residential zone in Berlin has an incorporated
playground in the inner yard (Author 2016) 124
Fig. 3.4 Study area 126
Fig. 3.5 Factors analysis of neighborhood perception (upper panel):
(a) scree plot pattern of factors (b) amount of variance
explained as a percent of common variance in the data set;
and neighborhood satisfaction (lower panel): (c) scree plot
pattern of factors, and (d) amount of variance explained 132
Fig. 3.6 Ordinal logistic model: fitted probabilities for three levels
of neighborhood importance—VI very important, IM
important, NI not important—as a function of (a) education
perception (Factor 1); and (b) perception of personal and
environmental safety and green space availability (Factor 4) 141
Fig. 3.7 The ordinal logistic model: fitted probabilities for three
levels of neighborhood importance—VI very important, IM
important, NI not important—as a function of commercial
facilities (Factor 2) 143
Fig. 4.1 High-rise residential and commercial district at Lake Street,
Chicago. (Author 2013) 157
Fig. 4.2 Vertical expansion in New York. The High-Rise Crowne
Plaza Hotel at Times Square. The iconic Hershey’
Chocolate World closed its 15-year long location on
Broadway in September 2017. (Author 2013) 162
Fig. 4.3 High-Rise Apartment Building (at the right) at Millennium
Park, Chicago. (Author 2015) 163
Fig. 4.4 Employment Sub/centers and the Major Employers in Baton
Rouge in 2000 189
Fig. 4.5 Employment Subcenters in 1990 and 2000 IN Baton Rouge.
(Note: center numbers can be found in Table 4.1) 193
Fig. 4.6 1997 Baton Rouge Transportation Survey Respondents’
Observed Commuting Times and Employment Centers
Locations198
Fig. 5.1 Bike facilities in Rotterdam, Netherlands. (Author 2010) 208
 List of Figures 
   xix

Fig. 5.2 Bike storage facilities in Washington, DC. (Author 2010) 209
Fig. 5.3 In Washington DC, local-scale design features including
trees, aesthetically pleasing places, and well-maintained
sidewalks are favorable to pedestrians. (Author 2010) 210
Fig. 5.4 Street-level commercial uses (a bakery is on the right and
barber’s salon is on the left) and residencies above in Essen,
Germany. (Author 2010) 211
Fig. 5.5 One-family house in a conventional US suburb in Memphis.
(Author 2017) 214
Fig. 5.6 Traffic calming in residential areas: 30 km posted speed in
Essen, Germany. (Author 2010) 216
Fig. 5.7 Higher than in Germany posted speeds of 35 miles/hour
(>56 km/hour) in residential areas in USA. (Author 2017) 217
Fig. 5.8 A residential suburb by Essen, Germany. (Author 2010) 218
Fig. 5.9 Open air farmers market in pedestrian car-free zones in
Essen center, Germany. (Author 2010) 219
Fig. 5.10 German senior citizens at a light rail stop near a residential
neighborhood in Essen, Germany. (Author 2010) 221
Fig. 5.11 Off-street separated red-colored bike path in Rotterdam,
Netherlands. (Author 2010) 223
Fig. 5.12 Walking in Boston past a popular restaurant. (Author 2013) 225
Fig. 5.13 Many people are walking along the Esplanade in NYC.
(Author 2013) 228
Fig. 5.14 New York is among the US cities where cycling rates have
increased. (Author 2013) 230
Fig. 5.15 Light rail (“Ubahn”) on a street by residential buildings
in Essen, Germany. (Author 2010) 237
Fig. 5.16 Waiting for a commuter train to New York City.
(Author 2013) 238
Fig. 5.17 Public transportation in Boston. (Author 2013) 239
Fig. 5.18 Walking to a public transportation stop in Boston.
(Author 2013) 240
Fig. 5.19 Real-time light-rail schedule and train information in Essen,
Germany. (Author 2010) 242
Fig. 5.20 Active travel percentage of all trips (%) for USA (2001, 2009)
and Germany (2002, 2008) 243
Fig. 5.21 Compact development consisting of multistory residential
buildings stores with commercial uses occupying the first
floor and limited car parking in Essen, Germany.
(Author 2010) 244
Fig. 5.22 A residential area is closely located to light rail and bus stops
in Essen, Germany. (Author 2010) 248
xx List of Figures

