Bach and "The Art of Temperament"

Author(s): J. Murray Barbour

Source: The Musical Quarterly , Jan., 1947, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Jan., 1947), pp. 64-89
Published by: Oxford University Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/739436

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BACH AND THE ART OF TEMPERAMENT
By J. MURRAY BARBOUR
EVEN Bach scholars would be surprised to learn th
Thomas Cantor had written a book called The Art
perament. A theoretical work by an outstanding comp
of the most controversial subjects of his age! What w
bibliophiles give for a treasure so rare that, although i
to by F. W. Marpurg in his Versuch iiber die musicalisc
tur, 1776, it is not mentioned in Eitner or any other b
dictionary.
But let us not become too excited over the possible
purg informs us that The Art of Temperament is a co
preludes and fugues in every major and minor key: in
The Well-Tempered Clavier. Evidently the correct title
him and he had very happily christened the work by a
Bach's Art of Fugue.
Explanations of the tuning of the musical scale are
full of figures that the non-mathematician shies away fro
terror. This is unfortunate, for the subject is not only
to the musicologist and theorist, but of immediate an
concern to the performer. (Possible exceptions are the
organist, too often slaves to the vagaries of the profess
Now, if the figures cannot be avoided completely in a
tuning, their number can be reduced to a small minim
is what is attempted in this article. Those whose k
arithmetic extends to logarithms will find additional
the appendix.
The words "tuning" and "temperament" may be u
synonymously. Strictly, "tuning" should be used for
which the frequencies of the notes in the scale are pr
to integers. That is true of all the ancient Greek syst
various genera, as presented by Ptolemy.' Among the
gave for the diatonic genus, the most important fo
"ditonic" and the "syntonic".
The former, better known as the Pythagorean tunin
gether the notes of the scale by a succession of pure fi
1 Claudii Ptolemaei Harmonicorum Libri Tres, Latin trans. in John W
Mathematica, III, London, 1699.
64

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 65

taves.
taves. The
Theviolinist,
violinist,who
who uses
uses
thethe
pure
pure
fifth
fifth
as his
as his
tonal
tonal
unit,unit,
shows shows
a tendency
tendencytowards
towardsthis
thistuning,
tuning, a tendency
a tendencythatthat
is strengthened
is strengthenedby by
his
his usual
usual habit
habitof
ofplaying
playing a sharpened
a sharpened notenote
higher
higher
thanthan
the synony-
the synony-
mous
mous flattened
flattenednote-G-sharp
note-G-sharp higher
higherthan
than
A-flat.
A-flat.
The The
Pythagorean
Pythagorean
tuning
tuning isis excellent
excellentforformelodic
melodic purposes,
purposes,
butbutit produces
it producestriads
triads
in in
which
which thethethirds
thirdsare
aretoo
toosharp
sharpbybya syntonic
a syntoniccomma,
comma,the the
ninthninth
part part
of
of aa tone.
tone.(The
(Theditonic
ditoniccomma,
comma, thethe
difference
differencefoundfound
by subtracting
by subtracting
the
the CC arrived
arrivedatatbybyoctaves
octavesfrom
from thethe
B-sharp
B-sharparrived
arrived
at byatperfect
by perfect
fifths,
fifths, isisslightly
slightlylarger,
larger,
being
being
almost
almost
thethe
eighth
eighth
partpart
of a of
tone.)
a tone.)
The
The syntonic
syntonictuning
tuningisisusually
usually
called
called
justjust
intonation.
intonation.
In itInthe
it the
notes
notes of
of the
themajor
majortriads
triads
areare
tuned
tunedto to
ratios
ratios
found
found
in the
in harmonic
the harmonic
series,
series, 4:5:6,
4:5:6,with
withthethesame
sameintonation
intonation as if
as played
if playeduponupon
bugles.
bugles.
But
But even
even sosocommon
commona achord
chordas as
thethesupertonic
supertonictriad
triad
is badly
is badly
out out
of
of tune
tune ininjust
justintonation.
intonation. SoSo(in(in
a tuning
a tuningbased
based
on C)onare
C) the
are the
F-sharp
F-sharp minor
minortriad
triadand
andthe
the
B-flat
B-flatandand
D major
D majortriads,
triads,
while
while
keyskeys
with
with more
morethan
thantwo
twoflats
flats
oror
three
threesharps
sharps
are are
hopelessly
hopelessly
discordant.
discordant.
To
To correct
correctthe
thefaulty
faultytriads
triads
ofof
just
just
intonation,
intonation,
tunetune
everyevery
fifthfifth
quite
quite flat,
flat,leaving
leavingthe themajor
major thirds
thirdspure.
pure.
ThenThen
no triads
no triads
will will
be be
impossible,
impossible,but butall
alltriads
triads will
will
be be
slightly
slightlyimperfect.
imperfect.
SuchSuch
a slight
a slight
alteration
alterationinina atuning,
tuning,for forwhose
whose ratios
ratios
radical
radical
numbers
numbersare usually
are usually
necessary,
necessary,isiscalled
calleda a"temperament".
"temperament". This
This
particular
particular
temperament,
temperament,
a practical
practicalsubstitute
substitutefor forjust
just
intonation,
intonation, is known
is known
as the
as the
meantone
meantone
tuning.
tuning. (Terminology
(Terminologyis isoftenoften illogical:
illogical:
"meantone
"meantonetemperament"
temperament"
would
would be
be better.)
better.)This
Thistuning,
tuning,
too,
too,
could
could
be used
be used
onlyonly
within
within
a a
narrow
narrow range
rangeof
ofkeys.
keys.InIn
just
just
intonation
intonation
A-flat
A-flat
would
would
be higher
be higher
than than
G-sharp;
G-sharp; in
inmeantone
meantonetuning
tuning a choice
a choice
mustmust
be made
be madebetween
between
the the
two,
two, depending
dependingononthe
thetone
tonetaken
takenas point
as point
of departure.
of departure.
If meantone
meantonetuning
tuningisisananadaptation
adaptation of of
justjust
intonation,
intonation,equalequal
temperament,
temperament,similarly,
similarly,has
has
often
oftenbeen
been
considered
considereda more
a more
useful
useful
version
version of
ofthe
thePythagorean
Pythagorean tuning.
tuning.In In
it each
it each
fifth
fifth
is tuned
is tuned
only only
slightly
slightly flat,
flat,and
andeach
eachmajor
majorthird
third
somewhat
somewhat
sharp,
sharp,
withwith
the twofold
the twofold
result
result that
thatthe
thetriads
triadsare
areless
less
harsh
harshthan
than
in the
in the
Pythagorean
Pythagoreantuning
tuning
(although
(althoughstill
stillnot
notsosoconcordant
concordant as as
thethe
principal
principal
onesones
in the
in mean-
the mean-
tone
tone tuning),
tuning),and
andthat,
that,unlike
unlikeallall
thethe
other
other
systems,
systems,
equalequal
tempera-
tempera-
ment
ment produces
producesno nounsatisfactory
unsatisfactory keys.
keys.
Of Of
course,
course,
in equal
in equal
tempera-
tempera-
ment,
ment, A-flat
A-flatand
andG-sharp
G-sharpareare
thethe
same
same
pitch.
pitch.
II

Since we have all been born into a world in which equal tem-
perament is the accepted standard of intonation (even if the tuner

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66 The Musical Quarterly
is not
not always
alwaysable
abletotoattain
attainit),2
it),2
it it
is is
difficult
difficult
forfor
us to
us imagine
to imaginehowhow
the
the once
once widely
widelyused
usedmeantone
meantonetuning
tuning would
wouldsound.
sound.
TheThe
pure
pure
thirds
thirds
would
would bebe accepted
acceptedreadily
readilyenough.
enough. The Thevery
very
flat
flat
fifths
fifths
would
would
be be
abhorrent
abhorrent to tomany
manyof ofus,
us,especially
especially to to
string
stringplayers.
players.
Furthermore,
Furthermore,
the
the large
large diatonic
diatonicsemitones
semitoneswould
would seemseemodd;
odd;
howhow
strange
strange
to have
to have
A-flat
A-flat higher
higherthan
thanG-sharp!
G-sharp!
Some
Some idea
idea of
ofthe
themeantone
meantonetuning
tuning cancan
be be
obtained
obtained
fromfrom
a sad
a sad
experience
experience that
thatall
allpianists
pianistshave
havehad.
had.
LetLet
us us
assume
assumethatthat
a piano
a piano
has
has been
been tuned
tunedininequal
equaltemperament-tuned
temperament-tuned to to
a high
a high
degree
degree
of of
precision.
precision. Let
Letus
usfurther
furtherassume
assume that
that
the
thewrestpins
wrestpinsfit fit
tight
tight
and and
that
that temperature
temperaturechanges
changescan canbebe
neglected.
neglected.Then
Then
thethe
"error"
"error"
for for
a certain
certain note,
note,the
theamount
amountbybywhich
which
it it
hashasbecome
become
flatflat
after
after
a lapse
a lapse
of time,
time, isis proportional
proportionaltotothe
thenumber
number of of
times
times
that
that
thethe
strings
strings
for for
that note have been struck.

