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 AQUATIC ECOLOGY

Abundance Biomass Comparison Method

RM Warwick, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, UK
r 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Introduction

The `abundance biomass comparison' (ABC) method is a means of detecting the effects of anthropogenic perturbations on assemblages
of organisms that is underpinned by the r- and K-selection theory (see r-Strategist/K-Strategists). Under stable conditions of infrequent
disturbance the competitive dominants in the climax community are K-selected or conservative species with a large body size and long
life span, and are usually of low abundance so that they are not dominant numerically but are dominant in terms of biomass.
Frequently disturbed assemblages are kept at an early successional stage and comprise r-selected or opportunistic species characterized
by small body size, short life span and high abundance. The ABC method exploits the fact that when an assemblage is perturbed the
conservative species are less favored in comparison with the opportunists, and the distribution of biomass among species behaves
differently from the distribution of numbers of individuals among species.

The Method

The ABC method as originally formulated involves the plotting of separate k-dominance curves (see k-Dominance Curves) for
species abundances and species biomasses on the same graph and comparing the forms of the two curves relative to each
other. The species are ranked in order of importance in terms of abundance or biomass on the x-axis on a logarithmic scale,
with percentage dominance on the y-axis on a cumulative scale. Of course the species ordering is unlikely to be the same for
abundance and biomass. In undisturbed assemblages a few large species are dominant in terms of biomass but not abun-
dance, resulting in the elevation of the biomass curve relative to the abundance curve throughout its length (Fig. 1a).
Perturbed assemblages, however, have a few species with very high abundance but small body size so that they do not
dominate the biomass and the abundance curve lies above the biomass curve (Fig. 1c). Under moderate perturbation the
large competitive dominants are eliminated but there is no population explosion of small opportunists, so that the inequality
in size between the numerical and biomass dominants is reduced and the biomass and abundance curves are closely
coincident and may cross over each other one or more times (Fig. 1b).
The contention is that these three conditions (unperturbed, moderately perturbed, or grossly perturbed) should be
recognizable without reference control samples in time or space, the two curves acting as an internal control against each
other and providing a snapshot of the condition of the assemblage at any one time or place. Of course, confirmatory
comparisons with spatial or temporal reference samples are still highly desirable. A prerequisite of the method is adequate
sample size or replication because the large biomass dominants are often rare and liable to a higher sampling error than the
numerical dominants.
The evaluation of ABC curves involves their visual inspection, and can be cumbersome if many sites, times, or replicates are
involved. In such cases it is convenient to reduce each plot to a single summary statistic. If the abundance (A) values are subtracted
from the biomass (B) values for each species rank in the ABC curve, the sum of the B A values across the ranks will be strongly
positive in the unperturbed case (Fig. 1a), near zero in the case where the curves are closely coincident (Fig. 1b), and strongly
negative where the curves are transposed (Fig. 1c). The summation needs to be standardized to a common scale so that com-
parisons can be made between samples with differing numbers of species (S), the most widely used form being the W
(for Warwick) statistic:
X
S
W¼ ðBi Ai Þ=½50ðS 1ފ
i¼1

For replicated samples, the W statistic also provides an obvious route for hypothesis testing, using standard univariate ANOVA.

Applications

For the most part, ABC curves have been used to indicate pollution or disturbance effects on marine and estuarine macrobenthic
assemblages, which are the main target for detection and monitoring programs in these habitats. For example, ABC curves for the

Encyclopedia of Ecology, 2nd edition, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63768-0.00084-6 1

2 Aquatic Ecology: Abundance Biomass Comparison Method

(a) (b) (c)

100
ss
ma dan
ce
Bio ce n
Cumulative %
n Abu
da
un s
Ab m as
50 Bio s
as
e m
anc Bio
und Moderately Grossly
Ab Unperturbed perturbed perturbed
0
1 5 10 1 5 10 1 5 10
Species rank (log scale)
Fig. 1 Hypothetical k-dominance curves for species biomass and abundance, showing unperturbed, moderately perturbed, and grossly perturbed
conditions.

macrobenthos in Loch Linnhe, Scotland in response to organic pollution between 1963 and 1973 are given in Fig. 2. The time course of
pollution from a pulp mill, and changes in species diversity (H0 ), are shown top left. Moderate pollution started in 1966, and by 1968
species diversity was reduced. Prior to 1968 the ABC curves had the unpolluted configuration. From 1968 to 1970 the ABC plots
indicated moderate pollution. In 1970 there was an increase in pollutant loadings and a further reduction in species diversity, reaching a
minimum in 1972, and the ABC plots for 1971 and 1972 show the grossly polluted configuration. In 1972 pollution decreased and by
1973 diversity had increased, and the ABC plots again indicated the unpolluted condition. Thus, the ABC plots provide a good snapshot
of the pollution status of the benthic community in any one year, without reference to the historical comparative data which would be
necessary if a single species diversity measure based on the abundance distribution was used as the only criterion.
Most studies suggest that the ABC curves respond to anthropogenic perturbations but are not affected by long-term natural stresses,
since the organisms living in such environments have evolved adaptations to the prevailing ecological conditions. Unperturbed ABC
plots may be found, for example, in estuaries where the organisms are subjected to low and fluctuating salinities, provided there are no
anthropogenic disturbances. ABC plots indicated that macrobenthic communities near an oil refinery in Trinidad were grossly to
moderately stressed, while those close to the Trinidad Pitch Lake (one of the largest natural oil seeps in the world) were not. There is
little evidence, however, that the method can distinguish between different types of anthropogenic disturbances. Responses to organic
pollution and to physical disturbance caused by demersal trawl fisheries, for example, appear to be similar.
The method has been less well explored with respect to other components of the biota. However, it has been used successfully
to indicate environmental impacts on marine phytoplankton, the cryptofauna and mollusks of rocky shores, invertebrates of
freshwater streams, and fish assemblages in both marine and freshwater.

Problems and Their Solutions

Very often k-dominance curves approach a cumulative frequency of 100% for a large part of their length, and in highly dominated
assemblages this may be after the first two or three top-ranked species. Thus, it may be difficult to distinguish between the forms of
these curves. The solution to this problem is to transform the y-axis so that the cumulative values are closer to linearity, an
appropriate transformation being the modified logistic transformation:
0
yi ¼ log ½ð1 þ yi Þ=ð101 yi ފ
A potentially more serious problem with the cumulative nature of ABC curves is that their form is overdependent on the single most
dominant species. The unpredictable presence of large numbers of a species with small biomass, perhaps an influx of the juveniles of
one species, may give a false impression of disturbance. With genuine disturbance, one might expect patterns of ABC curves to be
unaffected by successive removal of the one or two most dominant species in terms of abundance or biomass, and a solution is the use
of partial dominance curves, which compute the dominance of the second-ranked species over the remainder (ignoring the first-ranked
species), the same with the third most dominant, etc. Thus, if ai is the absolute (or percentage) abundance of the ith species, when
ranked in decreasing abundance order, the partial dominance curve is a plot of pi against log i (i¼ 1, 2,y, S 1), where
P
p1 ¼ 100a1 = Sj¼1 aj
P
p2 ¼ 100a2 = Sj¼2 aj ; . . . ; pS 1 ¼ 100aS 1 =ðaS 1 þ aS Þ

Earlier values can therefore never affect later points on the curve. The partial dominance curves (ABC) for undisturbed macrobenthic
communities typically look like Figs. 3g and 3h, with the biomass curve (thin line) above the abundance curve (thick line) throughout
its length. The abundance curve is much smoother than the biomass curve, showing a slight and steady decline before the
inevitable final rise. Under polluted conditions there is still a change in position of partial dominance curves for abundance and
biomass, with the abundance curve now above the biomass curve in places, and the abundance curve becoming much more variable.
This implies that pollution effects are not just seen in changes to a few dominant species but are a phenomenon which pervades the
 Aquatic Ecology: Abundance Biomass Comparison Method 3

Fig. 2 Loch Linnhe macrofauna: Shannon diversity (H0 ) and ABC plots over the 11 years, 1963 to 1973. Abundance, thick line; biomass,
thin line.

complete suite of species in the community. The time series of macrobenthos data from Loch Linnhe (Fig. 3) shows that in the most
polluted years, 1971 and 1972, the abundance curve is above the biomass curve for most of its length (and the abundance curve is very
atypically erratic), the curves cross over in the moderately polluted years 1968 and 1970 and have an unpolluted configuration prior to
the pollution impact in 1966 and 1967. Although these curves are not so smooth, and therefore not so visually appealing, as the
original ABC curves, they may provide a useful alternative aid to interpretation and are certainly more robust to random fluctuations in
the abundance of a small-sized, numerically dominant species.
In most cases where the presence of large numbers of small-bodied macrobenthic species in unperturbed situations has given a
false impression of disturbance, those species have not been polychaetes. Prior to the Amoco Cadiz oil spill off the north coast of
France in 1978, small ampeliscid amphipods (Crustacea) were present at the Pierre Noire station in relatively high abundance, and
their disappearance after the spill confounded the ABC plots. The erratic presence of large numbers of small amphipods (Cor-
ophium) or mollusks (Hydrobia) also confounded these plots in the Wadden Sea. These small nonpolychaetous species are not
indicative of polluted conditions. A taxonomic breakdown of the ABC response has shown that it results from (1) a shift in the
proportions of different phyla present in communities, some phyla having larger-bodied species than others, and (2) a shift in the
relative distributions of abundance and biomass among species within the Polychaeta but not within any of the other major phyla
(Mollusca, Crustacea, Echinodermata). The shift within polychaetes reflects the substitution of larger-bodied by smaller-bodied
species, and not a change in the average size of individuals within a species. In most instances the phyletic changes reinforce the
trend in species substitutions within the polychaetes, to produce the overall ABC response, but in some cases they may work
4 Aquatic Ecology: Abundance Biomass Comparison Method

100 (a) (b) (c)

B

90 A
B
B

Cumulative % dominance
70
50
A A
30
1966 1967 1968
10

100 (d) (e) (f)

B A
A
90 B
A
B
70
50
30
1970 1971 1972
10

(g) (h) (i)

60

B B A
40

B
Partial % dominance

20
A
A 1966 1967 1968
0

(j) (k) (l)

60
A
A
40 A
B B
20
B

0
1970 1971 1972
1 10 1 10 1 10
Species rank
Fig. 3 Loch Linnhe macrofauna in selected years 1966–68 and 1970–72. (a–f) ABC curves (logistic transform). (g–l) Partial dominance curves
for abundance (thick line) and biomass (thin line) for the same years.

against each other. Indications of pollution or disturbance for marine macrobenthos detected by this method should therefore be
viewed with caution if the species responsible for the perturbed configurations are not polychaetes, and the robustness of the plots
should be tested using partial dominance curves.
Finally, a practical rather than a conceptual problem with the method is that it relies on a painstaking and time-consuming (and
hence costly) analysis of samples in which all the species must be separated, counted, and weighed. Several groups of marine organisms
are taxonomically difficult, for example (in the macrobenthos), several families of polychaetes and amphipods; as much time can be
spent in separating a few of these difficult groups into species as the entire remainder of the sample, even in Northern Europe where
taxonomic keys for identification are most readily available. Many taxa really require the skills of specialists to separate them into
species, and this is especially true in parts of the world where fauna is poorly described. Identification to some higher taxonomic level,
for example, family rather than species, is considerably easier and quicker, and the ABC method has proved to be encouragingly robust
to analysis at the family level for both macrobenthos and fish; very little information appears to be lost.

