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Attitude functions in consumer research: Comparing value-attitude relations

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Article in Journal of Business Research · November 2002

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 Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933 – 942

Attitude functions in consumer research:

comparing value–attitude relations in individualist
and collectivist cultures
Gary D. Gregorya,*, James M. Munchb, Mark Petersonb
a
Department of Marketing, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong 2522, New South Wales, Australia
b
University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA

Abstract

Culture, and the influence that cultural values have on attitudes and behavior, is an important topic in cross-cultural consumer research.
The relationship between values and the psychological purposes (functions) of attitudes are investigated in a cross-cultural study on consumer
groups from the individualist culture, US, and collectivist culture, Colombia. The primary objective of this study is to test the moderating role
of attitude functions (the goals served by attitudes) in the value – attitude relationship. In an attempt to extend attitude function theory to other
cultures, it is expected that value – attitude relations will be stronger when people have value-expressive (or social-identity) attitudes than
when they have utilitarian attitudes. Similarly, value – attitude relationships are expected to vary between idiocentric (individualist) and
allocentric (collectivist) individuals within each culture. Overall results support the moderating role of attitude functions, as values were
related to attitudes only when ad appeals emphasized a social-identity function, but not when they emphasized a utilitarian function.
D 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Attitude functions; Cultural values; Value-attitude relations; Individualism – collectivism

1. Introduction
Culture involves the study of one’s values and beliefs,
their ideas and attitudes, and the study of symbols and objects
that are used as methods of communication. Research on
culture has been widespread across social science disciplines
such as psychology, sociology and anthropology. Culture,
and the influence that cultural values has on attitudes and
behavior, has also become an important topic in consumer
research. Values based on cultural orientation not only are a
powerful force in forming one’s attitudes and behavior
(Homer and Kahle, 1988) but also serve as important guiding
principles in one’s life (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). Values
also play an important role in the perception and use of
intercultural communications (Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey,
1988), and in developing cross-cultural advertising mes-
sages. Values can influence consumers’ attitudes and behav-
iors directly or indirectly through their shopping patterns and
exposure to certain types of media. These moderating effects
depend perhaps on intervening factors such as product
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gary_gregory@uow.edu.au (G.D. Gregory).
category (Han and Shavitt, 1994; Zhang and Gelb, 1996),
attitudinal variables (e.g., individuals’ activities, interests and
opinions) (Homer and Kahle, 1988) or attitude functions
(e.g., utilitarian vs. social-identity functions) (Shavitt, 1989,
1990; Shavitt et al., 1992).
This study tests the value – attitude relationship and the
potential moderating role of attitude functions (the goals
served by attitudes). Snyder and DeBono’s (1985, 1987)
and Shavitt et al.’s (1992) extension of attitude function
theory in the area of advertising suggests that attitude
functions can be operationalized as advertising appeals. We
propose that, by measuring a subject’s values and then
assessing their attitudes towards advertisements that repres-
ent different attitude functions (ad appeals), the value –
attitude relationship and the moderating role of attitude
functions can be measured. In an attempt to extend attitude
function theory, these relationships will be investigated cross-
culturally to determine if the proposed relationships vary in a
predictable manner between the individualist culture, US, and
collectivist culture, Colombia. Similarly, relationships will
also be examined within cultures to determine if such patterns
vary between idiocentric (individualist) and allocentric (col-
lectivist) individuals.