One might suppose that, at least within the middle part of th

keyboard, all strings would be struck an approximately equal num
ber of times. But that would be true only if all possible major an
minor keys were used to the same extent. It is, however, absur
to suppose that even the concert artist, practising music of the i8
and igth centuries, would play in B major as often as in G majo
or in E-flat minor as often as in D minor. And the beginner, who
name is legion, would be practising his sonatinas in keys with ve
few accidentals.
Assume that the usual player on this piano is a tyro, and does
not play in keys with more than three flats, or sharps. Then the
note D, common to all the seven keys he uses, would probably be
employed the most, G and A next, and so on in both directions
around the circle of fifths to G-sharp (A-flat), which would be used
the least. After a year or so of such treatment, the piano would be
in an intonation in which the key of E-flat is the best (meantone
tuning) and the key of A the worst (Pythagorean).
Of course, no piano will obligingly get out of equal tempera-
ment and into the meantone and Pythagorean tunings in precisely
the manner described, any more than the "man in our town" actu-
ally did scratch in his eyes again. But the experience common to
all pianists is to have to play an instrument untuned for years, and
to discover that it sounds better in flat keys than in sharps. If, for
example, one is playing hymns on a piano in a church social hall,
2 Cf. H. L. F. Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone, Eng. trans. by A. J. Ellis, 2nd ed.,
London, 1885, p. 485 (App. XX, Sect. G).

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 67

it is
is always
alwayssafer
safertotoplay
playinin
flats.
flats.There
There
hashas
beenbeen
a century-old
a century-oldcon-con-
troversy
troversy asastotowhy
whyflatflatkeys
keysareare
"sweeter"
"sweeter"
than
than
sharps.
sharps.
Perhaps
Perhaps
the the
reasoning
reasoning adduced
adducedhere
herewill
will
addaddfresh
fresh
fuel
fuel
to the
to the
flames.
flames.
It isItvalid
is valid
only
only for
for pianos
pianosonce
oncetuned
tuned ininequal
equal
temperament,
temperament, andand
thenthen
playedplayed
by
by beginners
beginnersuntil
untilwell
wellout
out
ofof
tune.
tune.
Since
Sincethisthis
includes
includes
the the
vast vast
majority
majority of
ofpianos,
pianos,ititmight
mightalmost
almost
be be
saidsaid
to be
to universally
be universally
true.true.
III

If Bach's "Art of Temperament" had been a treatise, it would

have discussed many of the subjects touched upon in the previous
paragraphs. Many capable theorists of his day did discuss them
but he preferred practice to theory. What is the significance of th
title he did use, Das wohltemperirte Clavier? According to Sir
Hubert Parry, who voices an impression that is general, this "mean
the clavichord tuned in equal temperament".3 But this is not
literal translation. Even in Bach's day there was a perfectly good
German phrase for equal temperament-die gleichschwebende Tem
peratur, the equally beating temperament. Since the verb temperire
is frequently used with the broader meaning of "to tune" rather
than "to temper", Bach's title might be paraphrased, The Well
Tuned Clavier. This is an apt enough title for a collection of key-
board pieces, just as one might use The Well-Rosined Bow for
violin album, or The Well-Cleared Throat for a volume of male
quartets.
Let us not quibble. Bach used "wohl temperirt" in a somewhat
technical sense, as the contents of his collection plainly indicate.
But it may not have been in the precise sense that we assume. Over
a century before the first volume of the "48" was compiled in 1722,
Simon Stevin, the famous Flemish mathematician, referred to een
welgestelde Clavesingel, a well-tuned harpsichord, as proof that semi-
tones are equal.4 He did not imply that "well-tuned" and "equally
tempered" were synonymous terms, but rather that a careful tuning
would result in equal temperament. Bach's great French contem-
porary, Rameau, expressed a similar thought5: if one were to follow
3 Hubert Parry, The Art of Music, New York, 189.^, p. 203.
Simon Stevin, Van de Spiegeling der Singconst, ed. by Dr. D. Bierens de Haan,
Amsterdam, 1884, p. 24.
5 .. P. Rameau, Generation harmonique, Paris, 17.7, p. 95 if: "Prenez telle Touche
du Clavecin qu' il vous plaira, accordez-en d'abord la Quinte juste, puis diminuez-la
si peu que rien, proc6dez ainsi d'une Quinte a l'autre, toujours en montant, c'est-i-
dire, du grave a l'aigu, jusqu'a la derniere, dont le Son aigu aura ete le grave de la
premiere, vous pouvez etre certain que le clavecin sera bien d'accord."

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 68 The Musical Quarterly
his practical tuning rules, the harpsichord woul
i.e., tuned equally.
C. P. E. Bach, however, who has often been mentioned with
his father as a strong proponent of equal temperament, occupies a
somewhat enigmatic position. Marpurg had claimed him for the
progressive camp by interpreting as referring to equal temperament
a passage in Philipp Emanuel's Versuch which stated that organs
are "seldom well tempered" (gut temperirt), while the clavichord
and piano "can and must be tuned justly" (rein gestimmet). But
Kirnberger declared that Marpurg's opinion was entirely wrong and
that Philipp Emanuel actually opposed equal temperament. Kirn-
berger capped his argument by a direct quotation from a letter
Emanuel had written him (which may or may not have borne di-
rectly on the question of temperament): "You may proclaim that
my fundamental principles and those of my late father are anti-
Rameau."6

This apparent paradox is explained by the fact that both

Emanuel and Sebastian held in contempt the mathematician, with
his precise ratio of 212 for the equal semitone. They knew that
is impossible to tune an instrument to so high a degree of accuracy
To them, equal temperament was a beautiful ideal, but in practic
one used a "good" temperament. Wohl temperirt may be simp
defined as "playable in all keys". For practical purposes, this would
be equivalent to Parry's "tuned in equal temperament". But to th
theorists of the late 7th and early i8th centuries, for whom math
matical speculations were important, the differences in the two
concepts were very real. Let us see what one of these theorists ha
to say on the matter.

IV

Our clearest evidence concerning the technical sense in which

wohl temperirt was used in the Bach period is given in the writ-
ings of Andreas Werckmeister, theologian, organist, and musical
theorist. Hugo Riemann7 went wide of the mark in hailing Werck-
meister's Musicalische Temperatur, 1691, as "the first book to de-
6 J. P. Kirnberger, Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik, Part 2, Berlin,
1774/79, p. 188: "Dass meine und meines seel. Vaters Grundsitze antirameauisch sind,
k6nnen Sie laut sagen."
7 Hugo Riemann, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, Leipzig, 1898; other references in
his Musiklexikon, etc.

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 69

mand
mandequal
equaltemperament".
temperament".
Riemann's
Riemann's
statement
statement
was based
wason
based
a on a
carefully
carefullyworded
wordedeulogy
eulogy
by by
Johann
Johann
Mattheson:
Mattheson:
"And thus
"Andthe
thus
fame
the fame
hitherto accorded to Werckmeister and Neidhardt remains ineradic-
able-that they brought temperament to the point where one could
play in all keys without offense to the ear."8 (Emphasis added by
the present writer.) Helmholtz9 similarly misunderstood this pass-
age, and many other writers since then, deferring to the authority
of Riemann and Helmholtz, have accorded signal honors to Werck-
meister, and perhaps to Neidhardt as well, in the field of equal
temperament.
Without question, Mattheson's statement refers to a "good" tem-
perament. Werckmeister himself has obliged us by using the phrase
"well tempered" as follows: "But if we have a well-tempered clavier,
we can play all the modes beginning on any note and transpose
them at will. To one who is familiar with the entire range of keys
on the clavier, this affords variety and falls upon the ear very pleas-
antly."l0
But, in the above quotation, Werckmeister was not describing
equal temperament; nor, despite the laurel wreaths that have been
heaped upon him, was he ever more than a lukewarm advocate of
the new tuning. Apparently, too many modern writers have not
only failed to read the primary sources, but have been blind to
implications in the secondary sources as well. For example, Sorge
was to describe Werckmeister's tuning system as one containing
eight perfect fifths and four fifths flattened by one-quarter comma."
This would be a tuning chimera, two-thirds Pythagorean and one-
third meantone! Marpurg12 ascribed the same tuning to Werck-
meister, and so does an acoustician of our own time, Erich Schu-
mann.13

8 Tohann Mattheson, Critica musica, Hamburg, 1722-1725, II, 162: "Und also
bleibet Werkmeister und Neidhardt bissher der ihnen ertheilte Ruhm unausloschlich,
dass sie die Temperatur so zum Stande gebracht, dass man, ohne verletzung des
Gehors, aus alien Tonen spielen kann."
9 H. L. F. Helmholtz, op. cit., p. 321; see also p. 548 (App. XX).
10 Andreas Werckmeister, Musicae mathematicae Hodegus curiosus, Frankfurt &
Leipzig, 1686, p. 120: "Wenn wir hingegen ein wohl temperirtes Clavier haben/ k6nnen
wir aus jeglichen Clave alle modos haben/ und dieselben versetzen wie wir wollen/
welches einem/ so im Clavier circulariter bewandert ist/ seine Veranderungen giebet/
und sehr angenehm ins Geh6r fallet."
11 G. A. Sorge: Gesprdch zwischen einem Musico theoretico und einem Studioso
musices, Lobenstein, 1748, p. 31.
12 F. W. Marpurg, Versuch iiber die musicalische Temperatur, Breslau, 1776,
p. 158.
13 K. E. Schumann, Akustik, Breslau, 1925, p. 31.