See also: Aquatic Ecology: The Estuarine Quality Paradox Concept. Conservation Ecology: k-Dominance Curves; Ecological Health
Indicators. Ecosystems: Estuaries. General Ecology: Abundance; Biomass; Dominance
 Aquatic Ecology: Abundance Biomass Comparison Method 5

Further Reading

Agard, J.B.R., Gobin, J., Warwick, R.M., 1993. Analysis of marine macrobenthic community structure in relation to oil pollution, natural oil seepage, and seasonal disturbance
in a tropical environment (Trinidad, West Indies). Marine Ecology Progress Series 92, 233–243.
Beukema, J.J., 1988. An evaluation of the ABC-method (abundance/biomass comparison) as applied to macrozoobenthic communities living on tidal flats in the Dutch Wadden
Sea. Marine Biology 99, 425–433.
Blanchard, F., LeLoc'h, F., Hily, C., Boucher, J., 2004. Fishing effects on diversity, size, and community structure of the benthic invertebrate and fish megafauna on the Bay of
Biscay coast of France. Marine Ecology Progress Series 280, 249–260.
Clarke, K.R., 1990. Comparisons of dominance curves. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 138, 143–157.
Dauer, D.M., Luckenbach, M.W., Rodi, A.J., 1993. Abundance biomass comparison (ABC method) – Effects of an estuarine gradient, anoxic hypoxic events and contaminated
sediments. Marine Biology 116, 507–518.
Ismael, A.A., Dorgham, M.M., 2003. Ecological indices as a tool for assessing pollution in El-Dekhaila Harbour (Alexandria, Egypt). Oceanologia 45, 121–131.
Jouffre, D., Inejih, C.A., 2005. Assessing the impact of fisheries on demersal fish assemblages of the Mauritanian continental; shelf, 1987–1999, using dominance curves. ICES
Journal of Marine Science 62, 380–383.
Lasiak, T., 1999. The putative impact of exploitation on rocky infratidal macrofaunal assemblages: A multiple area comparison. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of
the United Kingdom 79, 23–34.
Magurran, A.E., 2004. Measuring Biological Diversity. Oxford: Blackwell.
Penczak, T., Kruk, A., 1999. Applicability of the abundance/biomass comparison method for detecting human impacts on fish populations in the Pilica River, Poland. Fisheries
Research 39, 229–240.
Warwick, R.M., 1986. A new method for detecting pollution effects on marine macrobenthic communities. Marine Biology 92, 557–562.
Warwick, R.M., Clarke, K.R., 1994. Relearning the ABC: Taxonomic changes and abundance/biomass relationships in disturbed benthic communities. Marine Biology 118,
739–744.
Warwick, R.M., Pearson, T.H., Ruswahyuni, 1987. Detection of pollution effects on marine macrobenthos: Further evaluation of the species abundance/biomass method. Marine
Biology 95, 193–200.
Yemane, D., Field, J.G., Leslie, R.W., 2005. Exploring the effects of fishing on fish assemblages using abundance biomass comparison (ABC) curves. ICES Journal of Marine
Science 62, 374–379.
 Acidification in Aquatic Systems
Morgana Tagliarolo, Ifremer, UMSR LEEISA (CNRS UG Ifremer), Cayenne, France
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction 1
Ocean Acidification 3
Acidification in the Coastal Area 5
Acidification in Freshwater Ecosystems 5
Ecological Impact 6
Socioeconomical Impact 7
Response Strategies to Aquatic Acidification 7
Further Reading 8

Glossary
Buffer A compound that limits large changes in pH in a solution. The buffer solution consists in a mixture of weak acid and
bases. The buffering ability is defined as the quantity of strong acid or base that must be added to change the pH of 1 L of
solution by 1 pH unit.
Chemical equilibrium State of a reversible chemical reaction when the rate of the forward and backward reaction is equal.
Consequently, the concentrations of both reactant and product are stables. This equilibrium can be described by a constant
(K).
Homeostasis A biological process maintaining a stable condition in an organism even if faced with external changes. An
example is the ability of the human body to maintain a relatively constant body temperature independent of external
temperatures.
Hypercapnia Disequilibrium in body fluids with an abnormal increase of carbon dioxide and pH drop.
Oligotrophic An environment poor in organic and inorganic nutrients.
Resilient An ecosystem or organism is defined as resilient when it is able to respond and recover from adverse situations.

Introduction

Acidification in an aquatic system is a term describing significant changes to the chemistry of freshwater, marine, and brackish
systems, mostly caused by the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). The CO2 from the atmosphere combines with
other dissolved inorganic carbon already present in the water causing several complex chemical changes. The characterization of the
physicochemical properties of the carbonate system in natural waters is not straightforward since it can be described by a large
number of terms and units. However, pH is the more common parameter employed for describing the acidification phenomena in
ecology.
Water pH is an expression of the concentration of hydrogen ions (Hþ) on a logarithmic scale, where a neutral pH of 7.00 is
represented by pure water at 25 C. Surface waters in the open ocean are slightly alkaline with relatively small pH variability (average
values ranging between 7.9 and 8.3). Variability ranges are wider in coastal and freshwater ecosystems where complex biogeo-
chemical dynamics play important roles on the physical and chemical conditions of those waters. In shallow coastal areas pH can
vary drastically over daily cycles and small spatial scales (0.3–0.5 units). In natural freshwater ecosystems pH has an even wider
range (between <2 and 12) depending on the region and on the water body characteristics.
Part of atmospheric CO2 is continuously absorbed by the aquatic systems where it reacts with the water molecules to form weak
acids. These acids mostly dissociate into Hþ causing pH reductions. Freshwater and seawater contain a variety of acid–base species
able to react with the additional Hþ ions. The predominant ions are carbonate and bicarbonate, but other molecules can also
interact. This ability of natural waters to neutralize protons is described by its total alkalinity (Fig. 1). The carbonate chemistry is
significantly affected by acidification and the formation of numerous carbonate-containing minerals such as aragonite, calcite, and
magnesium calcite is disrupted.
The absorption of CO2 and the fate of hydrogen ions in water are therefore dependent on various chemical transformations and
equilibrium constants. The equilibrium constants are in turn dependent on salinity, temperature, and pressure. For this reason, fresh
and seawater are considerably different in the distribution of the carbonic acid fractions. Fresh and brackish water has a lower
buffering capacity and thus experiences higher pH fluctuations compared with open ocean waters.
Although the acidification process has mostly been studied in the marine environment, declines in pH can also considerably
affect freshwater ecosystems. Marine and freshwater systems may be acidified either from natural or man-made processes, but, while
natural processes are slow (geological time frames), anthropogenic activities are accelerating and amplifying these changes.

Encyclopedia of Ecology, 2nd Edition https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.10958-3 1

2 Acidification in Aquatic Systems

Fig. 1 General scheme on how atmospheric carbon dioxide can interfere with the aquatic chemistry.

The acidification of aquatic systems is mostly a result of the continuous CO2 release into the atmosphere by fossil fuel
combustion (coal, oil, and natural gas), deforestation, and cement production. Since the beginning of the industrial era, the pH
of ocean surface water has decreased by 0.1 pH units, corresponding to a 26% increase in acidity. Moreover, pH of internal and
coastal areas can also be altered by other anthropogenic inputs such as nitrogen, ammonia, and sulfur. Consequently, freshwater
acidification can be a faster and larger phenomenon than ocean acidification involving notable pH drops (up to 2.5) during
episodic events.
The anthropogenic CO2 induced changes in water carbon chemistry have some direct effects on photosynthesis, calcification,
and acid–base balance of aquatic organisms. The increased availability of CO2 can potentially enhance photosynthesis when light
and nutrients are available. However, the ability of micro and macro algae to utilize this excess of CO2 appears to vary widely across
taxa. A number of physiological processes can be altered in photosynthetic organisms and the final response is often a compromise
between the antagonistic effect of CO2 on photosynthesis and respiration metabolism. Low pH often causes an increase of the
overall energetic costs, which in turn lead to an augmented respiration rate. Therefore, the benefits of an enhanced photosynthetic
activity are generally relatively minor relative to the negative effects of acidification on respiration. Moreover, acidification has been
shown to promote several metabolic pathways leading to the production and accumulation of toxic compounds in phytoplankton
cells.
A decrease in pH and in carbonate ions generally causes a decline in the calcification rates producing calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
for shells and skeletons (Fig. 2). Calcifying organisms are extremely diverse and include many taxonomic groups and ecological
niches. For instance, calcification is performed by many photosynthetic primary producers, zooplankton, mollusks, and crusta-
ceans. Although the calcification process can be explained by a simple chemical equation, the biological mechanisms are more
complex and can vary between species. The calcification process requires an energy investment for the organisms and modifications
of the chemistry of the external aquatic environment can cause important perturbations of calcification rates. Although calcifying
organisms are mostly negatively impacted by acidification, the growth rate of some species has been reported as insensitive to this
stress or positively impacted.
Shell calcification in mollusks is performed in the extrapallial space that is isolated from the surrounding ambient water (Fig. 2).
Many species have been shown to produce their own carbonate ions in this space without any interaction with seawater ions. The
formation of calcium carbonate structures in this space is thus not directly inhibited by decreasing carbonate ions concentration in
the external seawater. The impact of ocean acidification on shell growth is therefore a result of several interlinked physiological
processes affecting metabolism and internal body pH. Furthermore, the antagonistic processes of calcification and dissolutions may
also represent an important energetic cost for the organisms. For these reasons, marine mollusks have been shown to respond very
differently to acidification. In a more acid ocean, on average, shells are expected to be smaller and have a modified mineralogical
structure to overcome the energetic costs.
Similarly to mollusks, scleractinian corals do not precipitate their carbonate skeleton directly from seawater, but they produce it
in an extracellular medium where the animal can actively manipulate the pH. Cold-water corals are particularly good in regulating
 Acidification in Aquatic Systems 3

Fig. 2 Cross section of a mollusk shell showing the calcification process in the extrapallial space. Modified from McConnaughey, T.A., Gillikin, D.V. (2008). Carbon
isotopes in mollusk shell carbonates. Geo-Marine Letters 28, 287–299. 10.1007/S00367-008-0116-4.

their internal pH and can continue to calcify even in acidic and undersaturated waters. This important adaptive mechanism enables
these deep-sea calcifiers to occupy unique niches. In contrast with these highly adapted organisms, other taxa such as the calcitic
foraminifera, are not able to control their internal pH and depend entirely on seawater conditions.
The shells of marine organisms are generally made from either calcite or aragonite calcium carbonate. Aragonite is more soluble
than calcite and can dissolve easier in undersaturated waters. Changes in water chemistry therefore affect calcifying organisms in
different ways depending on their shells compositions. For example, one of the more abundant and important planktonic shelled
group living in polar and subpolar waters (pteropods) are expected to be particularly affected by acidification since they are unable
to maintain their shell in undersaturated waters with respect to aragonite. On the other hand, arctic bivalves have been shown to be
generally resilient to decreasing pH.
Metabolic and biochemical processes within aquatic organisms are influenced by water pH since biological membranes are
generally highly permeable to free ions and potentially affected by acid–base distresses. The internal pH of most heterotopic
organisms is lower than the surrounding seawater. Active mechanisms of ion transport are constantly working in living cells to
maintain pH fluctuations in body fluids within a tolerable range. For this reason, metabolic rates are linked to the homeostasis of
the internal pH and to the pH gradient between the body and the external environment. Under acidification conditions some
metabolic functions are depressed, oxygen transport efficiency is reduced and acid–base regulation requires higher energetic costs.
The effectivity of ion transport systems differs between aquatic organisms depending on their structure and complexity. Some
crustacean and echinoderms seem to be able to compensate for acidification by increasing bicarbonate concentration in their body
but little is known about the sustainability of this response during long term exposures.
Although there is a general agreement about the effects of increased CO2 concentrations on the ocean and freshwater chemistry,
the magnitude and severity of the potential impact on different organisms and ecosystems is still largely unknown. The large
variability in the responses of organisms to acidification is mostly due to the high biotic and abiotic patchiness of natural habitats
and the multiple interactions with other existing stresses like temperature changes. This article will give an overview on the different
mechanisms and responses of the ocean, coastal, and freshwater habitats and provide some wider concept on the ecological and
economic impact of this phenomena.

