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Full download Power and diplomacy: India's foreign policies during the Cold War Zorawar Daulet Singh file pdf all chapter on 2024
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Power and Diplomacy
Power and Diplomacy
India’s Foreign Policies
during the Cold War
1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trademark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.
Published in India by
Oxford University Press
2/11 Ground Floor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002, India
Figures
I.1 Choice Paths during a Crisis 30
7.1 Choice Paths during the Second East Bengal Crisis 297
Tables
1.1 Nehru’s Peacemaker Role Conception 69
The Cold War is often called the ‘Long Peace’ when two gladiators
strode the planet as never before, bearing such destructive arms as
had never been seen before in human history. We are familiar with
this story, where the two superpowers discovered a shared interest
in their mutual stability and survival, despite an unceasing ideo-
logical and geopolitical rivalry. On the periphery of that struggle
lay a tumultuous and uncertain fate for the middle powers that
had recently emerged from the thrall of colonialism. Like several
of its peers, India found itself in the midst of these two colliding
worlds, and was compelled to craft a policy and strategy. The pres-
ervation of an independent personality and sovereignty, that is,
being non-aligned, was a basic impulse for India. However, craft-
ing a foreign policy was about other ideas too. This book is about
those wider sets of beliefs about how India defined its interests
and goals and produced security in the context of the Cold War.
And, it was in the neighbourhood where India confronted recur-
ring crises and geopolitical challenges. How and why Indian poli-
cymakers responded to those regional events remains obscured or
mired in competing interpretations.
As analysts and historians, we are obligated to fulfil our main
task and offer fresh vantage points to understand the past. However,
my urge to examine Indian statecraft during the Cold War years
was not merely to recover the past, which may be shrouded in the
archives, or to engage in a conversation with other scholars. We
xiv Preface
***
This work could not have been possible without the support, coun-
sel, and friendship of many others. Sunil Khilnani has been a source
of constant support from the very outset, and did not dissuade
me from attempting such an ambitious project when he might
have known better. I was also fortunate to have Srinath Raghavan’s
counsel during my reclusive years of doctoral research. Most of
the pre-writing phase was spent at the archives—briefly at the
National Archives in London and then much of it in the Indian
archives. The Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, Delhi
(NMML) is truly the gold standard as a repository for historical
documents in India and their staff was a delight to work with.
The National Archives of India is, in contrast, a more impersonal
and larger institution, but I was still fortunate to access several
relevant files and memoranda, sometimes by sheer happenstance!
It cannot be gainsaid that a study such as this could only have
profited from the collective memory of accomplished observers
and practitioners. The late Inder Malhotra, the late B.S. Das, M.K.
Rasgotra, K. Shankar Bajpai, Eric Gonsalves, Chandrashekhar
Dasgupta, G.B.S. Sidhu, Kishan Rana, Shyam Saran, Shiv Shankar
Menon, Prabhat Shukla, Ranjit Gupta, Sudhir Devare, Ashok
Parthasarathi, and Rana Banerji were all generous with their
time and reflections on past events. For these insightful conver-
sations, I remain deeply indebted. I also remain appreciative of
Preface xv
Power and Diplomacy: India’s Foreign Policies during the Cold War.
Zorawar Daulet Singh, Oxford University Press (2019). © Zorawar Daulet Singh.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780199489640.003.0001
2 Power and Diplomacy
The Argument
India’s foreign policy during the Cold War period from the 1950s
to the 1970s was not simply an exercise in the preservation of its
strategic independence. Analytical focus on a largely unchanging
self-image of non-alignment has led scholars to downplay what
was in fact a dramatic evolution in Indian foreign policy dur-
ing that period. Specifically, from projecting itself initially in an
extra-regional peacemaker role during the Nehru period, where
India intervened in several crises in Asian high politics, India’s
role dramatically contracted to that of a largely sub-continen-
tal security seeker in the Indira Gandhi period, with narrower
conceptions of order and security. Importantly, this shift was not
simply one of a change in geopolitical scope but also a change
in the modes of regional policy behaviour. The central argu-
ment of this book is that this change in Indian statecraft resulted
from a change in regional role conceptions from the Nehru to the
Indira Gandhi periods. Role conceptions emerge from policymak-
ers’ beliefs and images relating to their state’s interaction with
its external environment. As discussed later, these include the
appropriate scale of regional activity and functional goals, ori-
entation to this defined external environment, and the preferred
modes of behaviour. The behavioural shift between the Nehru and
Introduction 3
4As Narang and Staniland suggest, ‘There is enormous room for further
research on the making of India’s foreign policy’ both in terms of ‘deeper
historical studies of the roots of strategic worldviews’ as well as ‘detailed
studies of the inner workings of the Indian foreign policy apparatus’.
Vipin Narang and Paul Staniland, ‘Institutions and Worldviews in Indian
Foreign Security Policy’, India Review 11, no. 2 (2012): 91. In a similar
vein, Raghavan observes that historians have mostly ‘ignored research’
on independent India’s foreign policy, ‘preferring to toil on the British
and earlier periods’. Srinath Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India
(New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2010), 3.
5 Jivanta Schottli, Vision and Strategy in Indian Politics: Jawaharlal
University Press, 1990); S. Mahmud Ali, Cold War in the High Himalayas:
The USA, China and South Asia in the 1950s (Surrey: Curzon Press, 1999);
Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970); Steven
A. Hoffmann, ‘Rethinking the Linkage Between Tibet and the China–India
Border Conflict: A Realist Approach’, Journal of Cold War Studies 8, no. 3
(2006): 165–94; Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India.
Introduction 5
foreign policies have to say about the Cold War period: ‘India’s record of
fidelity to past policy and practice is unusual.’ India is ‘sui generis, as far
as foreign policy strategy and tactics are concerned. Successive leaders
in the same party and different parties have found it difficult to depart
from the Nehru line…. Against this general background of continuity,
stability and decorum, India’s relations with the outside world can be
appreciated as basically rational….’ It would be extraordinary if the authors
were actually unaware of the different approaches in Nehru and Indira
Gandhi’s statecraft. Rather, the problem here seems to be one of
conceptualizing the variation in India’s foreign policy after the Nehru
period despite continuity in India’s self-image in international politics.
A.K. Damodaran and U.S. Bajpai, eds, Indian Foreign Policy: The Indira
Gandhi Years (New Delhi: Radiant, 1990), ‘Introduction’: xiv–xv.
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