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70 The Musical Quarterly
Neidhardt,
Neidhardt,whose
whosename
nameMattheson
Matthesonhadhad
coupled
coupled
with
with
Werck-
Werck-
meister's
meister's as
asaatuning
tuningexpert,
expert,would
wouldhave
have
called
called
thethe
above
above
tuning
tuning
a a
"completely
"completelycirculating
circulatinggenus",
genus",i.e.,
i.e.,
a tuning
a tuning
in which
in which
one one
could
could
cir- cir-
cumnavigate
cumnavigatethe
thecircle
circleofoffifths
fifthswithout
withoutmalmal
de son.
de son.
BothBoth
menmen
pre- pre-
sented
sented monochord
monochorddivisions
divisions
for
forseveral
severalsuch
suchtunings,
tunings,
all within
all within
limits
limits
set
set by
by Werckmeister:
Werckmeister:"A"Amajor
major
third,
third,
in in
casecase
of need,
of need,
can can
stand
stand
a varia-
a varia-
tion
tion of
of aa whole
wholecomma,
comma,a aminor
minor third
thirdstill
still
more.
more.
ButBut
an octave
an octave
nonenone
at all;
all; aa fifth,
fifth,one-quarter
one-quarteroror
even
even
one-third
one-thirdcomma."14
comma."14
To juggle
To juggle
these
these intervals
intervalscorrectly
correctlywould
wouldbebe
an an
interesting
interesting
parlor
parlor
game;
game;
but but
the
the monochords
monochordssosoconstructed
constructedwere
wereprobably
probably
of not
of not
the the
slightest
slightest
practical
practical use.
use.
Werckmeister
Werckmeisteractually
actuallydid
did
call
call
the
the
above
above
tuning
tuning
a "correct
a "correct
tem-tem-
perament".
perament".ItIthappens
happenstotobebeone
one
ofof
three
three
somewhat
somewhatirregularly
irregularly
constructed
constructedtemperaments
temperaments that
that
hehe
so so
described,
described,
andand
neither
neither
the the
worst
worst nor
nor the
thebest
bestofofthem.
them.None
Noneremotely
remotely resembles
resembles
equal
equal
tem-tem-
perament.
perament. In
Ineach
eachthe
the"foreign"
"foreign"
thirds
thirds
areare
very
very
sharp.
sharp.
Werckmeister
Werckmeister
said
said of
of them:
them:"It
"Itwould
wouldbebe
very
very
easy
easy
to to
make
make
thethe
thirds
thirds
D-flat-F,
D-flat-F,
G-flat-B-flat, and A-flat-C beat less than a full comma; but since
thereby the other, more frequently used thirds receive too much,
it is better that the latter should remain purer, and the harshness
be placed upon those that are used the least."15
Elsewhere Werckmeister described equal temperament with fair
accuracy, but demurred: "I have hitherto not been able to approve
of this idea, because I would rather have the diatonic keys purer
. . ."16 In his final treatise, published posthumously, Werckmeister
recalled that he had first thought of using equal temperament some
30 years before; but that if he had advocated a system with such
sharp thirds throughout he "would have been torn to pieces by the
wolves of ignorance". At least he has "lamed the ugly wolf". He

14 Andreas Werckmeister: Hypomnemata musica, Quedlinburg, 1697, p. 28: "Es

kan eine Tertia Major im fall der Noth ein gantz Comma in der Schwebung ertragen/
eine tertia minor noch mehr. Aber eine Octava gar nichts. Eine quinta 1/4 auch wol 1/
vom Commate." See also J. G. Neidhardt: Gantzlich erschopfte, mathematische Abthei-
lungen des ... Canonis Monochordi, K6nigsberg, 1732, p. 20ff.
15 Andreas Werckmeister, ibid., p. 33: "Es were auch gar leichte/ dass man die
Tertias cis und f. fis-[b] und gis-c. kein volliges Comma schweben liesse: allein weil
dadurch die andern gebreuchlichere Tertien gar zu viel becommen/ so ist es besser/
dass dieselben desto reiner bleiben/ und die Hartigkeit/ in die so am wenigsten
gebrauchet werden/ hinein gebracht werde."
16 Ibid., p. 36: "Bissher habe ich dieser Meinung nicht konnen Beyfall geben/
weil ich lieber die Diatonischen claves reiner halten wollen/ damit dasselbe genus
welches am meisten gebrauchet wird/ desto reiner behalten wiirde."

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 71

still believed "that one should let the diatonic thirds be somewhat
purer than the others that are seldom used".17
Therefore, although it is ridiculous to say that Werckmeister
advocated equal temperament, he was not undeserving of Matthe-
son's praise, and the claviers and organs he tuned would have been
"wohl temperirt". It is true that to play in the key of C-sharp major,
with Pythagorean thirds in all its primary triads, would have been
a perilous adventure. Werckmeister rather wistfully remarks that
some advocates of equal temperament believe that "in the future
. . it will be just the same to play an air in C-sharp as in C".18
But with his tuning, the extreme key was at least passable, whereas
in meantone tuning it would have been wholly unusable.

A common but serious error is the notion that during Bach's

lifetime there were but two ways of tuning keyboard instruments
-equal temperament, with all the thirds quite high, and meantone
tuning, with most of the thirds pure and the others impossibly high.
Such a naive viewpoint would have to set down all Werckmeister's
"correct temperaments" as equal temperament, for none of them
contained a pure third. There have been a great many of such ir-
regular systems of temperament, from Schlick (1511) until well
after 1800. The one thing they have in common (with each other
and with equal temperament) is the fact that their thirds are sharp.
With this in mind, let us consider Kirnberger's statement that Sebas-
tian Bach had "expressly enjoined him to make the major thirds
sharp" in tuning the clavier.l9 What of it? Everyone knew that all
the thirds must be tuned sharp in a "good" temperament. But what
was also taught (and what is not so well known today, since this is
no longer a subject of controversy) is that there were countless ways
in which this could be done, only one of which, using strict mathe-
17 Werckmeister, Musicalische Paradoxal-Discourse, Quedlinburg, 1707, p. 113: If
he had advocated the sharp thirds of equal temperament, "so ware ich von den Wolffen
der Ignoranz gar zerrissen worden". At least he has "den greulichen Wolf gelahmet".
He still believes "dass man die diatonischen Tertien etwas reiner lasse/ als die andern
so man selten gebrauchet".
s Hypo. mus., p. 36: "Andere meinen/ dass die temperatur da alle consonantien
in der Gleichheit stehen/ endlich wiirde den Preiss behalten/ und die Music wurde
kiinfftig durchaus so excoliret werden/ dass jedem gleichviel seyn wiirde/ ein Lied
aus dem c. oder cis zu spielen."
19 Marpurg, op. cit., p. 213: ". . und wie dieser Meister ausdriicklich von ihm
verlanget, alle grosse Terzen scharf zu machen".