Ocean Acidification

Oceans play an important role in mitigating atmospheric CO2 emissions by absorbing around 25%–30% of the CO2 added to the
atmosphere by anthropogenic activities. This process causes a decrease in water’s pH, in the concentration of carbonate ions and in
the carbonate saturation state. These changes, together with other stressors such as temperature, are significantly affecting marine
communities. Numerous research projects have focused on the effect of ocean acidification on marine organisms.
Negative effects have been recorded on most taxonomic groups, and early developmental stages are suspected to be most
susceptible. Multigenerational studies on marine copepods showed that fecundity could decrease up to 29% under lower pH
scenarios. Moreover, the larval nauplii stage of these taxa exhibit greater sensitivity and mortality rates with increasing CO2
compared to the other life stages. Higher concentrations of seawater CO2 have been shown to cause malformations and delays in
the larval development of several calcifiers. Sea urchin larvae lose symmetry and their skeleton is highly deformed and corroded
with decreased pH (Fig. 3). Beside invertebrates, fish embryos and young larvae are also more sensitive than adults to the effects of
ocean acidification. Egg survival, hatching size, and growth rate are generally retarded despite some positive effects that have been
4 Acidification in Aquatic Systems

Fig. 3 Sea urchin larvae reared in control and acidified treatments. Lower pH causes asymmetrical and deformed skeletal development.

seen on few species. Even if the growth rate is not affected, other perturbations such as impaired olfactory discrimination and
homing ability can still reduce fitness in the natural environment.
The consequences of ocean acidification on the biology of adult marine fish have been extensively studied. Results show a
multitude of diverse responses from the death of the individual, to no effect at all. Despite this, most adult fishes can efficiently
compensate for a hypercapnic acid–base disturbance, although neurosensory, growth, metabolism, and mitochondrial functions
are often disrupted. Therefore, the pH compensation ability does not necessarily mean that the consequences of ocean acidification
are reduced. Nonetheless, the mechanisms underneath this process are still largely unknown and predicting species responses
remains difficult.
Another unexpected consequence of ocean acidification in the open ocean is the significant decrease in ocean sound absorption.
Low frequency range is predicted to change significantly in the near future, mostly due to pH changes. Underwater ambient noise is
thus predicted to increase, causing potential problems to human (scientific, commercial, and naval acoustic applications) and
natural activities. Disturbance in animal’s communication is likely to interfere with the biology and behavior of whales and other
marine mammals.
Acidification is also affecting the deep ocean although the responses are delayed by the transport time of water masses between
the surface and the deep areas. In those areas, the acidification can happen through a water mass movement or from the
decomposition of organic matter “raining” into the deep ocean from the surface. Deep-sea ecosystems have the potential to be
significantly affected by pH changes since their inhabitants are adapted to live in extremely stable conditions. The deep-sea is a cold
and dark environment where metabolic activities and gas exchanges are generally reduced compared to shallow areas. Historically
exceptional changes in oceans bottom pH have been documented to cause significant species extinctions and scientists are
concerned that this could happen again in the near future.
The pH of many deep (below 500 m) areas is projected to decrease by 0.2 units by 2100. Carbonate-based organisms such as
cold-water corals and sponge reefs are under serious threats. Animals living in the deep ocean are generally characterized by slow
growth and limited recovery abilities. Acidification has been shown to negatively affect tissue functioning and membrane pumps of
deep glass sponge reefs compromising their feeding efficiency. A similar reduction in feeding rates has been shown in several cold-
water corals. The calcification rate of these corals is negatively affected by pH drops in laboratory experiments, but some species have
been shown to be more resilient than others. The general idea is that the decrease in pH and aragonite saturation will cause the
dissolution of corals skeleton. However, a number of studies suggested that deep-sea corals have some physiological mechanisms to
compensate for undersaturation and several natural scleractinian reefs have been found in areas with low aragonite saturation
levels.
 Acidification in Aquatic Systems 5

Acidification in the Coastal Area

Intertidal areas, estuaries, coral reefs, sandy, and rocky shores are just a few examples of how diverse and variable coastal areas are.
These ecosystems are submitted to continuous fluctuations due to tides, rivers inputs, waves, currents, and anthropogenic activities.
Because of this variability in physical–chemical characteristics, the carbonate systems and pH experience significant fluctuations.
The intense variability and the effect of multiple drivers on water pH implies that it is much more difficult to detect acidification
trends in these areas compared to the open ocean.
Unlike open ocean areas, coastal ecosystems are often dominated by benthic communities and the metabolic activity of these
organisms can drive important diel and seasonal pH oscillations. Coastal communities can support intense metabolic processes,
including high primary production, respiration, and calcification rates. All those activities directly influence the water chemical
properties such as CO2 concentration, alkalinity, and pH. For instance, macrophytes growing in shallow coastal zones have the
capacity to modify seawater pH and cause diel changes driven by primary productivity. Bivalves have been shown to be capable of
raising local pH by 0.3–0.5 units during the daytime. The pH of intertidal rock pools can vary between day and night due to the
antagonistic effect of respiration and photosynthesis on the water chemistry.
The presence of all these local biological processes creates a large diversity of pH niches in coastal habitats, offering areas with
improved conditions for calcification. For example, calcifiers living close to macrophytes can adapt to acidification by increasing
their calcification rates during daytime when CO2 is drawn down by primary productivity. Despite the fact that this local adaptation
can be valuable for adult individuals, it is possible that the pelagic larval stage, typical of many coastal calcifiers, may be critical for
the species survival in a more acidic ocean.
Another important phenomena affecting coastal pH is upwelling. Upwelling is a process in which deep, cold, and nutrient rich
water upwells from the bottom of the ocean to the surface. This water movement is wind driven and constantly or periodically
affects several coastal areas around the word. In upwelling regions, the high concentration in nutrients promotes biological
activities, but CO2 concentrations are generally high and waters are undersaturated with respect to aragonite. The impact of
acidification caused by upwelling has been demonstrated in estuarine areas where oyster larvae production was greatly reduced
during strong upwelling periods.
Organisms living in coastal areas are generally tolerant to changes in pH due to the high natural variability of their habitats.
However, the effect of anthropogenic CO2 emissions is not yet fully understood for those organisms. Despite their higher tolerance
to a variable environment, animals can still be affected by ocean acidification, but in a more subtle way. The physiology and
development of intertidal snails are affected under acidified conditions causing a decrease in fitness and survival. Juvenile oysters
show a reduction in their energy storage and a weaker shell. The immune response of intertidal mussels is disrupted by higher CO2
conditions.
One of the more emblematic ecosystem affected by acidification worldwide are coral reefs. There is now abundant evidence that
acidification and temperature changes are leading to coral bleaching and mortality. Most shallow water corals depend on an
obligate relationship with a photosymbiont microalgae. The algae provides nutrients and energy to the coral facilitating his growth
and calcification even in oligotrophic waters. The loss of symbionts in corals is generally called “coral bleaching” due to the
impressive color change in coral tissues. When the coral bleaches, it is not dead but it becomes more vulnerable to stress and shows
higher mortality rates. One of the more important causes of coral bleaching is thermal stress, but acidification is also known to favor
this phenomenon. The symbiotic relationship between coral organisms and photosynthetic symbionts is often disrupted by pH
changes since the symbiotic interaction is limited to a very small internal pH range.
The negative impact of acidification on corals is not limited to bleaching, but it also causes significant productivity reductions
and higher rates of net dissolution of the calcified tissues. Experiments restoring preindustrial alkalinity conditions in restricted coral
reef areas showed that net community calcification is highly affected by ocean chemistry. Coral calcification has been shown to be
reduced of about 6%–7% since the beginning of the industrial era. In addition to coral, several other organisms living in these
habitats have been shown to be particularly vulnerable to pH changes. Coral reef invertebrate recruitment and abundance are
significantly lower in elevated CO2 areas. These organisms are the key food source of several reef fish and their decline will probably
entrain a cascade effect along the food chain.

Acidification in Freshwater Ecosystems

In freshwater ecosystems, the acidification process due to atmospheric CO2 emissions is often amplified by the effect of other
anthropogenic forces such as acid rain and mining drainage. CO2 concentration in larger lakes tends to be in equilibrium with the
atmosphere, but this is generally not the case for lotic systems. Biological activities, rainfalls, and stream order play an important
role in regulating pH of freshwater systems. Assuming only an atmospheric CO2 increase of about 550 matm, the pH in Great Lakes
is estimated to decline at a similar rate compared to the open ocean (about 0.19/0.09 units), but rivers and small lakes are likely to
have different responses. Mining activity can cause an even higher impact with pH drops below 4 in certain systems. The release of
oxidation products from the soil to the water is called acid mine drainage. This drainage causes important acidifications in hundreds
of lakes and rivers situated in proximity to the mining areas.
6 Acidification in Aquatic Systems

The effects of acid rain are perhaps more flagrant. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides produced by volcanoes, industries, and other
anthropic activities react with atmospheric compounds to create sulfuric and nitric acid. The acids deposit on the ground and drain
into lakes and streams. North America and Europe were particularly affected by this phenomenon after the industrial revolution and
new developing industrial countries such as China are now subjected to the same issue. Acidic atmospheric deposition can cause pH
drops below 5 or even 4 in some freshwater systems. The effects on the aquatic ecosystems are often dramatic and the use of
buffering compounds (limestone) has been employed in sensitive areas to limit the damage.
The impact of acidification on freshwater biota has been often underestimated. Only recently, some researchers focused on the
effect of acidification at the species/organism level. As documented in marine systems, freshwater macrophytes and phytoplankton
can be positively affected by higher CO2 concentrations, but the response is strongly dependent on nutrient availability in the
system. Studies performed on lakes historically affected by acidic atmospheric depositions showed that some freshwater zooplank-
ton taxa are highly adaptable to acidic conditions and can survive and proliferate in a wide pH range. Following an acidification
event, community diversity and structure is strongly affected but there is some evidence that ecosystems can recover when lake pH
levels rise again above 6.
Another important freshwater community impacted by acidification is the bacterioplankton. Although diversity and richness
were found to be generally similar between acidic and more neutral lakes, the community structure was changed. Water chemistry
and acid stress have a direct influence on abundances and organization of bacterial assemblages.
In freshwater systems, mollusks, crustaceans, and many aquatic insects play the important role of breaking down the organic
material to regenerate nutrients and serve as a food source for several species of fish and birds. Studies performed on several
European lakes suggest that pH less than 5 might be critical for insect communities. Very little is known on the effect of pH declines
on freshwater mollusks, but they are usually absent from systems with acidity below 5 probably due to an excessively high
construction and maintenance cost of their calcareous structures. This is particularly true for freshwater bivalves’ shells primarily
made up of aragonite, since this type of shell is more soluble than the calcite one of most marine organisms. The decrease in calcium
availability in acidified waters has been shown to significantly affect freshwater crustaceans that are particularly sensitive during
their rapid post molt calcification of the exoskeleton. In streams, crabs, shrimps, and crayfish disappeared from anthropogenic
acidified areas. Species loss among detritivorous insects and crustaceans result in a loss of the litter break down process with
important consequences for the entire ecosystem.
The effect of low pH on freshwater invertebrates can be exacerbated by increased metal toxicity. Mercury concentrations are more
elevated in crayfish from lower pH lakes compared to less acidified areas. Aluminum appears to be highly absorbed by invertebrates
at lower pH. Nonetheless, lead toxicity is often species-specific and little information is available on potential biomagnification
along the food chain.
The effect of acidified water on higher trophic levels such as fish and amphibians has received increased interest in the past few
years. Under acidified conditions, the growth rate has been shown to decrease in several taxa, mostly due to a higher energetic cost of
the acid–base regulation system in the fluids and tissues. The development of pink salmon during its freshwater phase has been
shown to be affected by increased CO2 levels. The growth rate and early embryonic development of this species is impaired by
elevated freshwater CO2 partial pressure. Moreover, the capacity to detect olfactory cues and avoid predators is significantly reduced
under projected increases of CO2. But, this is just an example of how acidification can induce behavioral changes in freshwater fish.
Altered dial movement, behavioral changes and modified feeding patterns has been observed in several species suggesting that
acidification linked behavioral changes could increase the vulnerability of these organisms to predation and food competition.
Amphibians are experiencing a general decrease in abundance due to several anthropogenic activities, one of the most important
being acidification. Common species of frogs have been reported to be gradually decreasing and eventually disappearing from
poorly buffered and acidified ponds and lakes. Lower pH and calcium concentration significantly limited frog reproduction and
development. In dwarf newts, acidification did not inhibit females from laying eggs but the embryos were exposed to higher
mortalities under low pH. A similar response has been seen on toads with up to 100% mortality in eggs maintained at a pH below 5.
All those changes in freshwater ecosystem composition and productivity have direct consequences on the higher consumers such
as birds. Acidified streams have been seen to host younger and less site-faithful breeding populations of birds since they provide a
lower quality habitat. Furthermore, potentially toxic metals concentration and a decreased availability of calcium, can also
negatively affect birds. Piscivorous birds can suffer from strong metal bioconcentration in their prey and a reduction of calcium
content in the food could affect bones and egg shells formation.