Fig. 5.23 Access to underground light rail is highly visible in Essen,

Germany. (Author 2010) 249
Fig. 5.24 Residential suburbs are served by efficient light rail in Essen,
Germany. (Author 2010) 259
Fig. 6.1 Increasing regular physical activity contributes to public
health: people walk along the Esplanade in NYC.
(Author 2013) 274
Fig. 6.2 One solution to physical inactivity is deliberate exercise such
as walking on a regular basis. (Author, Boston 2013) 275
Fig. 6.3 Walking and biking in Manhattan. The 102-story Empire
State Building is seen in the background. (Author 2013) 284
Fig. 6.4 Street canyon formed in Downtown Chicago.
(Author 2015) 291
Fig. 6.5 School buses add to childhood air pollution exposures.
(Author 2017) 295
Fig. 6.6 High- and low-exposure areas identified across Shelby
County, TN. (Author 2017) 301
Fig. 6.7 Low Birthweight (LBW) rates superimposed on high- and
low-­exposure areas. (Author 2017) 303
Fig. 7.1 Top 5 walk and bike commuting cities by city
size: 2010–2014 354
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Perceived importance of and satisfaction with the different

urban amenities 122
Table 3.2 Demographic composition of travel survey respondents 129
Table 3.3 Likert-type scale used in the questionnaire 130
Table 3.4 Factor analysis—rotated factor pattern 133
Table 3.5 Results of the ordinal logistic models of perceived
preference for and stated satisfaction with a neighborhood 137
Table 4.1 2000 and 1990 employment concentrations (Ranked
according to number of jobs) 191
Table 4.2 T-test of mean commuting times and distances
(Monocentric- and Polycentric-simulated) 196
Table 4.3 T-test of the mean commuting times and
distances (Observed) 197
Table 6.1 Results of the chi-square test for LBW and pre-term births 303

xxi
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1   Urban Growth

Prior to the 1820s, only a small percentage of the population lived in cit-
ies, which were restricted in physical area and mainly served as maritime
trade centers for overseas shipping. In 1790, the first federal census showed
that only 5.1% of the total population lived in cities (Miller 1973). In port
cities, the occupations of merchants and skilled artisans and mechanics
sustaining a shipping-based economy were important with most busi-
nesses and activities located close to the waterfront during the pre-1820s
era. However, most people were primarily engaged in agriculture-related
economic activities and lived outside the major cities (95%). Cities were
growing very slowly at that time. New York City grew incrementally as the
needs of the growing Atlantic economy and trade boom required con-
struction of new docks, wharves, and piers and consequently a larger port.
Starting in 1807, it finally experienced population growth so high that a
layout was devised by a special commission authorized by the state of
New York covering almost the entire area of Manhattan Island consisting
of farms, villages, and open country terrain (Peterson 2003). In 1820,
New York City’s population reached 100,000 and became the first “great
city.” By 1840, two more cities acquired “great city” status—Baltimore
and New Orleans (Fig. 1.1).

© The Author(s) 2018 1

A. Antipova, Urban Environment, Travel Behavior, Health, and Resident
Satisfaction, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74198-7_1
2 A. ANTIPOVA

Fig. 1.1 Major city growth in the US in 1790–1990

Since the 1820s, urban growth notably exceeded population growth.

As a national market economy developed, cities served as commercial,
manufacturing, and financial centers. As inland markets opened up, port
cities expanded their businesses giving rise to many new occupations
including bankers, brokers, insurers, retailers, and so on. The urbanization
of America has increased with the industrialization. From the 1840s
onward, a new type of production emerged. Factories replaced old cottage
industries (small shops producing cloth, garments, shoes, and other con-
sumer goods). As the national market evolved and mechanization
increased, factories achieved ever larger scale. Large-scale factory produc-
tion required mass labor, which in turn required mass nearby housing.
Mass production created a growing consumer goods market. Great urban
centers emerged in the mid-nineteenth century.
In the United States, the rate of population increase during the nine-
teenth to early twentieth centuries was mostly determined by rapid natural
increase (more births than deaths) and population migration (more immi-
gration than emigration) increasing the labor force and the size and diver-
sity of urban population. Immigrants, many of them of European descent,
supplied the labor demand in manufacturing and construction. The Lower
East Side of New York and the West Side of Chicago once provided the
cheapest rent quarters for the newly arrived European immigrants, while
later the worst buildings were removed by demolition. The populations of
New York City, Chicago, and Philadelphia each surpassed the one million
mark by 1890.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project

Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different
terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain
permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3
below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on,
transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright
law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite
these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the
medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,”
such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt
data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other
medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES -

Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in
paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic
work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for
damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU
AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE,
STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH
OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER
THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR
ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE
OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If

you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of
receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you
paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you
received the work from. If you received the work on a physical
medium, you must return the medium with your written
explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the
defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu
of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or
entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.
If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund
in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set

forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’,
WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this
agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this
agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the
maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable
state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of
this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless
from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that
arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project
Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or
deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect
you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new
computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of
volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project
Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™
collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In
2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was
created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project
Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your
efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the
Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-
profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the
laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by
the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal
tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax
deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and
your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500

West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact
links and up to date contact information can be found at the
Foundation’s website and official page at
www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission
of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works
that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form
accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated
equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly
important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws

regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of
the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform
and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many
fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not
solicit donations in locations where we have not received written
confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or
determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states

where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know
of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from
donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot

make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations
received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp
our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current

donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a
number of other ways including checks, online payments and
credit card donations. To donate, please visit:
www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could
be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose
network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several

printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by
copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus,
we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any
particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new
eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear
about new eBooks.