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72 The Musical Quarterly
matical
maticalratios,
ratios,could
could
properly
properly
be called
be called
equalequal
temperament.
temperament.
We have
We have
been
been assuming
assumingtoo
too
easily
easily
that
that
to hit
to the
hit target
the target
is to hit
is to
thehit
bull's-eye.
the bull's-eye.
Furthermore,
Furthermore,not noteven
even
thethe
meantone
meantone
tuning
tuning
had pure
had thirds
pure thirds
in
in Bach's
Bach'sday.
day.Strictly,
Strictly,
thethe
term
term
"meantone"
"meantone"
should
should
be applied
be applied
only only
to
to that
thatsystem
systeminin
which
which
thethe
fifths
fifths
are lowered
are lowered
by one-quarter
by one-quarter
comma comma
and
and the
theusable
usablethirds
thirds
areare
pure.
pure.
But But
this this
tuningtuning
had undergone
had undergone
some some
alterations
alterationssince
since
Aron
Aronhadhad
first
first
described
described
it in it
15232?.
in 15232?.
Or rather,
Or rather,
let let
us
us say
saythat
thattuning
tuningbyby
a set
a set
value
value
for for
the fifth
the fifth
had never
had never
been re-
been re-
stricted
strictedtotothe
theAron
Aronmodel,
model,
even
even
during
during
the i6th
the century.
i6th century.
As similar
As similar
types,
types,Zarlino21
Zarlino21and
and
Salinas22
Salinas22
bothboth
included
included
tunings
tunings
in which
in which
the the
fifths
fifthswere
wereflattened
flattened
by by
one-third
one-third
and by
andtwo-sevenths
by two-sevenths
comma,comma,
and in and in
these
these the
thethirds
thirdswould
wouldbe be
one-third
one-third
and one-seventh
and one-seventh
commacomma
flat flat
respectively.
respectively.InIn
1666,
1666,
Rossi23
Rossi23
added
added
to the
to list
theoflist
regularly
of regularly
con- con-
structed
structedtemperaments
temperaments those
those
withwith
fifths
fifths
flattened
flattened
by one-fifth
by one-fifth
and and
by
by two-ninths
two-ninthscomma,
comma,andand
in these
in these
the usable
the usable
thirdsthirds
would would
be one-be one-
fifth
fifth and
andone-ninth
one-ninthcomma
comma
sharp
sharp
respectively.
respectively.
More
More important
important totous us
waswas
thethe
practice
practice
of Silbermann,
of Silbermann,
the great
the great
instrument-maker
instrument-maker of of
Bach's
Bach's
day.day.
According
According
to Sorge,24
to Sorge,24
Silbermann
Silbermann
tempered
temperedhishisfifths
fifths
byby only
only
one-sixth
one-sixth
comma,
comma,
whichwhich
means means
that histhat his
good
good thirds
thirdswould
wouldbe be
one-third
one-third
comma
commasharp.
sharp.
(This,(This,
by thebyway,
theisway, is
precisely
preciselythe
thetuning
tuning
in in
thethe
keykey
of E-flat
of E-flat
on our
onhypothetical
our hypothetical
out-of-out-of-
tune
tune piano.)
piano.)Sorge
Sorgediddid
notnot
approve
approve
suchsuch
an old-fashioned
an old-fashioned
method, method,
and
and urged
urgedhimhimtoto
turn
turnto to
a better
a better
temperament,
temperament,
following
following
the illus-
the illus-
trious
triousexample
exampleofofJ. J.
S. Bach.
S. Bach.
ButBut
if Silbermann's
if Silbermann's
organ organ
tuningtuning
had had
been
been sosowidespread
widespread that
that
it was
it was
eveneven
beginning
beginning
to be to
passe
be by
passe
1750,
by 1750,
one
one can
canbe besure
surethat
thatsharp
sharpthirds
thirds
werewere
omnipresent
omnipresent
in Germany.
in Germany.
Another
Anothermisconception
misconceptionhadhad
been
been
fostered
fostered
in the
inwritings
the writings
of of
estheticians,
estheticians,who
who waxed
waxed lyrical
lyrical
uponupon
the varying
the varying
emotions
emotions
expressed
expressed
by
by different
differentkeys.
keys.With
With thethe
meantone
meantone
tuning
tuning
these these
differences
differences
from from
key
key totokey
keywere
were very
very real-in
real-in
the the
diatonic
diatonic
scalesscales
themselves
themselves
if the if the
key
key had
hadmore
morethan
thantwotwoflats
flats
or three
or three
sharps,
sharps,
and inandthein
modulatory
the modulatory
pattern
patternforforevery
everykey.
key.According
Accordingto this
to this
theory,
theory,
a composer
a composer
would would
deliberately
deliberatelyoverstep
overstepthethebounds
boundsof meantone
of meantonetuning tuning
for thefor
sake
the
of sake of
emotional
emotionaleffect,
effect,
just
just
as some
as someof our
of our
contemporary
contemporary composers
composers
pile pile
Ossas
Ossas upon
uponPelions
Pelionsof of
dissonance.
dissonance.
The The
danger
danger
here, here,
as Marpurg
as Marpurg
20
20 Pietro
PietroAron,
Aron,II II
Toscanello
Toscanello
in Musica,
in Musica,
Venice,
Venice,
1523; 1523;
consulted
consulted
in the revised
in the revised
edition
editionofof1529.
1529.
21
21 Gioseffo
GioseffoZarlino,
Zarlino,
Dimostrationi
Dimostrationi
harmoniche,
harmoniche,
Venice,
Venice,
1571. 1571.
22 Francisco Salinas, De Musica libri VII, Salamanca, 1577.
23 Lemme Rossi, Sistema musico, Perugia, 1666, pp. 58 and 64.
24 G. A. Sorge, op. cit., p. 20.

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 73

pointed
pointed out25,
out25,isisthat
thatunequal
unequal temperaments
temperaments can can
be constructed
be constructedin in
many
many different
differentways,
ways,andandthetheresult,
result,
unless
unless
the the
composition
compositionwerewere
played
played on
onananinstrument
instrument tuned
tuned precisely
precisely
in one
in one
of these
of these
ways,ways,
would would
be,
be, not
not beauty,
beauty,butbutchaos.
chaos.
Moreover,
Moreover,aathorough
thoroughexamination
examination of of
modern
modern editions
editions
of key-
of key-
board
board works
worksfrom
fromthe thelate
late15th
15th century
centuryto the
to the
earlyearly
i8th26
i8th26
reveals
reveals
that
that composers
composersusually
usuallydiddid
remain
remain within
within
thethe
narrow
narrow
confines
confines
of of
the
the meantone
meantonetuning;
tuning;thatthatis,is,
they
they
preferred
preferred a dull
a dull
but but
safe safe
har- har-
monic
monic scheme
schemetotothe thepossible
possible "chaos"
"chaos"
warned
warnedagainst
against
by Marpurg.
by Marpurg.
Several
Several of
ofthese
thesecomposers,
composers, exceeding
exceeding thisthis
compass
compassbut but
rarely,
rarely,
may may
indeed
indeed have
havebeen
beenstriving
striving forfordissonant
dissonanteffects-a
effects-a
point
point
to betodis-
be dis-
cussed later.

But we are not justified in assuming that the bold minority,

the composers who consistently overstepped the meantone bounds,
ever intended their works to be played upon instruments on which
many passages would have been excruciatingly harsh. This assump-
tion could be made only if there were no alternative-if the mean-
tone tuning had held the field unchallenged. Since the contempo-
rary writers on music declared that this was not the case, we can
be sure that able, daring composers like Frescobaldi and John Bull,
or like Sebastian Bach and his Italian contemporaries, wrote music
that sounded well in the medium for which it was written. Our
belief is fortified by the timid, conventional practice of the majority,
still slaves to meantone tuning. The music itself thus provides au-
thority for inferring the practice, and complements what the theorists
have written.
VI

But let us not cry "equal temperament!" at the sight of the first
strange accidental; for, although the usual compass of the meantone
tuning was from E-flat to G-sharp, even in the i6th century some
composers and theorists preferred the compass A-flat-C-sharp or
B-flat-D-sharp. By the time of Bach it must have been a common
practice for men who had not yet espoused equal temperament or
a "good" temperament to re-tune the clavier when changing from
sharp to flat keys or vice versa. This idea is not so surprising when
25 F. W. Marpurg, Anfangsgriinde der theoretischen Musik, Leipzig, 1757, XI
Cap., ?4.
26 Arnold Schering, Alte Meister aus der Friihzeit des Orgelspiels; Joseph Bonnet,
Historical Organ Recitals, Vol. I; Otto Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier in der Musik
des x6. Jahrhunderts; Margaret Glyn, Early English Organ Music; Luigi Torchi, L'arte
n musicale in Italia, Vol. 3; etc.