Ecological Impact

The negative effects of aquatic acidification on single species have received the most attention in recent years. However, the
consequences of aquatic acidification are also extremely important at a community and ecosystem level. All organisms are
embedded in a complex network of interaction between different species and populations. The impact of acidification on aquatic
ecosystems is therefore inextricably linked to the impact of stressors at different tropic levels.
Predator–prey interactions can be extremely important in regulating and structuring populations and communities. Ocean
acidification can lead to important indirect changes in the structure, flows, and composition of the food web. Observations from
natural CO2 enriched areas show that communities differ substantially from nearby areas with higher seawater pH. Lower diversity
 Acidification in Aquatic Systems 7

and higher food web specialization are typically found in acidified areas, suggesting that acidification could induce a dramatic
community shift in vulnerable systems.
Phytoplankton constitutes the foundation of aquatic food webs and regulates multiple biogeochemical processes. Acidification
has been shown to have a greater impact than seawater warming or reduced nutrient supply on phytoplankton communities. About
half of the global functional diversity of marine phytoplankton communities has been estimated to be altered by 2100 and this is
mostly caused by ocean acidification. Freshwater phytoplankton communities are also significantly impacted by elevated CO2
concentration since less diverse populations and smaller cells were collected in altered systems. Tolerance for low pH varied
significantly between species and some authors suggested that toxic cyanobacterium strains could be more tolerant and able to
proliferate under weak acidification scenarios.
Ocean acidification can also profoundly affect settlement and benthic communities. Although a wide range of species are able to
settle and survive under acidified conditions, diversity is generally reduced and few taxa become dominant. This is partly due to the
fact that many benthic invertebrates depend on calcified structures that are particularly sensitive to acidification. The negative
impacts on the benthic community can have a cascade effect on the trophic chain and several cases of flatfish, sharks, and rays
declining have been reported. Regardless of the precise conformation of the local food web, it is likely that bottom-up changes can
be important. Moreover, other relatively unexplored problems such as changes in bacteria, pathogens, and parasites could also alter
the functioning of the ecosystem.
Assuming that calcified structures can provide protection, function as substrate and give a wide range of other benefit to other
organisms, a change in their abundance and distribution can significantly affect local communities. Coral reefs, oysters, mussels,
coralline algae, and many other organisms are considered as important ecosystem engineers providing a number of ecosystem
services and creating favorable habitats by modifying the environmental physical and biological conditions. Negative impacts on
these organisms can cause a cascading effect on competitors and consumers. Depending on species tolerance and adaptability to
acidification and climate changes, the effect on the ecosystem can be more or less important and key stone species may be replaced
by more resistant ones.
Another important ecosystem alteration related to ocean acidification is the modification of carbon and nutrients biogeochem-
ical dynamics. Variations in nutrient ratios have important effects on phytoplankton and microbial communities and this could
lead to a degraded food quality for heterotrophic consumers. Changes in water chemistry could also be directly responsible for
modifications in elements availability and organic matter degradation and composition. These changes can directly affect the base
of the food webs and consequently the entire ecosystem.

Socioeconomical Impact

Despite the clear negative impact of acidification for the aquatic communities and ecosystem functioning, this phenomenon also
has an important economic cost. The loss of economically important species such as fish and mollusks is accompanied by a decrease
in aquaculture productivity and the loss of touristic and valuable habitats such as coral reefs. Moreover, any negative effect of
aquatic acidification is expected to enhance the already present stressors such as overfishing and global warming.
One of the socioeconomical challenges connected to ocean acidification is the effect that this phenomenon has on seafood.
Decreased pH has been shown to decrease appearance and taste of commercially important species like shrimps. Fish and mollusks
are predicted to be smaller under the effects of acidification. Some commercially in demand species might decrease causing a shift in
marketable goods, such as from fish to jelly fish and algae that are predicted to be more resilient to acidification.
The US oyster industry has been declining since 2005 with an average loss of $111 million per year and one of the causes is the
presence of acidified waters in the area. The global economic cost of mollusk loss from ocean acidification has been estimated at
about $6 billion annually. In Europe, the annual economic losses due to ocean acidification are estimated to be over $1 billion in
2100. The global value of coral reef based tourism was estimated to be $11.5 billion in 2010 and the industry is in rapid growth. The
consequences of coral reefs habitat loss are expected to cost about $49–69 billion by the end of this century.
Economists estimated that the cost of the total impact of ocean acidification is in the same order of magnitude as climate change
despite a high level of uncertainty still being present, due to fact that aquatic acidification has only recently begun to receive
attention in international discussions. One of the main economic issues, is that ocean acidification is likely to have a greater negative
impact on poorer fishing and aquaculture communities such as the small developing island states. These areas are particularly
vulnerable to climate change and ocean acidification impacts, and they have fewer possibilities for alternative livelihoods.
For island nations, coral reefs loss can also constitute a substantial socioeconomic collapse. Marine natural touristic attractions
such as diving, snorkeling, sightseeing, and recreational fishing will significantly suffer from ocean acidification effects. Moreover,
coral reefs offer shoreline protection and support fisheries for a budget estimated at $30 billion a year.

Response Strategies to Aquatic Acidification

Limiting the effects of aquatic acidification is now critical considering the high risks of impact on natural and human systems. An
effective response to aquatic acidification is likely to require a large-scale investment plan. Due to a strong connection between
8 Acidification in Aquatic Systems

aquatic acidification and the other climate change stressors, regional, national, and global strategies need to consider and manage
those issues together.
The primary possible action to mitigate aquatic acidification is to reduce CO2 emissions since no large-scale system is yet
available to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. Nonetheless, even if all CO2 emissions were to end now, the CO2 already released
into the atmosphere will continue acidifying the ocean for centuries. It is indeed important to establish some mitigation and
adaptation responses.
Ocean and freshwater acidification will not lead to the disappearance of all aquatic organisms. Some species will be able to
tolerate the new conditions but ecosystems diversity and abundance are likely to change. The disappearance of economically and
culturally important species may lead to extreme social forcing.
The impact of aquatic acidification on juvenile fish, food webs, and coastal habitats are likely to entrain important reductions in
fishery resources. Improved managements and reduction of fishing pressure are just some examples on how we can protect and
rebuild fish stocks. Other possible actions could involve the development of protection and restoration plans for particularly
degraded and important areas.
In aquaculture, the impact of acidification can be limited by selecting more resilient species and employing selective breeding.
The entire culture systems could also be monitored and controlled to maintain optimal water conditions for the growth of the
selected species. Moreover, monitoring and response plans can be organized to warn and protect aquaculture systems from
acidification and other episodic stressor events.
Nevertheless, all these actions to mitigate the effects of acidification require high financial costs and policy commitment and
cannot face the extreme scenarios of global CO2 emissions. It is therefore fundamental to take action in reducing carbon emissions
to leave a greater number of effective safeguarding options to protect the marine and freshwater systems and their services to
humans.

Further Reading

Dangles O, Malmqvist B, and Laudon H (2004) Naturally acid freshwater ecosystems are diverse and functional: Evidence from boreal streams. Oikos 104: 149–155.
Doney SC, Fabry VJ, Feely RA, and Kleypas JA (2009) Ocean acidification: The other CO2 problem. Annual Review of Marine Science 1: 169–192.
Duarte CM, Hendriks IE, Moore TS, Olsen YS, Steckbauer A, Ramajo L, Carstensen J, Trotter JA, and McCulloch M (2013) Is ocean acidification an open-ocean syndrome?
Understanding anthropogenic impacts on seawater pH. Estuaries and Coasts 36: 221–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-013-9594-3.
Hasler CT, Jeffrey JD, Schneider EVC, Hannan KD, Tix JA, and Suski CD (2018) Biological consequences of weak acidification caused by elevated carbon dioxide in freshwater
ecosystems. Hydrobiologia 806: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-017-3332-y.
Ishimatsu A, Hayashi M, and Kikkawa T (2008) Fishes in high-CO2, acidified oceans. Marine Ecology Progress Series 373: 295–302.
Moiseenko TI (2005) Effects of acidification on aquatic ecosystems. Russian Journal of Ecology 36: 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11184-005-0017-y.
Mostofa KMG, Liu C-Q, Zhai W, Minella M, Vione D, Gao K, Minakata D, Arakaki T, Yoshioka T, Hayakawa K, Konohira E, Tanoue E, Akhand A, Chanda A, Wang B, and Sakugawa H
(2016) Reviews and syntheses: Ocean acidification and its potential impacts on marine ecosystems. Biogeosciences 13: 1767–1786. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-
13-1767-2016.
National Research Council (2010) Ocean acidification: A national strategy to meet the challenges of a changing ocean. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://doi.org/
10.17226/12904.
Phillips JC, McKinley GA, Bennington V, Bootsma HA, Pilcher DJ, Sterner RW, and Urban NR (2015a) The potential for CO2-induced acidification in freshwater: A Great Lakes case
study. Oceanography 28: 136–145.
Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Marquis M, Averyt K, Tignor M, Miller H, and Chen Z (2007) Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on climate change. In: Climate change 2007: The
physical science basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambrige/New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Tembo R (2017) The impact of ocean acidification on aquatic organisms. Journal of Environmental & Analytical Toxicology 07. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0525.1000469.
 Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment☆
Jan Vymazal, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction 1
Free Water Surface CWs 2
Constructed Wetlands With Subsurface Flow 2
Horizontal Flow CWs 2
Vertical Flow CWs 6
Hybrid Constructed Wetlands 7
Conclusions 8
Further Reading 8

Introduction

Constructed wetland treatment systems are engineered systems that have been designed and constructed to utilize the natural
processes involving wetland vegetation, soils, and their associated microbial assemblages to assist in treating wastewater. Con-
structed wetlands must contain wetland vegetation, the treatment system with no plants are not considered constructed wetlands.
They are designed to take an advantage of many of the same processes that occur in natural wetlands, but do so within a more
controlled environment. Some of these systems have been designed and operated with the sole purpose of treating wastewater,
while others have been implemented with multiple-use objectives in mind, such as using treated wastewater effluent as a water
source for the creation and restoration of wetland habitat for wildlife use and environmental enhancement. Synonymous terms to
“constructed” include man-made, engineered, and artificial wetlands.
At present, there are many different types of constructed wetlands (Fig. 1). Constructed wetlands (CWs) for wastewater treatment
may be classified according to the flow regime into surface flow (SF or free water surface—FWS) and subsurface flow (SSF) systems.
The FWS CWs could be further categorized according to the life form of the dominating macrophyte into systems with free floating,
floating-leaved, emergent and submerged macrophytes. Within the SSF CWs it is possible to distinguish between systems with
horizontal (subsurface) flow (HF or HSSF CWs) and vertical (subsurface) flow (VF or VSSF CWs). As many wastewaters are difficult
to treat in a single stage system, hybrid systems that consist of various types of constructed wetlands staged in series have been
introduced. In the European sense, hybrid CWs are usually formed by a combination of HF and VF systems. However, any types of
CWs could be combined in order to achieve better treatment performance, especially for total nitrogen.
The first experiments aimed at the possibility of wastewater treatment by wetland plants were undertaken by Dr. Seidel in
Germany in 1952 at the Max Planck Institute in Plön. However, Seidel’s concept to apply macrophytes to sewage treatment was
difficult to understand for sewage engineers and therefore, it was no surprise that the first full-scale free water surface (FWS)
constructed wetland (CW) were built outside Germany, in the Netherlands, in the late 1960s. However, the first subsurface flow
constructed wetland was built in Germany in 1974.

Constructed Wetlands
Vegetation:
Emergent

Surface Flow Subsurface Flow

(Free Water Surface Flow)

Horizontal Vertical

Downflow Upflow
Vegetation:
Free floating
Floating leaved
Submerged
Emergent Hybrid Constructed Wetlands

Fig. 1 Constructed wetlands classification.

☆
Change History: April 2018. Vymazal updated the text and figures from the 1st edition, all Tables are new.