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 74 The Musical Quarterly

one
one remembers
remembersthat thatBach
Bachisissaid
saidtoto
have
havetuned
tunedthethe
entire
entire
harpsi-
harpsi-
chord
chord in
in fifteen
fifteenminutes.27
minutes.27IfIfonlyonlytwo
twoor or
three
three
keys
keys
in each
in each
octave
octave
needed
needed changing,
changing,a afew fewminutes
minutes would
wouldhavehave
been
been
enough.
enough.More-
More-
over,
over, the
the practice
practiceof ofwriting
writingallall
thethe
dances
dancesin in
a suite
a suite
in the
in the
samesame
key
key helped
helped totorestrict
restrictthe
thecompass
compass toto
notnot
more
more
than
than
twelve
twelve
different
different
pitch
pitch names,
names,even
evenififthat
thatcompass
compass waswas
notnot
thethe
conventional
conventionalE-flat-G-
E-flat-G-
sharp.
Unfortunately, the theorists give us little information concern-
ing the variably tuned claviers. Pere Mersenne,28 a century before,
suggested the practice. He had given the string-lengths for the
chromatic octave of a clavier in just intonation, the black keys being
C-sharp D-sharp F-sharp G-sharp B-flat. A second clavier had for
black keys: D-flat E-flat G-flat A-flat B-flat. A third clavier, with split
keys, combined the pitches of the first two. Mersenne went on to
say that since there were ordinarily only twelve different pitches in
the octave, the current practice was represented by either of the
first two claviers, but with tempered, not just, intervals. As the first
clavier had only sharps for its black keys (except for B-flat, which
had had the status of a diatonic note from the time of the Greeks),
and the second only flats, the practice must have been variable.
Evidence contemporary with Bach comes from Kuhnau, his
predecessor at St. Thomas's. Kuhnau, it is true, favored equal tem-
perament for stringed keyboard instruments, upon which the tone
quickly died away; but he wrote to Mattheson that the strings of
his "Pantalonisches Cimbal" (the large dulcimer invented by Pan-
taleon Hebenstreit) vibrated so long that he could not use equal
temperament upon it, but had to "correct one key or another" when
turning from flats to sharps.29
Our best evidence of this variable tuning practice comes from
the clavier works of certain composers. Fran5ois Couperin is an ex-
cellent case in point. His twenty-seven suites, Ordres pour Clavecin,
composed of charming little descriptive pieces, are wrought with
exquisite care. Surely here there would be no modulations to keys
that would be harsh in the tuning employed. The total range in the
27 Philipp Spitta, Johann Sebastian Bach, Eng. trans. by Clara Bell and J. A.
Fuller-Maitland, Vol. 2, London, 1899, p. 42.
28Marin Mersenne, Harmonie universelle, Paris, 1636/37, p. 119.
29 Quoted in Johann Mattheson, op. cit., p. 236ff: "Doch aber finde ich auf
meinem Pantalonischen Cimbal, . . . dass wenn ich eine zeitlang an denen mollen
Modis, als C-F-G moll mich ergotzet, ich immer einen und andern Clavem zu cor-
rigiren finde, wenn sich die Scenen auf einige Zeit verandern, und ich etwas mit denen
Modis crucigeris, als H, Dis, Fis, &c. versuchen will."

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 75

twenty-seven suites is from G-flat to B-sharp or eighteen scale degrees,

six more than would be possible in the meantone tuning. At first
thought this might seem to indicate equal temperament. A careful
examination of the range of each suite shows that none has the
precise compass of the ordinary meantone tuning, E-flat-G-sharp.
But there are six with only twelve scale degrees: No. 8 in B minor,
C-E-sharp; No. 13 in B minor, C-E-sharp; No. 17 in E minor,
F-A-sharp; No. 21 in E minor, F-A-sharp; No. 26 in F-sharp minor
and major, G-B-sharp; and No. 27, in B minor, C-E-sharp. Any one
of these could have been played acceptably in the meantone tuning
with the properly chosen compass.
In these six suites one notes something almost too precisely
regular-they are all in minor keys, and in each the flattest note
is a semitone above the keynote. Does not this suggest that Couperin
had set himself a definite range for a particular key, and did not
allow his fancy to go beyond these bounds? This impression is
brought out strikingly in twenty of the remaining twenty-one suites.
There the range is slightly greater, overlapping the circle by one
or two scale degrees. But characteristic of these suites also is a
flattest note a semitone higher than the tonic. For example, the
five suites in D major and minor all have the precise compass,
E-flat-A-sharp. The impression is very strong that the dissonance
inevitable in the slightly extended compass resulted from a coolly
calculated risk, and that a variable meantone tuning was used for
these also. The one exception is No. 25, in E-flat major and C major
and minor. The compass here is fifteen scale degrees, from G-flat to
D-sharp. This, perhaps, involved carrying piquancy a bit far.
An even better example of a composer who must have used a
variable sharp or flat meantone tuning for the clavier is Telemann.
Couperin did not state his views on tuning, and therefore we can
only surmise what he thought about it; but Telemann's adherence
to the meantone system was reported by Sorge.30 It was really a
system in which the octave was divided into fifty-five logarithmically
equal intervals. Sorge says that in its complete state it could not be
used on the clavier; but it might be applied to the violin and to
certain wind instruments, and was easiest for singers. On the clavier,
therefore, one would have to select twelve pitches from the fifty-five,
and this would result in a tuning almost identical with Silbermann's
one-sixth comma variety of meantone tuning.
so G. A. Sorge, op. cit., p. 5iff.

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 76 The Musical Quarterly
Let us now examine Telemann's Three Dozen Clavier Fan-

tasies.31 The total range for them is precisely the same a

perin's suites, G-flat-B-sharp, but he was more conservat
individual fantasies, for only eight overlap the circle, by
degrees. (It should be noted, however, that in the second
books Telemann has directed that each even-numbere
should be followed by the preceding odd-numbered fant
the pairing would result in several more examples of
compass, none greater than the two degrees of overlappi
in several single fantasies.) Of the remaining twenty-eight
lies completely within the ordinary meantone bounds, E-flat-
The others swing to the sharp side or the flat side, depen
the key.
Only two of the fantasies, considered separately, have a compass
as great as thirteen degrees, the compass most characteristic in
Couperin's suites. The first of these, No. 24, in B-flat major, has a
compass from G-flat to C-sharp. The extreme flat notes, D-flat and
G-flat, occur only in the second trio, in a four-bar phrase in B-flat
minor, which is repeated in B-flat major.

Ex. 1 Telemann: 24th Fantasy, Z Trio

r ^ r . vmr U j L
etc.

From the construction of the piece, it is quite possible that Tele-

mann may have deliberately used a wrong tuning for this short
passage, for an unusual effect. On the other hand, three of the
D-flats bear mordents, and these would have covered up any pitch
error.

The other fantasy with extended compass is No. 27 in E mi

with a compass, E-flat-A-sharp. The A-sharp occurs three tim
both times that it appears in the treble it is trilled, thus disg
the fact that it might have really been B-flat. As a matter of
however, there is no B-flat in the piece, and so the A-sharp m
have been tuned properly. The E-flats occur in the melodi
cession, D E-flat F-sharp.
31 G. P. Telemann, Drei Dutzend Klavier-Fantasien, Kassel, 1935.

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 77

Ex.
Ex.2 Telemann:
2 Telemann:
27th Fanasy,Trio 27th Fanasy,Trio

TT
p fp
r,' tfr f_ff
r,' t r f
,' " c rrr r= _
Here
Here the E-flat
the hasE-flat
no harmonic
has significance
no harmonicwhatever and
signi
migh
just
justas well
as have
well beenhave
notatedbeen
D-sharp.notated
And so this fantasy,
D-sharp also
would
would not have
not been
have
unbearable
been in the
unbearable
meantone tuning,
in provid
the
the
the compass
compass
used was F-A-sharp.
used was F-A-sharp.

VII

We must also consider the possibility that an instrument migh

be tuned in a fundamentally different way when used with a diffe
ent function. Tiberius Cavallo, Anglo-Italian theorist writing
generation after Bach's death, had this to suggest:
I shall, therefore, conclude with saying, that when the harpsichord, organ
&Rc is to serve for solo playing, &c for a particular sort of music, it is proper
tune in the usual manner [meantone] . . .; but that when the instrument
to serve for accompanying other instruments or human voices, and especiall
when modulations k transpositions are to be practiced, that it must be tuned
according to the temperament of equal harmony, which has been explain
in the preceding pages.32

A composer whose music suggests such a change from meanton

to equal temperament is Henry Purcell. The harpsichord music o
Purcell is not technically difficult, consisting of simple little teaching
pieces for the most part. Of his forty-eight harpsichord pieces, i
cluding eight suites, precisely two-thirds lie within the usual mea
tone compass, E-flat-G-sharp. Of the remaining sixteen, all but o
could have been played in a transposed meantone tuning, such as
we have suggested for Couperin and Telemann; and that one,
Toccata in A major from Vol. 3, is not really an exception, for th
extra note, an F, occurs only in the dissonant seventh chord, D F
C-sharp. So the evidence points strongly to Purcell's having used
the variable meantone tuning in his harpsichord music.
But of the Twelve Sonatas of Three Parts, in which the harps
chord plays with violin and 'cello, only one has the E-flat-G-shar
compass. Five of the sonatas exceed the twelve-note compass by tw
32 Tiberius Cavallo, Of the Temperament . . ., in Phil. Trans., 1788, Part I, p. 25