Encyclopedia of Ecology, 2nd Edition https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.11238-2 1

2 Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment

Free Water Surface CWs

A typical free water surface constructed wetland consists of a shallow basin constructed of soil or other medium to support the roots
of vegetation (when rooting macrophytes are used) and a water control structure that maintains a shallow depth of water (Fig. 2).
Flow is directed into a cell along a line comprising the inlet, upstream embankment, and is intended to proceed all portions of the
wetland to one or more outlet structures. The shallow water depth, low flow velocity, and presence of the plant stalks and litter
regulate water flow and, especially in long, narrow channels, ensure plug-flow conditions. FWS CWs can be classified according to
the type of vegetation used (Fig. 2).
FWS CWs function as land-intensive biological treatment systems. Inflow water containing particulate and dissolved pollutants
slows and spreads through a large area of shallow water. Particulates, typically measured as total suspended solids, tend to settle and
are trapped due to lowered flow velocities and sheltering from wind. Most of the solids are usually filtered and settled within the first
few meters beyond the inlet. While settleable organics are rapidly removed in FWS CWs by quiescent conditions, attached and
suspended microbial growth is responsible for removal of soluble BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand, i.e., organic matter). The
major oxygen source for these reactions are algae and cynobacteria growing in the water.
Nitrogen is most effectively removed in FWS systems by nitrification/denitrification. Ammonia is oxidized by nitrifying bacteria
in aerobic zones, and nitrate is converted to free nitrogen or nitrous oxide in the anoxic zones near the bottom by denitrifying
bacteria. Volatilization is likely as both plankton and periphyton algae grow in FWS CWs and higher pH values during the day may
be favorable for ammonia loss. FWS CWs provide sustainable removal of phosphorus, but at relatively slow rates. Phosphorus
removal in FWS systems occurs from adsorption, absorption, complexation and precipitation. However, precipitation with Al, Fe
and Ca ions—is limited by little contact between water column and the soil. Macrophyte uptake as a removal mechanism in FWS
CWs is restricted by the fact that vegetation is not regularly harvested. Also, the amount of N and P sequestered in aboveground
biomass is usually quite low as compared to inflow loading (usually <10%). The only exception are CWs with free floating
macrophytes where harvesting in necessary for a proper function of the system. FWS CWs have been built to treat various types of
wastewater (Table 1) around the world including domestic and municipal wastewater, mine drainage, urban, airport, highway and
agricultural drainage, landfill leachate and variety of industrial and agricultural wastewaters.
The system with emergent vegetation is the most commonly used type of FWS CWs with Phragmites australis (common reed),
Typha spp. (cattail), Scirpus spp. (bulrush), Juncus spp. (rush) and Eleocharis spp. (spikerush) being the most frequently used species.
In other types of FWS CWs following species are commonly used:

- free floating: Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth, tropics and subtropics), Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce, subtropics and tropics),
Lemnaceae (duckweeds, worldwide)
- floating-leaved: Nuphar lutea (spatterdock), Nelumbo nucifera (Indian lotus)
- submerged: Ceratophyllum demersum (coontail), Najas guadalupensis (southern waternymph), Trapa natans (water chestnut,
sometimes classified as free floating), Myriophyllum heterophyllum (variable-leaf watermilfoil)
- floating mats: Phragmites australis, Cyperus papyrus (Papyrus), Alternanthera philoxeroides (Alligator weed), Hydrocotyle umbellata
(Pennywort)

Removal of organics and suspended solids in all FWS CWs is very high while removal of nutrients is only moderate. FWS CWs
provide limited contact with soil (if present) so adsorption and precipitation processes are very limited and therefore phosphorus
removal mostly proceeds via soil accretion. FWS CWs provide both aerobic and anaerobic zones but neither nitrification or
denitrification processes are complete. FWS CWs also provide high removal of enteric bacteria (e.g., fecal coliforms, fecal
streptococci, Clostridium perfringens), usually in the range between one to two orders of magnitude.

Constructed Wetlands With Subsurface Flow

Horizontal Flow CWs
The most widely used concept of SSF CWs is that with horizontal subsurface flow (HF or HSSF CWs, Fig. 3). The design typically
consists of a rectangular bed planted with the macrophytes and lined with an impermeable membrane. Mechanically pretreated
wastewater is fed in at the inlet and passes slowly through the filtration medium under the surface of the bed in a more or less
horizontal path until it reached the outlet zone where it is collected before discharge via level control arrangement at the outlet.
During the passage of wastewater through the reed bed the wastewater makes contact with a network of aerobic, anoxic and
anaerobic zones.
HSSF CWs require good mechanical pretreatment with suspended solids being the major target. Excessive suspended solids may
cause filtration bed clogging and subsequent surface flow. Small systems for domestic sewage with low flows usually use a three-
chamber septic tank. Pretreatment in systems designed for municipal sewage mostly comprise screens and Imhoff tank (sedimen-
tation of particles, both inorganic and organic). When stormwater runoff is also treated (combined sewer system), a grit chamber
(removal of inorganic particles) is included. Various types of wastewater may require different types of pretreatment. For example,
landfill leachate treatment systems usually include aerated lagoons, systems for the treatment of concentrated wastewaters from
agricultural operations commonly include facultative lagoons.
 Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment 3

Fig. 2 Free water surface constructed wetlands. (A) With emergent vegetation, (B) with floating mats of emergent vegetation, (C) with free floating vegetation,
(D) with submerged vegetation, (E) with floating-leaved vegetation (Vymazal, 2008).
4 Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment

Table 1 Examples of the use of FWS CWs for treatment of various types of wastewater

Vegetation Type of wastewater Location

FF Municipal United States, Cameroon, Poland, Thailand, China, Taiwan

FL Municipal United States, China
S Municipal United States, Sweden, China
Agricultural runoff Sweden, United States
Urban runoff Canada, United States
E Municipal All continents
Urban stormwater Australia, United States, United Kingdom
Agricultural runoff Australia, New Zealand, United States, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, Korea, Taiwan, China, Norway, Finland, Spain
Airport runoff Sweden, Canada
Feedlot operations Ireland, Canada, United States
Mine drainage United Kingdom, United States, Spain, South Africa, Canada, Australia, Germany, Ireland
Refinery United States, China, Hungary
Pulp and paper United States, China
Aquaculture United States, Taiwan
Landfill leachate Sweden, Norway, Canada, Poland, United States
Food processing Greece, Kenya, United States, Canada, Thailand, Italy, New Zealand
Tannery Turkey
Woodwaste Canada
FM Municipal United States, China, Turkey, Uganda, Sri Lanka, Colombia, Italy, Taiwan
Road runoff Belgium, United States, New Zealand
Agricultural runoff China
Mine drainage Canada
Feedlot operations United States

FF, free floating; FL, floating-leaved; S, submerged; E, emergent; FM, floating mats.

Fig. 3 Constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow. 1—distribution zone filled with large stones, 2—impermeable liner, 3—filtration medium (gravel,
crushed rock), 4—vegetation, 5—water level in the bed, 6—collection zone filled with large stones, 7—collection drainage pipe, 8—outlet structure for
maintaining of water level in the bed. The arrows indicate only a general flow pattern. From Vymazal, J. (ed.) (2001). Transformations of nutrients in natural and
constructed wetlands. Leiden, The Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers.

Filtration beds are filled with porous material which allows for good hydraulic conductivity in order to keep the water level
below the surface as well as supports growth of macrophytes. The most commonly used filtration materials are washed pea gravel
and crushed rock. The fraction size varies among countries but in general, size between 5 and 20 mm is the most common. It is
recommended to use only one fraction as various fractions differ in hydraulic conductivity and short circuiting may occur. The
inflow distribution and outflow collection zones are filled with large stones (ca. 50–200 mm).
The following equation, first proposed by Kickuth, is widely used for sizing of HSSF systems for domestic sewage treatment:

Ah ¼ Qd ð ln Cin ln Cout Þ=KBOD ,

where Ah ¼ surface flow of bed (m2), Qd ¼ average flow (m3 day 1), Cin ¼ influent BOD5 (mg L 1), Cout ¼ effluent BOD5
(mg L 1), KBOD ¼ rate constant (m day 1).
There were a lot of discussion on the KBOD value. Formerly proposed value of 0.19 m day 1 by Kickuth resulted in too small area
of the bed (about 2 m2 per one PE, population equivalent) and consequently lower treatment effect. The field measurements in
operational systems indicated that the value of KBOD is usually lower (0.07–0.1 m day 1). The data from 66 Danish HSSF CWs
identified K-values for total-N: 0.033 m day 1 and total-P: 0.025 m day 1.
 Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment 5

The depth of vegetated beds with horizontal subsurface flow was initially based on the requirement that roots and rhizomes of
the vegetation should penetrate the full depth of the bed in order to eliminate totally anaerobic zones. As the roots of the most
frequently used plant, common reed (Phragmites australis) are capable of successful penetration to the depth of about 0.6 m and start
to weaken beyond that point, the recommended bed depth was 0.6 m. Although it has been proven that oxygen transported from
aboveground organs diffuses only to the thin substrate layer adjacent to the roots and rhizomes the typical depth of filtration bed is
usually 0.6–0.8 m.
Constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow are usually sealed in order to prevent uncontrolled water seepage into
groundwater. Most of the systems use a plastic liner or membrane such as HDPE, LDPE or PVC 0.5–2 mm thick. Where local subsoil
has low hydraulic conductivity (approx. 10 8 m s 1 or less), it is not necessary to use plastic liners. In order to prevent liner damage
by filtration material particles, geotextile is commonly used to cover plastic liner. Also, geotextile could be also used beneath the
liner.
The macrophytes growing in constructed wetlands have several properties in relation to the treatment processes that make them
an essential component of the design. The most important effects of the macrophytes in HSSF CWs in relation to wastewater
treatment processes are the physical effects the plant tissues give rise to such as insulation of the bed surface during the period of
cold weather or provision of surface area for attached microorganisms in the filtration bed. The metabolism of the macrophytes
(plant uptake, oxygen release from the roots) is of minor importance in HSSF CWs. The macrophytes for HSSF CWs should (a) be
tolerant of a relatively high organic load in the wastewater, (b) have high belowground and aboveground biomass, and (c) should
grow quickly in order to cover the filtration bed surface soon after planting.
The most frequently used plant around the world is Phragmites australis, especially in Europe, Australia, Africa and Asia. In some
countries, Phragmites is used exclusively; for example, in the United Kingdom, where HSSF CWs are called Reed Bed Treatment
Systems. On the other hand, in New Zealand or many areas of the Unites States, Phragmites is considered an exotic and invasive
species by natural resource agencies and as a result, use of this species has been limited. Other commonly used species are Phalaris
arundinacea (reed canarygrass), Glyceria maxima (sweet mannagrass) or various cattails (Typha latifolia, T. angustifolia) in Europe,
Cyperus papryrus (papyrus) in Africa, Typha domingensis in South America and Scirpus spp. (bulrush) in North America. Weeds (plants
that were not intentionally planted) occur mostly within vegetated bed margins and do not have any detrimental impact on
treatment performance.
Dissolved oxygen supply is very limited in filtration beds of HSSF CWs and, therefore, anoxic and anaerobic processes usually
prevail. Aerobic degradation is restricted to narrow zones adjacent to roots and rhizomes where oxygen leaks to the rhizosphere.
Removal of organics (BOD5, COD) is usually high and exceeds 85% in case of sewage. Suspended solids that are not removed in
pretreatment system are effectively removed by filtration and settlement. Most suspended solids are filtered out and settled within
the first few meters beyond the inlet zone. Suspended solids are removed in HSSF CWS were effectively, commonly >90%. The
accumulation of trapped solids is a major threat for good performance of HSSF systems as the solids may clog the bed. Therefore, the
effective pretreatment is necessary for HSSF systems. However, it has been shown that if HSSF CWs are appropriately loaded, that is,
<10 g BOD5 m 2 day 1, <20 g COD m 2 day 1, <10 g TSS m 2 day 1, the partial clogging in the inflow zone occurs only after
about 15 years. In addition, partial clogging has no effect on treatment performance of the system.
The major removal mechanism of nitrogen in HSSF constructed wetlands is nitrification/denitrification. Field measurements
have shown that the oxygenation of the rhizosphere of HSSF constructed wetlands is insufficient and, therefore, incomplete
nitrification (i.e., oxidation of ammonia to nitrate) is the major cause of limited nitrogen removal. In general, nitrification which
is performed by strictly aerobic bacteria is mostly restricted to areas adjacent to roots and rhizomes where oxygen leaks to the
filtration media. On the other hand prevailing anoxic and anaerobic conditions offer suitable conditions for denitrification but the
supply of nitrate is limited as the major portion of nitrogen in sewage is in the form of ammonia. Adsorption and plant uptake play
a much less important role in nitrogen removal in HSSF CWs. Volatilization is not effective as there is no free water surface and
adsorption is greatly limited by the fact that filtration media (gravel, rock) do not provide suitable sorption sites. Plant harvesting
contributes to an overall nitrogen removal only marginally (usually <10% of the inflow load) with N standing aboveground stocks
in the range of 20–60 g N m 2. In case of sewage, removal of ammonia and total nitrogen usually does not exceed 50%.
Phosphorus is removed primarily by adsorption and precipitation, however, media used for HSF wetlands (e.g., pea gravel,
crushed stones) usually do not contain great quantities of Fe, Al or Ca and therefore, removal of phosphorus is generally low (<40%
in sewage). Removal of phosphorus could be enhanced by the use of filtration media with high sorption capacity but the sorption
capacity is always saturable and therefore, the media must be replaced after saturation in order to maintain high P removal. Removal
via harvesting accounts usually for <5% of the inflow load with the P standing stock in the aboveground biomass in the range of
3–6 g P g m 2. The removal of microbiological pollution is very seldom the primary target for constructed treatment wetlands.
However, HSSF CWs are known to act as excellent biofilters through a complex of physical, chemical and biological factors which all
participate in the reduction of the number of bacteria of anthropogenic origin.
HSSF CWs are used for many types of wastewater around the world (Table 2). Indeed, the most common use is for municipal
and domestic sewage, however industrial and agricultural wastewaters have been successfully treated as well. Besides that,
applications for various types of stormwater runoff (e.g., urban, highway, agricultural, golfcourses, nurseries, airports) and landfill
leachate have been put in operation.
6 Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment