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78 The Musical Quarterly
notes, as from D-flat to G-sharp or from B-flat to
VI extends from D-flat to D-sharp. Evidence like t
a "good" temperament, in the Werckmeister sense
needed for these works.
Rameau's compositions reveal something rather similar. The
name of Rameau is often coupled with that of Bach as a vigorous
proponent of equal temperament. As a matter of fact, he was some-
what vacillating in his allegiance to the new tuning method. In his
first theoretical work, the Traite of 1722, and also in his Ge'neration
harmonique, 1737, he favored equal temperament; but in his Nou-
veau Systeme, 1726, he recommended a modified meantone tuning.
His practice, however, as shown in the clavecin suites of varying
date, could have remained constant, for most of the suites exceed
the circle of fifths by one note only, and his most daring single piece,
L'Enharmonique,33 exceeds it by only two notes, its compass being
D-flat-G-sharp. Because of his advocacy of equal temperament during
most of his life, we hesitate to assert that Rameau generally used a
meantone tuning somewhat on the sharp side, but shall merely
observe that such a tuning would have served his purpose admirably.
But, although it is easy enough to believe that the harpsichord
would be partly retuned to fit the key of the piece, this would
be feasible only in chamber music. In an opera there would be
an opportunity to retune only at the end of an act. Within the
act, the tuning would be as rigid as that of the organ. In Rameau's
opera, Castor et Pollux, the total compass is G-flat-B-sharp, or seven-
teen degrees. One aria, Pollux's Je vole in Act III, has the com-
pass, A-flat-A-sharp. Rameau must undoubtedly have used some-
thing closely approaching equal temperament here, whatever he
did in the solo clavecin music.
Let us sum up the general situation regarding temperament i
the 18th-century world in which Bach lived and wrote: A variet
of meantone tuning was still practised, but its thirds were slight
sharp, in contrast with the pure thirds of the true meantone. Th
conventional meantone compass, E-flat-G-sharp, had become rar
since composers preferred sharp or flat meantone tunings that varied
with the key. To be "well tempered" a clavier needed only to ha
its worst notes rid of the "wolves"; the most used keys remained tho
in best tune. Correct equal temperament had its place, rather sm
as yet, but growing.
83 Rameau, Oeuvres completes, Paris, 1895-1913, I, 94.

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 79

VIII

The popular notion about Bach's tuning practice is we

pressed by James Lecky in Grove's Dictionary:
We are told that he was accustomed to tune his own clavichord and h
chord equally, though the organ still remained in the meantone system.
statement is borne out by internal evidence. In Bach's organ works the re
keys are scarcely ever employed, while no such restrictions are observab
his works for the clavichord.... He would doubtless have welcomed any p
tical method of extending the meantone system; but to provide this wa
beyond the inventive capacity of that age.
To anyone familiar with the Bach clavier literature, there
glaring misstatement in the above quotation. Except for the
Tempered Clavier, Bach's choice of keys for the clavier is restr
In fact, as far as tonalities in clavier music go, he is very mu
child of his age, an age in which Heinichen said: "Nowada
play but rarely B major and A-flat major, and pieces are nev
in F-sharp major or C-sharp major."34 Mattheson, too, giving figu
bass exercises in all twenty-four keys, said that he had never
ously seen a piece in E-flat (or D-sharp) minor, and that G-sha
A-flat) minor, and E-flat and A-flat major were very rar
though B-flat minor was more familiar.35 This choice of ke
not dictated solely by restrictions imposed by the meantone temp
ment; for B-flat minor would be very unsatisfactory in it,
would B major and other keys that Mattheson said were n
common.

In the whole range of Bach's clavier literature (again

the Well-Tempered Clavier), there are only two movem
complete works) in extreme keys. These are the second
of his so-called Overture in French Style, which migh
called Partita in B Minor. The first Passepied is of c
minor, and the trio uses the tonic major, B major, a ver
practice. The other example is a second Minuet in E-
from a Suite in E-flat major (not one of the French Su
In the Well-Tempered Clavier all major and mino
represented. But Spitta tells us that the A-flat fugue in
volume was originally in F and the C-sharp prelude in C
possible that other preludes and fugues in the more re
had been composed first in familiar keys and then tra
34 Quoted in Spitta, op. cit., II, 162.
35 Johann Mattheson, Grosse General-Bass-Schule, 2nd ed., Hamb
234-288.

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80 The Musical Quarterly

order
orderto tocomplete
complete thethe
design,
design,
a design
a design
that that
was aswas
didactic
as didactic
as that as that
of
of Mattheson,
Mattheson, consisting
consisting of exercises
of exercisesto familiarize
to familiarize
the clavier
the clavier
stu- stu-
dent
dent with
withevery
every possible
possible
key.key.
One
One striking
strikingthing
thingcancan
be said
be said
immediately
immediately about about
Bach's Bach's
modu- modu-
lations
lationsandanduseuse
ofofaccidentals
accidentals
in general:
in general:not only
not in
only
the in
rare
thekeys
rare keys
of
of the
theWell-Tempered
Well-Tempered Clavier,
Clavier,
but but
in anyin composition
any compositionof whichof which
the
the key
keywould
would bebedifficult
difficult
or impossible
or impossible in meantone
in meantone
tuning,tuning,
such such
as
as BB minor
minorororE E major,
major,Bach
Bach
writeswrites
in the insame
the same
harmonicharmonic
style style
as
as he
he does
doesininthe
themore
morecommon
common keys.keys.
ThereThere
is absolutely
is absolutely
no dif- no dif-
ference in his use of chromaticism and his freedom of modulation,
whether he is in C major or G-sharp minor.
Both Preludes and both Fugues in D minor in the Well-Tem-
pered Clavier lie in the conventional meantone compass, E-flat-G-
sharp. (So does the First French Suite, also in D minor.) The first
pair, to be sure, does contain two innocent D-sharps: the Prelude
has one in a chromatic succession of diminished triads, and the
Fugue another as unaccented appoggiatura to E. The second D
minor Prelude, in a measure omitted from some manuscripts, has
three D-flats used non-harmonically. Moreover there are nine other
preludes and fugues in which the total compass contains only eleven
or twelve distinct pitches, and which, therefore, could have been
played in a flat or sharp meantone tuning. An extreme case is in
the E-flat minor prelude of Volume i. Here the compass is B-double
flat-A, but the B-double flat is only a passing note between the fifth
and the third of a Neapolitan sixth-chord, and the whole would have
been acceptable in the meantone compass, F-flat-A. Perhaps Bach
had originally composed this prelude in D minor, when it would
have had the conventional E-flat-G-sharp compass. (This theory is
not helped by the fact that Bach's manuscript of the prelude is in
E-flat minor, although he notated the fugue in D-sharp minor!)
Taking Bach's clavier works as a whole, only 22 of 183 pieces
examined lie entirely within the E-flat-G-sharp compass, 8 of these
in the Little Preludes. That means that about one in eight could
have been played on the clavier as commonly tuned, or about one
in twelve if we exclude the Little Preludes. But 54 more do not ex-
ceed in compass a circle of fifths, and might have been played in a
flat or sharp meantone tuning, like Telemann's fantasies. Thus more
than one-third of Bach's clavier works did not need a "well-tem-
pered" clavier for their effective rendition, and the proportion
still higher if we reflect that often the more remote accidentals

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 81

occur
occur simply
simplyasaspassing
passing
notes
notes
or in
orseventh
in seventh
chords chords
or other
or other
dis- dis-
sonant
sonantcombinations
combinations where
where
careful
careful
tuning
tuning
is lessisimportant
less important
than than
in sustained triads.

IX

As we turn to the organ literature, we find that of the 148 works

examined, only 15 lie completely within the E-flat-G-sharp compass,
12 of these being chorale preludes, in the Orgelbiichlein. Only one
in ten would be playable on the conventionally tuned organ, or
only one in thirty-four if we exclude the Orgelbiichlein! This is an
astounding result, not wholly unexpected to an organist who is
familiar with the entire Bach literature, but still remarkable in the
observed ratio.
So persistent is the legend that Bach still clung to the old mean-
tone tuning for organ that it will be well to cite examples of his
freer practice. But, although the great majority of Bach's organ
works contain notes excluded from the meantone compass, the
diehards are not convinced easily. They insist that a foreign note
does not greatly offend unless in a triad, preferably sustained and
unornamented. Anyone possessed of a nodding acquaintance with
Bach's style will realize how this requirement complicates the pic-
ture; for, except at a final cadence, Bach usually avoids sustained
triads. Even subsidiary cadences are often arpeggiated or contain
suspensions or other dissonances. If a dramatic passage, not a final
cadence, ends with a chord followed by a pause, this will usually
be a dominant or diminished seventh, for the sake of heightened
tension.