Table 2 Examples of the use of HF CWs for various types of wastewaters

Wastewater Location

Municipal Worldwide
Petrochemical United States, Taiwan, China, Sudan, Oman
Pulp and paper United States, Kenya, India
Tannery Portugal, Tanzania
Textile Australia, Slovenia, Tanzania
Abbatoir Australia, Mexico, Ecuador, Uruguay, New Zealand
Food processing Italy, Spain, Slovenia, United States, France, Lithuania, Turkey
Distillery, winery Italy, Spain, United States, India, South Africa, Mexico, United Kingdom
Feedlot operations Australia, China, United States, Canada, Thailand, Lithuania
Fish farms United States, Germany, Canada
Dairy Italy, Lithuania, Germany, United States, United Kingdom, New Zealand
Highway runoff United Kingdom, Italy, United States
Airport runoff United Kingdom, Switzerland, United States, Germany
Agricultural runoff China, New Zealand
Landfill leachate United States, Portugal, Norway, Poland, Slovenia

Vertical Flow CWs

Constructed wetlands with vertical subsurface flow (VF or VSSF CWs) usually comprise a flat bed of coarse sand or gravel planted
with macrophytes (Fig. 4). The most important factors in the design of a VF CWs are: (1) to produce a bed matrix that allows the
passage of the wastewater through the bed before the next dose arrives whilst at the same time holding the liquid back long enough
to allow the contact with the bacteria growing on the media and achieve the required treatment. (2) To provide sufficient surface
area to allow the oxygen transfer to take place and sufficient bacteria to grow. VF CWs were proposed during the 1960s but did not
spread as quickly as HSSF CWs, probably because of higher operation and maintenance requirements. However, the increased
demand for nitrogen and especially ammonia’nitrogen removal in the 1990s revived this type of constructed wetlands.
All VF systems are dosed intermittently, however, there is no clear recommendation how many batches per day are optimal. It is
essential to achieve quick water cover of the surface in order to trap air in the interstices in the bed. In most VF systems the real
distributor is the layer of carefully selected sand which first allows flooding of the surface and then gradual seepage down through
the depth of the media. The vast majority of the VF systems employ a network of pipes with small holes across the surface area of the
bed. The distribution pipes could be insulated by a 0.2 m layer of coarse wood chips or sea shells on the surface of the filter. It is also
possible to distribute wastewater from open-ended pipes onto the bed. The area of the immediate vicinity of the discharge should be
protected by some paving or tiles to prevent the wash away of the sand or gravel.
The data on maximum HLR vary widely in the literature. However, it seems that VF CWs can operate in the range of
100–1200 mm day 1 and usually no clogging problems occur below 800 mm day 1 of pretreated wastewater. The organic loading
rate should not exceed 25 g COD m 2 day 1 in order to prevent clogging. The area used for VF CWs varies between 0.9 and
5 m2 PE 1 (PE ¼ population equivalent) but most systems are design with the specific area 2–3 m2 PE 1 stems are usually designed
as a single unit, larger systems may have several beds which are fed with wastewater in rotation. Also, some larger systems have two
stages of vertical beds in operation.
The size of VF CWs is usually based on the hydraulic loading rate (HLR). The maximum HLR that can be achieved without
surface flooding will be affected by many variables but is most strongly related to media size and distribution, rate of biofilm growth
and hence the BOD5/organic mass loading rate and suspended solids loading rate. The Danish guidelines recommend specific area
of 3.2 m2 per person, maximum organic loading of 18.8 g BOD5 m2 day 1 and hydraulic loading of 47 mm day 1. Filtration
medium is sand with a d10 between 0.25 and 1.2 mm, a d60 between 1 and 4 mm, and uniformity coefficient (U ¼ d60/d10) should
be <3.5. The contents of clay and silt (particles <0.125 mm) must be <0.5%. Austrian guidelines recommend the specific area of
4 m2 per person and maximum loading of 20 g COD m 2 day 1. The filtration layers should consist of 5–10 cm of gravel (4/8 or
8/16 mm) on top, followed by 50 cm of washed sand (0–4 mm), 5–10 cm transition layer (gravel 4/8 mm) and 20 cm drainage
layer at the bottom (gravel 8/16 or 16/32 mm). This set-up guarantees outflow concentrations <90 mg L 1 COD, 25 mg L 1 BOD5
and 10 mg L 1 N-NH4 at water temperature > 12 C. In France, the VF systems consist of two beds in series with only 1.2 m2 per
person in the first stage and 0.8 m2 per person in the second stage. The pretreatment consists only of prescreening, maximum
organic load is 100 g COD m2 day 1 and maximum hydraulic loading is 90 cm day 1.
Plants play a very important role in VF CWs. They stabilize surface of the bed, their roots and rhizomes positively affect the
hydraulic conductivity of the filter and movement of aboveground stems helps to prevent clogging. The aboveground biomass
provides insulation of the bed and belowground organs provide substrate for attached bacteria growth. The oxygen transfer to the
rhizosphere is limited but creates microzones where aerobic bacteria can be present. The vast majority of VF CWs is in operation in
Europe and the most commonly used plant is Phragmites australis (common reed).
VF CWs are very effective in removal of organics, suspended solids and ammonia. The intermittent feeding allows for regular
emptying the filtration bed which results in good oxygenation of the bed allowing for nitrification. Therefore, VF CWS are used in
 Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment 7

Fig. 4 Layout of a vertical flow constructed wetland system for a single household. Raw sewage is pretreated in a 2 m3 sedimentation tank. Settled sewage is
pulse-loaded onto the surface of the bed by a level-controlled pump. Treated effluent is collected in a system of drainage pipes, and half of the effluent is recirculated
back to the pumping well (or to the sedimentation tank). From Brix, H. (2005). The use of vertical flow constructed wetlands for on-site treatment of domestic
wastewater: New Danish guidelines. Ecological Engineering 25, 491–500.

Table 3 Examples of the use of VF CWs for various types of wastewater

Wastewater Location

Municipal, domestic France, Belgium, Austria, Poland, Czech Republic, Italy

Landfill leachate Norway, New Zealand
Abbatoir Canada
Refinery Pakistan
Airport runoff United States, Canada
Textile United Kingdom, Portugal, Japan
Aquaculture United States, China, Canada, Vietnam
Winery Germany
Olive mill Turkey, Greece
Chemical industry Portugal
Steel industry China

case when ammonia is the target of the treatment. On the other hand, due to oxic conditions in the bed, the denitrification is limited
and often missing in the system. VF CWs are commonly used for treatment of domestic and municipal sewage but the use for other
types of wastewater is common (Table 3).

Hybrid Constructed Wetlands

In hybrid constructed wetlands (CWs), the advantages of various systems can be combined to complement each other. Hybrid
constructed wetlands were first introduced by Seidel in Germany as early as in the 1960s. The design consisted of two stages of
several parallel vertical flow (VF) beds followed by two or three horizontal flow (HF) beds in series. The VF stages were usually
planted with Phragmites australis, whereas the HF stages contained a number of other emergent macrophytes, including Iris,
Schoenoplectus (Scirpus), Sparganium, Carex, Typha and Acorus. The VF beds were loaded with pretreated wastewater for 1–2 days,
and were then allowed to dry out for 4–8 days. In this system, nitrification, that is, oxidation of ammonia to nitrate, takes place in
the VF stage and denitrification of nitrate, that is, reduction of nitrate do N2O and N2, proceeds in the HF stage. The oxidation of
ammonia in intermittently loaded VF stage is very high but the concentration of organics in the second stage may not be high
enough to support full denitrification. In the early 1980s, several hybrid systems of Seidel’s type were built in France and similar
system was built in 1987 in the United Kingdom. During the 1990s and the early 2000s, VF–HF systems were built in many
countries in Europe, for example, Austria, Slovenia, Norway or Ireland. The VF–HF hybrid constructed wetlands were mostly
designed to treat domestic or municipal wastewater where nitrified effluents were required but there were also application for other
types of wastewater (Table 4).
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 Enragée?