Although we shall try to play the game fairly, concentrating

upon notes in triads, it should be pointed out that the rules can
be made too strict. If the flattest or the sharpest note in a passage
belongs to a diminished seventh chord, it probably proves nothing,
in itself, about the tuning. If the flattest note is the seventh of a
dominant seventh chord, meantone tuning is not outlawed: the
meantone C-sharp, for example, is a better seventh for the dominant
seventh on E-flat than D-flat is, being flatter. But if the sharpest
note is the third of a dominant seventh, look out: for the meantone
B-flat, for example, is almost a quarter of a tone higher than the
A-sharp, and so the seventh chord, F-sharp A-sharp C-sharp E, used
in almost every transition to B minor, would have an impossibly
high third. In other words, the dominant seventh chord upon

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 82 The Musical Quarterly
F-sharp
F-sharp
would clash for the same reason as the
would
major triad upon
F-sharp-the
F-sharp-the
too-sharp A-sharp. too
Furthermore,
Furthermore,
even though the foreign notes occur in a dis-
cordant
cordant
combination of notes, the intonation combin
may have to be correct
forfor
melodic considerations.
melodic
Suppose, for example, that the scalewisecon
passage,
passage,
F G-flat F E-flat D-flat E-flat F, occursF in B-flatG-fla
minor,
against
against
a prevailing dominant (F major) harmony.
a Here, prevaalthough
thethe
G-flat and D-flat areG-flat
dissonant, the melody is diatonic and
and could D
notnot
very well be F F-sharp
veryF E-flat C-sharp E-flat F.well b
In the
In Widor-Schweitzer
the edition of Bach's
Widor-S
organ works, Vol. I
("Preludes
("Preludes
and Fugues of the Youthful Period") bristles with andacci-
dentals,
dentals,
especially No. 12, the G minor Preludeespecia
and Fugue, which
contains
contains
a chromatic sequence of alternate diminished
a andchrom dominant
sevenths,
sevenths,
arpeggiated. A-sharps and E-sharps are frequentarpeg
elsewhere.
As good
As an example good
as any is No. 16, "Fantasy With
an Imitation" exam
in
B Minor.
BThe choice
Minor.of the key is an indication thatThe
the usual c
bounds
bounds
are overstepped, for the dominant are
triad needs A-sharp.
over
The
"Imitation"
"Imitation"
is in triple meter, with the straightforward character
is of in
a Lully
aAir. Lully
Since it lends itself well to first
Air.species counterpoint,Sin
examples
examples
of triads with extreme sharp notes may easily of be found. tri