M
A chère Geneviève, tu me demandes de te raconter mon
voyage de noces. Comment veux-tu que j’ose? Ah!
sournoise, qui ne m’avais rien dit, qui ne m’avais même rien
laissé deviner, mais là, rien de rien!... Comment! tu es mariée depuis
dix-huit mois, oui, depuis dix-huit mois, toi qui te dis ma meilleure
amie, toi qui ne me cachais rien, autrefois, et tu n’as pas eu la
charité de me prévenir? Si tu m’avais seulement donné l’éveil, si tu
m’avais mise en garde, si tu avais laissé entrer un simple soupçon
dans mon âme, un tout petit, tu m’aurais empêchée de faire une
grosse bêtise dont je rougis encore, dont mon mari rira jusqu’à sa
mort, et dont tu es seule coupable!
Je me suis rendue affreusement ridicule à tout jamais; j’ai
commis une de ces erreurs dont le souvenir ne s’efface pas, par ta
faute, par ta faute, méchante!... Oh! si j’avais su!
Tiens, je prends du courage en écrivant et je me décide à tout
dire. Mais promets-moi de ne pas trop rire.
Ne t’attends pas à une comédie. C’est un drame.
Tu te rappelles mon mariage. Je devais partir le soir même pour
mon voyage de noces. Certes, je ne ressemblais guère à la
Paulette, dont Gyp nous a si drôlement conté l’histoire dans un
spirituel roman: Autour du mariage. Et si ma mère m’avait dit,
comme Mme d’Hautretan à sa fille: «Ton mari te prendra dans ses
bras... et...», je n’aurais certes pas répondu comme Paulette en
éclatant de rire: «Ne va pas plus loin, maman... je sais tout ça aussi
bien que toi, va...»
 Moi je ne savais rien du tout, et maman, ma pauvre maman que
tout effraye, n’a pas osé effleurer ce sujet délicat.
Donc, à cinq heures du soir, après la collation, on nous a
prévenus que la voiture nous attendait. Les invités étaient partis,
j’étais prête. Je me rappelle encore le bruit des malles dans l’escalier
et la voix de nez de papa, qui ne voulait pas avoir l’air de pleurer. En
m’embrassant, le pauvre homme m’a dit: «Bon courage!» comme si
j’allais me faire arracher une dent. Quant à maman, c’était une
fontaine. Mon mari me pressait pour éviter ces adieux difficiles,
j’étais moi-même tout en larmes, quoique bien heureuse. Cela ne
s’explique guère, et pourtant c’est vrai. Tout à coup, je sentis
quelque chose qui tirait ma robe. C’était Bijou, tout à fait oublié
depuis le matin. La pauvre bête me disait adieu à sa manière. Cela
me donna comme un petit coup dans le cœur, et un grand désir
d’embrasser mon chien. Je le saisis (tu sais qu’il est gros comme le
poing) et me mis à le dévorer de baisers. Moi, j’adore caresser les
bêtes. Cela me fait un plaisir doux, ça me donne des sortes de
frissons, c’est délicieux.
Quant à lui, il était comme fou; il remuait ses pattes, il me léchait,
il mordillait comme il fait quand il est très content. Tout à coup, il me
prit le nez dans ses crocs et je sentis qu’il me faisait mal. Je poussai
un petit cri et je reposai le chien par terre. Il m’avait vraiment mordue
en voulant jouer. Je saignais. Tout le monde fut désolé. On apporta
de l’eau, du vinaigre, des linges, et mon mari voulut lui-même me
soigner. Ce n’était rien, d’ailleurs, deux petits trous qu’on eût dit faits
avec des aiguilles. Au bout de cinq minutes, le sang était arrêté et je
partis.
Il était décidé que nous ferions un voyage en Normandie, de six
semaines environ.
Le soir, nous arrivions à Dieppe. Quand je dis «le soir», j’entends
à minuit.
Tu sais comme j’aime la mer. Je déclarai à mon mari que je ne
me coucherais pas avant de l’avoir vue. Il parut très contrarié. Je lui
demandai en riant «Est-ce que vous avez sommeil?»
 Il répondit: «Non, mon amie, mais vous devriez comprendre que
j’ai hâte de me trouver seul avec vous.»
Je fus surprise: «Seul avec moi? Mais nous sommes seuls
depuis Paris dans le wagon.»
Il sourit: «Oui... mais... dans le wagon, ce n’est pas la même
chose que si nous étions dans notre chambre.»
Je ne cédai pas: «Eh bien, monsieur, nous sommes seuls sur la
plage, et voilà tout.»
Décidément, cela ne lui plaisait pas. Il dit pourtant: «Soit, puisque
vous le désirez.»
La nuit était magnifique, une de ces nuits qui vous font passer
dans l’âme des idées grandes et vagues, plutôt des sensations que
des pensées, avec des envies d’ouvrir les bras, d’ouvrir les ailes,
d’embrasser le ciel, que sais-je? On croit toujours qu’on va
comprendre des choses inconnues.
Il y a dans l’air du Rêve, de la Poésie pénétrante, du bonheur
d’autre part que de la terre, une sorte d’ivresse infinie qui vient des
étoiles, de la lune, de l’eau argentée et remuante. Ce sont là les
meilleurs instants qu’on ait dans la vie. Ils font voir l’existence
différente, embellie, délicieuse; ils sont comme la révélation de ce
qui pourrait être... ou de ce qui sera.
Cependant mon mari paraissait impatient de rentrer. Je lui disais:
«As-tu froid?—Non.—Alors regarde donc ce petit bateau là-bas, qui
semble endormi sur l’eau. Peut-on être mieux qu’ici? J’y resterais
volontiers jusqu’au jour. Dis, veux-tu que nous attendions l’aurore?»
Il crut que je me moquais de lui, et il m’entraîna presque de force
jusqu’à l’hôtel! Si j’avais su! Oh! le misérable!
Quand nous fûmes seuls, je me sentis honteuse, gênée, sans
savoir pourquoi, je te le jure. Enfin je le fis passer dans le cabinet de
toilette et je me couchai.
 Oh! ma chère, comment dire ça? Enfin voici. Il prit sans doute
mon extrême innocence pour de la malice, mon extrême simplicité
pour de la rouerie, mon abandon confiant et niais pour une tactique,
et il ne garda point les délicats ménagements qu’il faut pour
expliquer, faire comprendre et accepter de pareils mystères à une
âme sans défiance et nullement préparée.
Et tout à coup, je crus qu’il avait perdu la tête. Puis, la peur
m’envahissant, je me demandai s’il me voulait tuer. Quand la terreur
vous saisit, on ne raisonne pas, on ne pense plus, on devient fou. En
une seconde, je m’imaginai des choses effroyables. Je pensai aux
faits divers des journaux, aux crimes mystérieux, à toutes les
histoires chuchotées de jeunes filles épousées par des misérables!
Est-ce que je le connaissais, cet homme? Je me débattais, le
repoussant, éperdue d’épouvante. Je lui arrachai même une poignée
de cheveux et un côté de la moustache, et, délivrée par cet effort, je
me levai en hurlant «au secours!» Je courus à la porte, je tirai les
verrous et je m’élançai, presque nue, dans l’escalier.
D’autres portes s’ouvrirent. Des hommes en chemise apparurent
avec des lumières à la main. Je tombai dans les bras de l’un d’eux
en implorant sa protection. Il se jeta sur mon mari.
Je ne sais plus le reste. On se battait, on criait; puis on a ri, mais
ri comme tu ne peux pas croire. Toute la maison riait, de la cave au
grenier. J’entendais dans les corridors de grandes fusées de gaieté,
d’autres dans les chambres au-dessus. Les marmitons riaient sous
les toits, et le garçon de garde se tordait sur son matelas, dans le
vestibule!
Songe donc: dans un hôtel!
Je me retrouvai ensuite seule avec mon mari, qui me donna
quelques explications sommaires, comme on explique une
expérience de chimie avant de la tenter. Il n’était pas du tout content.
Je pleurai jusqu’au jour, et nous sommes partis dès l’ouverture des
portes.
Ce n’est pas tout.
 Le lendemain, nous arrivions à Pourville, qui n’est encore qu’un
embryon de station de bains. Mon mari m’accablait de petits soins,
de tendresses. Après un premier mécontentement il paraissait
enchanté. Honteuse et désolée de mon aventure de la veille, je fus
aussi aimable qu’on peut l’être, et docile. Mais tu ne te figures pas
l’horreur, le dégoût, presque la haine qu’Henry m’inspira lorsque je
sus cet infâme secret qu’on cache si soigneusement aux jeunes
filles. Je me sentais désespérée, triste à mourir, revenue de tout et
harcelée du besoin de retourner auprès de mes pauvres parents. Le
surlendemain, nous arrivions à Étretat. Tous les baigneurs étaient en
émoi: une jeune femme, mordue par un petit chien, venait de mourir
enragée. Un grand frisson me courut dans le dos quand j’entendis
raconter cela à table d’hôte. Il me sembla tout de suite que je
souffrais dans le nez et je sentis des choses singulières tout le long
des membres.
Je ne dormis pas de la nuit; j’avais complètement oublié mon
mari. Si j’allais aussi mourir enragée! Je demandai des détails le
lendemain au maître d’hôtel. Il m’en donna d’affreux. Je passai le
jour à me promener sur la falaise. Je ne parlais plus, je songeais. La
rage! quelle mort horrible! Henry me demandait: «Qu’as-tu? Tu
sembles triste.» Je répondais: «Mais rien, mais rien.» Mon regard
effaré se fixait sur la mer sans la voir, sur les fermes, sur les plaines,
sans que j’eusse pu dire ce que j’avais sous les yeux. Pour rien au
monde je n’aurais voulu avouer la pensée qui me torturait. Quelques
douleurs, de vraies douleurs, me passèrent dans le nez. Je voulus
rentrer.
A peine revenue à l’hôtel, je m’enfermai pour regarder la plaie.
On ne la voyait plus. Et pourtant, je n’en pouvais douter, elle me
faisait mal.
J’écrivis tout de suite à ma mère une courte lettre qui dut lui
paraître étrange. Je demandais une réponse immédiate à des
questions insignifiantes. J’écrivis, après avoir signé: «Surtout
n’oublie pas de me donner des nouvelles de Bijou.»
 Le lendemain, je ne pus manger, mais je refusai de voir un
médecin. Je demeurai assise toute la journée sur la plage à regarder
les baigneurs dans l’eau. Ils arrivaient gros ou minces, tous laids
dans leurs affreux costumes; mais je ne songeais guère à rire. Je
pensais: «Sont-ils heureux, ces gens! ils n’ont pas été mordus. Ils
vivront, eux! ils ne craignent rien. Ils peuvent s’amuser à leur gré.
Sont-ils tranquilles!»
A tout instant je portais la main à mon nez pour le tâter. N’enflait-
il pas? Et à peine rentrée à l’hôtel, je m’enfermais pour le regarder
dans la glace. Oh! s’il avait changé de couleur, je serais morte sur le
coup.
Le soir, je me sentis tout à coup une sorte de tendresse pour
mon mari, une tendresse de désespérée. Il me parut bon, je
m’appuyai sur son bras. Vingt fois je faillis lui dire mon abominable
secret, mais je me tus.
Il abusa odieusement de mon abandon et de l’affaissement de
mon âme. Je n’eus pas la force de lui résister, ni même la volonté.
J’aurais tout supporté, tout souffert! Le lendemain, je reçus une lettre
de ma mère. Elle répondait à mes questions, mais ne me parlait pas
de Bijou. Je pensai sur-le-champ: «Il est mort et on me le cache.»
Puis je voulus courir au télégraphe pour envoyer une dépêche. Une
réflexion m’arrêta: «S’il est vraiment mort, on ne me le dira pas.» Je
me résignai donc encore à deux jours d’angoisses. Et j’écrivis de
nouveau. Je demandais qu’on m’envoyât le chien qui me distrairait,
car je m’ennuyais un peu.
Des tremblements me prirent dans l’après-midi. Je ne pouvais
lever un verre plein sans en répandre la moitié. L’état de mon âme
était lamentable. J’échappai à mon mari vers le crépuscule et je
courus à l’église. Je priai longtemps.
En revenant, je sentis de nouvelles douleurs dans le nez et
j’entrai chez le pharmacien dont la boutique était éclairée. Je lui
parlai d’une de mes amies qui aurait été mordue et je lui demandai
des conseils. C’était un aimable homme, plein d’obligeance. Il me
renseigna abondamment. Mais j’oubliais les choses à mesure qu’il
me les disait, tant j’avais l’esprit troublé. Je ne retins que ceci: «Les
purgations étaient souvent recommandées.» J’achetai plusieurs
bouteilles de je ne sais quoi, sous prétexte de les envoyer à mon
amie.
Les chiens que je rencontrais me faisaient horreur et me
donnaient envie de fuir à toutes jambes. Il me sembla plusieurs fois
que j’avais aussi envie de les mordre.
Ma nuit fut horriblement agitée. Mon mari en profita. Dès le
lendemain, je reçus la réponse de ma mère.—Bijou, disait-elle, se
portait bien. Mais on l’exposerait trop en l’expédiant ainsi tout seul
par le chemin de fer. Donc on ne voulait pas me l’envoyer. Il était
mort!
Je ne pus encore dormir. Quant à Henry, il ronfla. Il se réveilla
plusieurs fois. J’étais anéantie.
Le lendemain, je pris un bain de mer. Je faillis me trouver mal en
entrant dans l’eau, tant je fus saisie par le froid. Je demeurai plus
ébranlée encore par cette sensation de glace. J’avais dans les
jambes des tressaillements affreux; mais je ne souffrais plus du tout
du nez.
On me présenta, par hasard, le médecin inspecteur des bains, un
charmant homme. Je mis une habileté extrême à l’amener sur mon
sujet. Je lui dis alors que mon jeune chien m’avait mordue quelques
jours auparavant et je lui demandai ce qu’il faudrait faire s’il
survenait quelque inflammation. Il se mit à rire et répondit: «Dans
votre situation, je ne verrais qu’un moyen, madame, ce serait de
vous faire un nouveau nez.»
Et comme je ne comprenais pas, il ajouta: «Cela d’ailleurs
regarde votre mari.»
Je n’étais pas plus avancée ni mieux renseignée en le quittant.
Henry, ce soir-là, semblait très gai, très heureux. Nous vînmes le
soir au Casino, mais il n’attendit pas la fin du spectacle pour me
proposer de rentrer. Rien n’avait plus d’intérêt pour moi, je le suivis.
 Mais je ne pouvais tenir au lit, tous mes nerfs étaient ébranlés et
vibrants. Lui, non plus, ne dormait pas. Il m’embrassait, me
caressait, devenu doux et tendre comme s’il eût deviné enfin
combien je souffrais. Je subissais ses caresses sans même les
comprendre, sans y songer.
Mais tout à coup une crise subite, extraordinaire, foudroyante,
me saisit. Je poussai un cri effroyable, et repoussant mon mari qui
s’attachait à moi, je m’élançai dans la chambre et j’allai m’abattre sur
la face, contre la porte. C’était la rage, l’horrible rage. J’étais perdue!
Henry me releva, effaré, voulut savoir. Mais je me tus. J’étais
résignée maintenant. J’attendais la mort. Je savais qu’après
quelques heures de répit, une autre crise me saisirait, puis une
autre, puis une autre, jusqu’à la dernière qui serait mortelle.
Je me laissai reporter dans le lit. Au point du jour, les irritantes
obsessions de mon mari déterminèrent un nouvel accès, qui fut plus
long que le premier. J’avais envie de déchirer, de mordre, de hurler;
c’était terrible, et cependant moins douloureux que je n’aurais cru.
Vers huit heures du matin, je m’endormis pour la première fois
depuis quatre nuits.
A onze heures, une voix aimée me réveilla. C’était maman que
mes lettres avaient effrayée, et qui accourait pour me voir. Elle tenait
à la main un grand panier d’où sortirent soudain des aboiements. Je
le saisis, éperdue, folle d’espoir. Je l’ouvris, et Bijou sauta sur le lit,
m’embrassant, gambadant, se roulant sur mon oreiller, pris d’une
frénésie de joie.
Eh bien, ma chérie, tu me croiras si tu veux... Je n’ai encore
compris que le lendemain!
Oh! l’imagination! comme ça travaille! Et penser que j’ai cru?...
Dis, n’est-ce pas trop bête?...
Je n’ai jamais avoué à personne, tu le comprendras, n’est-ce
pas, les tortures de ces quatre jours. Songe, si mon mari l’avait su?
Il se moque déjà assez de moi avec mon aventure de Dieppe. Du
reste, je ne me fâche pas trop de ses plaisanteries. J’y suis faite. On
s’accoutume à tout dans la vie...

Enragée? a paru dans le Gil-Blas du mardi 7

août 1883, sous la signature: Maufrigneuse.
 LE MODÈLE.