Ex. Ex.
3 a Bach: Iitatimn in
3 B minra
(Widor- Bach:
Sdweitzer Edilin,VolI,No.16) Iitat
,Ex. 3'b |
rA
v^ J -1W,
tSJl
n>,_b -
t ^ Z
1.T[I Ii^ -J -- J
19 Lr-rm -- fe . .
~~~.. ~~.
rft-*r P ? 1
~~. . I
D-sharp occurs half a dozen
found numerous times in th
chord, as well as in the dim
In Vol. II ("Preludes and F
the Fugue in E Minor, No. 3
subject in which the sharpen
thirds of triads, so that there
and E-sharps (Ex. 4).
In Vol. III ("Preludes and Fugues of the Mature Master-
Period") there are two works in C minor and two in E minor, in
both of which keys foreign notes are sure to appear. In the Prelude
in C Minor, No. 5, the G-flat triad is sounded four times over a

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 83

Ex. 4 Bach: Fugue in E minr (Vol. II, No. 3)

it^tf^- i _ : Jf
pedal B-flat (mm. 91, 92) and towards the end a transposition
this passage gives four D-flat triads over a pedal F. Both Prelu
and Fugues in E minor contain D-sharps, of course, as wel
A-sharps and E-sharps.
In Vol. IV, No. i, in F major, the harmony of the coda of th
Prelude (Toccata), a transposition of the harmonies of mm.
2 8, is striking. In m. 423 the dominant seventh of the key of F lea
to a deceptive cadence, and the succeeding bars contain a V
progression in G-flat major, repeated sequentially in A-flat m
and B-flat minor, and followed by the G-flat triad, which is dw
upon and quitted as the Neapolitan sixth of F major, in which
the final cadence is shortly thereafter made.

Ex. 5 Bach: Prelude (Toccaa) in F major (VoL I, No.I)

lj, - I. . , I - I _ J _ J _
'- 'EL f; I- -J-T- I 'I L' V.
skeleltnized, wiUhut arpeggio 16t

4 b S - -bi!| --------- -
Sb;-S vw ' v
L ;j i'r I r j-

In the G Minor Fantasia and Fugu

of the Fantasia move too rapidly an
as evidence. There is, however, an i
where the eighth-note in the pedal
music modulates along the circle of f
both minor and major triads on eac
C-flat, and F-flat occur as minor t
diminished seventh and four mea

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84 The Musical Quarterly
minor
minorbut
butisisnotated
notatedenharmonically
enharmonically
as E as
minor,
E minor,
to avoid
to such
avoid such
notes as A-double flat and D-double flat.

Ex. 6 Bac&: Fantaia in G minor (Vol. I7; No.4)

The great Passacaglia and Thema Fugatum in C minor is also

to be found in Vol. IV. It has innumerable A-flats, of course, and
many essential D-flats. See especially m. 117 of the fugue, where the
inverted D-flat (Neapolitan) triad is marked with a fermata and
followed by rests. Since the sharpest note in this work is F-sharp
and the only G-flat occurs in the diminished seventh chord, it could
have been played in a flat meantone tuning-if it had been written
for clavier36 instead of for the organ.
Finally, Vol. IV contains two works in extreme keys impossible
in meantone tuning. No. 2 is in F minor, with A-flat and D-flat
as diatonic notes, and No. 7 is in B minor, with A-sharp as a dia-
tonic note.
In Vol. V, Concertos and Sonatas, the meantone compass is also
frequently exceeded. In Concerto III in C Major, the Recitative
contains (m. 5) an A-sharp in the dominant seventh on F-sharp;
near the end of the last movement (marked Solo) there are about
forty measures of broken chords, including (mm. 9o, 91) a V-I
progression in G-flat major. Con ncerto IV, also in C major, has a
passage (mm. 24-33) largely in E minor, with many B major triads.
Shortly after this (mm. 55-57) the music goes from D minor to the
Neapolitan, and neatly modulates back, making the same black key
do double duty as A-flat and G-sharp. There are Sonatas in Vol. V
in keys so cacophonous in meantone tuning as E-flat major (I),
C minor (II), and E minor (IV), with a total compass from G-flat
to B-sharp. Four of these sonatas (III-VI) have each precisely a
fifteen-note compass, such as D-flat-D-sharp.
Even in7) e Orgelbiichlein, which contains the highest propor-
tion of Bach organ works with simple compass, the latter are far
outweighed by others which would be sharply dissonant in mean-
36 As some have maintained that it was.

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 85

tone tuning. The sharpest note found in the collection is E-sharp,

and it occurs in at least six preludes-see particularly No. 3, Herr
Christ, der einige Gottes Sohn. And of course there are many
D-sharps and A-sharps. There are, as usual with Bach, few extreme
keys: some of the E-sharps occur in No. 15, in B minor, and in No.
41, in E minor. On the flat side, No. 12 is in C minor and contains
a D-flat; No. 40 is in the key of F minor, rare with Bach, and has
a G-flat. Most striking is No. 24 in E-flat major, O Mensch, bewein'
dein Siinde gross.

Ex. 7 BaclOMeNsc,bewen'deinSuiidegross
(Org'lt,heil No24)

In this piece, D-flats occur frequently-mostly, however, in the

dominant seventh on E-flat. An interesting chromatic sequence
(mm. 18-19) begins with the D-flat triad, and appears again, trans-
posed (mm. 22-23), beginning with E-flat minor. This second ap-
pearance is shortly followed by the C-flat triad, Adagissimo, intro-
duced in approaching the final cadence.
Even these few examples of organ music culled from among
many, represent all periods of Bach's creative life. They show no
particular trend from youth to old age. Some of the modulations
and chromatic effects referred to in our discussion are striking and
dramatic. Conceivably in the third inversion of a dominant-seventh
on D-flat in an F major Toccata, there would be room for con-
siderable imperfections in the tuning. But when Bach calmly modu-
lated to F-sharp minor and made a cadence there, or wrote a pre-
lude and fugue in F minor, we can be sure he knew that his organ
was tuned so that these rare keys would be "possible" ones. If these
compositions had been for clavier, some of the licenses could be
explained as they have been above-by the use of a sharp or a
flat meantone tuning. But the organ in meantone tuning would
have a permanent compass, probably E-flat-G-sharp, possibly A-flat-
C-sharp or B-flat-D-sharp. It could never have more than twelve
different pitches in the octave unless it had split keys, and there

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86 The Musical Quarterly
is no evidence that the organs on which Bach c
had the more extended compass of Handel's Te
London.

One should not neglect to mention the continuo parts in Bach's

choral works. If we take the cantatas in the numerical order of the

Bach Gesellschaft, 86 of the first ioo cantatas for which parts sur-
vive have organ continuo parts in keys lower than the key used
for the voices and strings.37 This arises from the fact that the organs
Bach used were tuned, like the trumpets, to "Choir" pitch or
"Cornett" pitch, a tone or a tone and a half higher than the
"Chamber" pitch used by the other instruments and voices.
This fact would be pertinent as evidence against the conclu-
sions of the present study only if it could be shown that the com-
pass of the untransposed parts was from F to A-sharp, thus bringing
the organ within the E-flat-G-sharp compass. And then what of the
untransposed figured continuos surviving for twenty-nine cantatas,
and usually existing side by side with the transposed versions?
Whether or not Schering is right in excluding the possibility that
these untransposed parts may have been used for harpsichord, one
thing is certain: both transposed and untransposed continuos could
not be used on organs in meantone tuning of the same compass.
In this connection a statement by Sorge38 is of interest: in de-
crying the meantone system as practised by Silbermann, he showed
that because modulations are usually to the sharp side-to the domi-
nant and the relative minor-only F and B-flat were possible major
keys in meantone tuning, and even these were questionable, since
modulations to the tonic minor were becoming common. By similar
reasoning, the only possible minor keys, according to Sorge, were
D and G, making a total of only four keys out of the twenty-four.
But why should Bach's organs have been in meantone tuning?
As we have already seen, Sorge, writing only two years before Bach's
death, gave the name of the Leipzig Cantor as his chief witness
against the reactionary tuning practice of Silbermann. We have seen
something of Bach's freedom in the use of accidentals in his solo
organ music. What of the cantata continuos?
Cantata 6 is in a key difficult in meantone tuning: C minor.
37 Arnold Schering, Johann Sebastian Bachs Leipziger Kirchenmusik, Leipzig.
1936, p. 88.
38 G. A. Sorge, op. cit., pp. 10-13.

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 87

There
There are
are frequent
frequentD-flats
D-flatsand
and
even
even
a G-flat
a G-flat
in the
in the
bassbass
of the
of tenor
the tenor
aria.
aria.

Ex.
Ex. 88 Bach:
Bach:TenorAria
TenorAriaininCanataNo.6
CanataNo.6
A I_
I_

%W4 - 5

For this cantata ther

figured and unfigure
usual organ continuo,
an F-flat! Similar con
Cantata 168, in B mi
It is not valid to obje
organ, for the very f
be beyond the meant
A-sharp respectively.
transposed, would bec
and both have many
E-sharps. In Cantata 2
part, written out in f
But why continue?
could not have used t
there was a family tr
on the organ. Spitta39
contest which Sebasti
young Neidhardt in J
on temperament, Bes
tuned one set of pipe
temperament, while
achieved better results. "He [Neidhardt], however, would not admit
that his monochord was at fault, but a steady singer was brought
in and made to sing a chorale in the unusual key of B-flat minor,
and he agreed with Bach's tuning."
It has become the rage to play Bach's organ music upon modern
"baroque" organs, with their preponderantly shrill tone. Certainly
39 Philipp Spitta, op. cit., Vol. i, London, 1884, p. 137f.

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88 The Musical Quarterly
Bach's
Bach's music
music
is great
is great
enough enough
to meet this
to challenge,
meet this as itchallenge,
has met as it ha
the
thechallenge
challenge
of performance
of performance
upon the Hammond
upon the Electric
HammondOrgan Electric O
(anathema
(anathema to the
to purists)
the purists)
and in bombastic
and in transcriptions,
bombastic transcriptions,
or re- o
constructions,
constructions, for orchestra.
for orchestra.
Fortunately
Fortunately
the enthusiaststhe
do not
enthusiasts
often do not
suggest
suggest that
that
the meantone
the meantone
tuning betuning
reinstated
befor
reinstated
Bach's music.for Bach's m
Paradoxically,
Paradoxically, as weas
have
weshown,
have itshown,
would serve
it would
for one-third
serveoffor
the one-third
clavier
clavier compositions,
compositions,
the sharp
theor sharp
flat tunings
or flat
beingtunings
used as needed;
being used as n
but
butonon thethe
organ,
organ,
with its
with
rigidits
intonation
rigid and
intonation
sustained tone,
and only
sustained tone
one work in ten would then sound well.
Although we may regret that Bach did not write a book
tuning, such a book might have proved disappointing to us,
few men besides Rameau have been giants both as composers an
as theorists. But in a very true sense Bach added another paragra
to "The Art of Temperament" with every new composition, fro
youth to old age. Suites, partitas, inventions, fugues for clavier
fugues, chorale preludes, concertos, sonatas for organ-for all or
almost all of these the instrument must be wohl temperirt or it will
fail to satisfy the judgment of the ear.
APPENDIX

The cent is a logarithmic unit defined as the hundredth part of

semitone, that is, 2'A200. For the musician, the cent is much more c
than the millioctave, 2000o; for intervals in any tuning system can
pared directly with those of equal temperament if they are expresse
whereas the millioctaves would be useful only where the norm is t
scale with five equal tones in the octave. Below are the cents values
tuning systems mentioned in the text. The syntonic comma is the
or 22 cents.

Pythagorean Tuning
(Fifth is pure; major third is 1 comma sharp)
C C: D Eb E F F# G G# A Bb B C
o 114 204 294 408 498 612 702 81 96 996 1110 1200
Just Intonation
(Most fifths and major thirds are pure)
C Cf D Eb E F F$ G G# A Bb B C
o 70 204 316 386 498 590 702 772 884 o108 1088 1200
Meantone Tuning
(Fifth is 1/4 comma flat; major third is pure)
C C: D Eb E F F# G GX A Bb B C
o 76 193 310 386 503 579 697 773 890 1007 1083 1200
Equal Temperament
(Fifth is 1/1 comma flat; major third, 7/11 comma sharp)
C C: D Eb E' F F# G G: A Bb B C
o oo 00 300 400 400 500 6 700 800 900 1ooo 11oo 1200

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 Bach and The Art of Temperament 89

The Out-of-Tune Piano

Original tuning: equal temperament
C D E F G A B C
o 1oo 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Flatting, from o for G% (Ab) to 12 cents for D
8 2 12 2 8 6 4 10 o 10 4 6 8
Resultant tuning
-8 98 198 208 392 494 596 690 800 890 996 1094 1192
Corrected for comparison, by adding 8 to each value
o io6 196 3o6 400 502 604 698 8o8 898 1004 o102 1200
Major triads on D, A, and E are Pythagorean: o, 408, 702.
Triads on Ab, Eb, and Bb are meantone, with fifth 1/6 comma flat: o, 3
698.
Hence the key of Eb is best, and the key of A worst.
The same result is obtained if one tunes from Ab to D by fifths 1/6 comma
flat, and from D to G$ by pure fifths. Fifty years after Bach's death, an English-
man, Thomas Young ("Outlines of Experiments and Inquiries Respecting
Sound and Light," Phil. Trans., 1800, p. 144ff), proposed a tuning system iden-
tical with the above, except that the pure fifths were from Gb to C and the
tempered fifths from C to F#. In his system, the key of G will be best, the key
of Db worst-a more practical result so far as most piano music is concerned.
Werckmeister's "Correct" Temperaments
(Intervals are altered in an irregular manner. The first temperament is the
one discussed in the text.)
C CO D Eb E F Ff G G$ A Bb B C
1. 0 90 192 294 390 498 588 696 792 888 996 1092 1200
2. o 82 196 294 392 498 588 694 784 890 1004 io86 1200,
3. o 96 204 300 396 504 600 702 792 900 1002 1098 1200
Varieties of Meantone Tuning
i. (Fifth is 1/3 comma flat; major third, 1/3 comma flat; minor thir
pure; Salinas)
C CO D Eb E F F$ G G A Bb B C
o 64 190 316 379 505 569 695 758 884 1olo 1074 1200
2. (Fifth is 2/7 comma flat; major third, 1/7 comma flat; chromatic semito
is pure; Zarlino)
C CO D Eb E F Ft G G$ A Bb B C
o 71 192 313 383 504 575 696 766 887 ioo8 1079 1200
3. (Fifth is 1/5 comma flat; major third, 1/5 comma sharp; diatonic semit
is pure; Rossi)
C CO D Eb E F F$ G G A Bb B C
o 84 195 307 391 502 586 698 782 893 1005 io88 1200
4. (Fifth is 2/9 comma flat; major third, 1/9 comma sharp; augmented second
is pure; Rossi)
C CC D Eb E F F$ G Gf A Bb B C
o 80 194 308 389 503 583 697 779 892 1006 io86 1200
5. (Fifth is 1/6 comma flat; major third, 1/3 comma sharp; tritone is pu
Silbermann)
C C$ D Eb E F F$ G G A Bb B C
0 89 197 305 394 502 590 698 787 895 1003 1092 1200

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