A
RRONDIE en croissant de lune, la petite ville d’Étretat, avec ses
falaises blanches, son galet blanc et sa mer bleue, reposait
sous le soleil d’un grand jour de juillet. Aux deux pointes de ce
croissant, les deux portes, la petite à droite, la grande à gauche,
avançaient dans l’eau tranquille, l’une son pied de naine, l’autre sa
jambe de colosse; et l’aiguille, presque aussi haute que la falaise,
large d’en bas, fine au sommet, pointait vers le ciel sa tête aiguë.
Sur la plage, le long du flot, une foule assise regardait les
baigneurs. Sur la terrasse du Casino, une autre foule, assise ou
marchant, étalait sous le ciel plein de lumière un jardin de toilettes
où éclataient des ombrelles rouges et bleues, avec de grandes fleurs
brodées en soie dessus.
Sur la promenade, au bout de la terrasse, d’autres gens, les
calmes, les tranquilles, allaient d’un pas lent, loin de la cohue
élégante.
Un jeune homme, connu, célèbre, un peintre, Jean Summer,
marchait, d’un air morne, à côté d’une petite voiture de malade où
reposait une jeune femme, sa femme. Un domestique poussait
doucement cette sorte de fauteuil roulant, et l’estropiée contemplait
d’un œil triste la joie du ciel, la joie du jour, et la joie des autres.
Ils ne parlaient point. Ils ne se regardaient pas.
—Arrêtons-nous un peu, dit la jeune femme.
Ils s’arrêtèrent, et le peintre s’assit sur un pliant, que lui présenta
le valet.
 Ceux qui passaient derrière le couple immobile et muet le
regardaient d’un air attristé. Toute une légende de dévouement
courait. Il l’avait épousée malgré son infirmité, touché par son amour,
disait-on.
Non loin de là, deux jeunes hommes causaient, assis sur un
cabestan, et le regard perdu vers l’horizon.
—Non, ce n’est pas vrai; je te dis que je connais beaucoup Jean
Summer.
—Mais alors, pourquoi l’a-t-il épousée? Car elle était déjà infirme
lors de son mariage, n’est-ce pas?
—Parfaitement. Il l’a épousée... il l’a épousée... comme on
épouse, parbleu, par sottise!
—Mais encore?...
—Mais encore... mais encore, mon ami. Il n’y a pas d’encore. On
est bête, parce qu’on est bête. Et puis, tu sais bien que les peintres
ont la spécialité des mariages ridicules; ils épousent presque tous
des modèles, des vieilles maîtresses, enfin des femmes avariées
sous tous les rapports. Pourquoi cela? Le sait-on? Il semblerait, au
contraire, que la fréquentation constante de cette race de dindes
qu’on nomme les modèles aurait dû les dégoûter à tout jamais de ce
genre de femelles. Pas du tout. Après les avoir fait poser, ils les
épousent. Lis donc ce petit livre, si vrai, si cruel et si beau,
d’Alphonse Daudet: les Femmes d’artistes.
Pour le couple que tu vois là, l’accident s’est produit d’une façon
spéciale et terrible. La petite femme a joué une comédie ou plutôt un
drame effrayant. Elle a risqué le tout pour le tout, enfin. Était-elle
sincère? Aimait-elle Jean? Sait-on jamais cela? Qui donc pourra
déterminer d’une façon précise ce qu’il y a d’âpreté et ce qu’il y a de
réel dans les actes des femmes? Elles sont toujours sincères dans
une éternelle mobilité d’impressions. Elles sont emportées,
criminelles, dévouées, admirables, et ignobles, pour obéir à
d’insaisissables émotions. Elles mentent sans cesse, sans le vouloir,
sans le savoir, sans comprendre, et elles ont, avec cela, malgré cela,
une franchise absolue de sensations et de sentiments qu’elles
témoignent par des résolutions violentes, inattendues,
incompréhensibles, folles, qui déroutent nos raisonnements, nos
habitudes de pondération et toutes nos combinaisons égoïstes.
L’imprévu et la brusquerie de leurs déterminations font qu’elles
demeurent pour nous d’indéchiffrables énigmes. Nous nous
demandons toujours: «Sont-elles sincères? Sont-elles fausses?»
Mais, mon ami, elles sont en même temps sincères et fausses,
parce qu’il est dans leur nature d’être les deux à l’extrême et de
n’être ni l’un ni l’autre.
Regarde les moyens qu’emploient les plus honnêtes pour obtenir
de nous ce qu’elles veulent. Ils sont compliqués et simples, ces
moyens. Si compliqués que nous ne les devinons jamais à l’avance,
si simples qu’après en avoir été les victimes, nous ne pouvons nous
empêcher de nous en étonner et de nous dire: «Comment! elle m’a
joué si bêtement que ça?»
Et elles réussissent toujours, mon bon, surtout quand il s’agit de
se faire épouser.
Mais voici l’histoire de Summer.
La petite femme est un modèle, bien entendu. Elle posait chez
lui. Elle était jolie, élégante surtout, et possédait, paraît-il, une taille
divine. Il devint amoureux d’elle, comme on devient amoureux de
toute femme un peu séduisante qu’on voit souvent. Il s’imagina qu’il
l’aimait de toute son âme. C’est là un singulier phénomène. Aussitôt
qu’on désire une femme, on croit sincèrement qu’on ne pourra plus
se passer d’elle pendant tout le reste de sa vie. On sait fort bien que
la chose vous est déjà arrivée; que le dégoût a toujours suivi la
possession; qu’il faut, pour pouvoir user son existence à côté d’un
autre être, non pas un brutal appétit physique, bien vite éteint, mais
une accordance d’âme, de tempérament et d’humeur. Il faut savoir
démêler, dans la séduction qu’on subit, si elle vient de la forme
corporelle, d’une certaine ivresse sensuelle ou d’un charme profond
de l’esprit.
 Enfin, il crut qu’il l’aimait; il lui fit un tas de promesses de fidélité
et il vécut complètement avec elle.
Elle était vraiment gentille, douée de cette niaiserie élégante
qu’ont facilement les petites Parisiennes. Elle jacassait, elle babillait,
elle disait des bêtises qui semblaient spirituelles par la manière drôle
dont elles étaient débitées. Elle avait à tout moment des gestes
gracieux bien faits pour séduire un œil de peintre. Quand elle levait
les bras, quand elle se penchait, quand elle montait en voiture,
quand elle vous tendait la main, ses mouvements étaient parfaits de
justesse et d’à-propos.
Pendant trois mois, Jean ne s’aperçut point qu’au fond elle
ressemblait à tous les modèles.
Ils louèrent pour l’été une petite maison à Andrésy.
J’étais là, un soir, quand germèrent les premières inquiétudes
dans l’esprit de mon ami.
Comme il faisait une nuit radieuse, nous voulûmes faire un tour
au bord de la rivière. La lune versait dans l’eau frissonnante une
pluie de lumière, émiettait ses reflets jaunes dans les remous, dans
le courant, dans tout le large fleuve lent et fuyant.
Nous allions le long de la rive, un peu grisés par cette vague
exaltation que jettent en nous ces soirs de rêve. Nous aurions voulu
accomplir des choses surhumaines, aimer des êtres inconnus,
délicieusement poétiques. Nous sentions frémir en nous des
extases, des désirs, des aspirations étranges. Et nous nous taisions,
pénétrés par la sereine et vivante fraîcheur de la nuit charmante, par
cette fraîcheur de la lune qui semble traverser le corps, le pénétrer,
baigner l’esprit, le parfumer et le tremper de bonheur.
Tout à coup Joséphine (elle s’appelle Joséphine) poussa un cri:
—Oh! as-tu vu le gros poisson qui a sauté là-bas?
Il répondit sans regarder, sans savoir:
—Oui, ma chérie.
 Elle se fâcha.
—Non, tu ne l’as pas vu, puisque tu avais le dos tourné.
Il sourit:
—Oui, c’est vrai. Il fait si bon que je ne pense à rien.
Elle se tut; mais, au bout d’une minute, un besoin de parler la
saisit, et elle demanda:
—Iras-tu demain à Paris?
Il prononça:
—Je n’en sais rien.
Elle s’irritait de nouveau:
—Si tu crois que c’est amusant, ta promenade sans rien dire! On
parle, quand on n’est pas bête.
Il ne répondit pas. Alors, sentant bien, grâce à son instinct
pervers de femme, qu’elle allait l’exaspérer, elle se mit à chanter cet
air irritant dont on nous a tant fatigué les oreilles et l’esprit depuis
deux ans:

Je regardais en l’air.

Il murmura:
—Je t’en prie, tais-toi.
Elle prononça, furieuse:
—Pourquoi veux-tu que je me taise?
Il répondit:
—Tu nous gâtes le paysage.
 Alors la scène arriva, la scène odieuse, imbécile, avec les
reproches inattendus, les récriminations intempestives, puis les
larmes. Tout y passa. Ils rentrèrent. Il l’avait laissée aller, sans
répliquer, engourdi par cette soirée divine, et atterré par cet orage de
sottises.
Trois mois plus tard, il se débattait éperdument dans ces liens
invincibles et invisibles, dont une habitude pareille enlace notre vie.
Elle le tenait, l’opprimait, le martyrisait. Ils se querellaient du matin
au soir, s’injuriaient et se battaient.
A la fin, il voulut en finir, rompre à tout prix. Il vendit toutes ses
toiles, emprunta de l’argent aux amis, réalisa vingt mille francs (il
était encore peu connu) et il les laissa un matin sur la cheminée
avec une lettre d’adieu.
Il vint se réfugier chez moi.
Vers trois heures de l’après-midi, on sonna. J’allai ouvrir. Une
femme me sauta au visage, me bouscula, entra et pénétra dans mon
atelier: c’était elle.
Il s’était levé en la voyant paraître.
Elle lui jeta aux pieds l’enveloppe contenant les billets de
banque, avec un geste vraiment noble, et, d’une voix brève:
—Voici votre argent. Je n’en veux pas.
Elle était fort pâle, tremblante, prête assurément à toutes les
folies. Quant à lui, je le voyais pâlir aussi, pâlir de colère et
d’exaspération, prêt, peut-être, à toutes les violences.
Il demanda:
—Qu’est-ce que vous voulez?
Elle répondit:
—Je ne veux pas être traitée comme une fille. Vous m’avez
implorée, vous m’avez prise. Je ne vous demandais rien. Gardez-
moi!
Il frappa du pied:
—Non, c’est trop fort! Si tu crois que tu vas...
Je lui avais saisi le bras.
—Tais-toi, Jean. Laisse-moi faire.
J’allai vers elle, et doucement, peu à peu, je lui parlai raison, je
vidai le sac des arguments qu’on emploie en pareille circonstance.
Elle m’écoutait, immobile, l’œil fixe, obstinée et muette.
A la fin, ne sachant plus que dire, et voyant que la scène allait
mal finir, je m’avisai d’un dernier moyen. Je prononçai:
—Il t’aime toujours, ma petite; mais sa famille veut le marier, et tu
comprends!...
Elle eut un sursaut:
—Ah!... ah!... je comprends alors...
Et, se tournant vers lui:
—Tu vas... tu vas... te marier?
Il répondit carrément:
—Oui.
Elle fit un pas:
—Si tu te maries, je me tue... tu entends.
Il prononça en haussant les épaules:
—Eh bien... tue-toi!
Elle articula deux ou trois fois, la gorge serrée par une angoisse
effroyable:
—Tu dis?... tu dis?... tu dis?... répète!
 Il répéta:
—Eh bien, tue-toi, si cela te fait plaisir!
Elle reprit, toujours effrayante de pâleur:
—Il ne faudrait pas m’en défier. Je me jetterais par la fenêtre.
Il se mit à rire, s’avança vers la fenêtre, l’ouvrit, et, saluant
comme une personne qui fait des cérémonies pour ne point passer
la première:
—Voici la route. Après vous!
Elle le regarda une seconde d’un œil fixe, terrible, affolé; puis,
prenant son élan comme pour sauter une haie dans les champs, elle
passa devant moi, devant lui, franchit la balustrade et disparut...
Je n’oublierai jamais l’effet que me fit cette fenêtre ouverte, après
l’avoir vu traverser par ce corps qui tombait; elle me parut en une
seconde grande comme le ciel et vide comme l’espace. Et je reculai
instinctivement, n’osant pas regarder, comme si j’allais tomber moi-
même.
Jean, éperdu, ne faisait pas un geste.
On rapporta la pauvre fille avec les deux jambes brisées. Elle ne
marchera plus jamais.
Son amant, fou de remords et peut-être aussi touché de
reconnaissance, l’a reprise et épousée.
Voilà, mon cher.
Le soir venait. La jeune femme, ayant froid, voulut partir; et le
domestique se remit à rouler vers le village la petite voiture
d’invalide. Le peintre marchait à côté de sa femme, sans qu’ils
eussent échangé un mot, depuis une heure.

Le Modèle a paru dans le Gaulois du lundi 17

décembre 1883.