0148-2963/02/$ – see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 4 8 - 2 9 6 3 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 1 3 - 2
934 G.D. Gregory et al. / Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933–942
2. Theory development
2.1. Attitude functions and consumer research
A theoretical approach that deals with the relationship
between values and attitudes is that of the functional
approach. The functional approach to attitudes posits that
attitudes fulfill psychological needs for the individual
(Olson and Zanna, 1993). Originally conceptualized by
Smith et al. (1956) and Katz (1960), the functional approach
addresses the motivational bases of people’s attitudes, or the
functional underpinnings of their attitudes.
Katz’s (1960) taxonomy included four attitude functions:
utilitarian function, knowledge function, ego-defensive
function and value-expressive function. Smith et al.’s
(1956) taxonomy included three attitude functions: object
appraisal function, externalization function and social
adjustment function. There is considerable overlap and
similarities between the two taxonomies. Katz’s utilitarian
function focuses on an attitude role in classifying objects
that maximize one’s own interests and the minimization of
punishments (Shavitt, 1989). For example, one’s attitude
toward a household cleanser may serve a utilitarian function
because it is likely to maximize the rewards (e.g., cleaning
power) and minimize the punishments (e.g., avoid excessive
scrubbing). Smith et al. proposed an object-appraisal func-
tion, which is very similar to Katz’s utilitarian function.
Smith et al.’s object-appraisal function provides guidelines
for evaluating objects and events in terms of a person’s
‘‘major interests and going concerns.’’
Katz proposed that attitudes can also serve a knowledge
function. This function presumes a basic need to attain a
meaningful, stable and organized view of one’s environ-
ment. According to Katz (1960, p. 175), attitudes serve this
function because they supply a standard ‘‘frame of reference
for organizing and simplifying people’s perceptions of an
often complex or ambiguous informational environment.’’
Fazio (1989) notes that this function is used to serve all
attitudes to some extent.
Attitudes may also play a key role in maintaining one’s
self-esteem. Katz refers to this function as the ego-defen-
sive function, where attitudes are maintained to help an
individual cope with anxieties generated by internal con-
flicts. Smith et al. term this the externalization function,
where people use defense mechanisms such as denial,
repression and projection to protect themselves against
threats from their internal and external environments (Eagly
and Chaiken, 1993).
Finally, Katz proposes that attitudes play an important
role in facilitating self-expression through a value-express-
ive function. This function exists in attitudes that are used to
express one’s central values and self-concept. Katz origin-
ally conceptualized this function to take into consideration
the need for self-expression and self-actualization
(McGuire, 1983). According to Katz, the value-expressive
function provides an avenue for individuals to express
personal values and other core aspects that allow them to
affirm their self-concepts. Although Katz considered the
influence of reference groups important when forming
attitudes that express personal values, his value-expressive
function did not explicitly consider how attitudes mediate a
person’s relations with others. Smith et al.’s social adjust-
ment function does, however, consider both values and
group norms when expressing attitudes. The social adjust-
ment (social-identity) function considers both public and
private motives and the potential influence of reference
groups on one’s self-identity. This function will be espe-
cially useful in testing the value –attitude relationship across
individualist and collectivist cultures, where behavior is
often influenced by the emphasis placed upon personal
goals vs. group goals, respectively.
The challenge for researchers in using attitude functions
lies in the knowledge of what function an attitude serves and
which form of persuasion is necessary to change attitudes.
For example, if we know that consumers favor a clothing
product because they feel that it is the best quality product
available, persuasive efforts could then focus on product
quality attributes in the development of product appeals
(i.e., strength, durability, ease in washing, etc.) or a util-
itarian function. However, if consumers prefer the same
clothing product because it satisfies their need for social
acceptance, persuasive efforts will need to shift toward a
product image appeal that allows them to ‘‘look good,’’
‘‘feel-sexy’’ or ‘‘stand out in a crowd,’’ or a social-identity
function. In summary, research on attitude function theory
suggests that attitude change may occur through the closer
match between ad appeal and the attitude’s primary function
(Shavitt, 1990; Maio and Olson, 1995). At the heart of this
theory is the study of the motivational basis for an attitude
and the need to understand how it can be changed (Eagly
and Chaiken, 1993).
2.2. Product characteristics and the moderating role of
attitude functions
Although individual differences in the functions that
attitudes serve are important in forming attitudes and
behaviors towards advertising appeals, a product’s per-
ceived value in meeting particular goals may be a function
of the product’s intrinsic characteristics and societal/cultural
definitions of the product (Shavitt et al., 1992). The
achievement of these goals may vary substantially from
one product category to another, depending perhaps on the
attitude functions being served. For example, a toothbrush
may help an individual achieve basic utilitarian goals
centered around the function of cleaning one’s teeth;
whereas jewelry could satisfy an individual’s social-identity
goals of accomplishment, social position, status and wealth.
Whereas some products are primarily utilitarian or social-
identity in nature, most products provide both utilitarian and
social-identity functions (i.e., fashion clothing, athletic
shoes and watches), depending on the particular goals an
 G.D. Gregory et al. / Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933–942
individual is hoping to achieve when purchasing each
product (Shavitt et al., 1992). When a product provides
both utilitarian and social-identity functions, the persuasive-
ness of the advertising appeal used may be a function of an
individual’s values and whether a product provides them the
opportunity to realize different functional goals. For
example, people may have favorable attitudes towards
products that are environmentally safe (i.e., jeans that use
natural instead of chemical dyes) because they consider self-
transcendence (collective) values like equality and protect-
ing the environment to be important. The use of a social-
identity advertising appeal for these individuals may be
particularly persuasive because this type of appeal is con-
sistent with their (collective) values and provides congru-
ence between the product (brand) image and their ‘‘social’’
self-image. Because social-identity attitudes may be based
on an individual’s set of ‘‘collective’’ values, the value –
attitude relationship should be strongest when the subject’s
attitudes serve a social-identity function. This relationship
may be true especially for people in a collectivist culture
and/or for those individuals who place great importance on
collective values.
People may also have favorable attitudes toward products
that represent success and provide social recognition (i.e.,
designer watch) because they consider self-enhancement
(individual) values like power and achievement to be
important. The use of a social-identity advertising appeal
for these individuals may also be persuasive because it is
consistent with their (individual) values and provides con-
gruence between the product (brand) image and their
‘‘ideal’’ self-image. For these individuals, attitudes towards
a product may be based on a perception of others’ attitudes
toward them and the extent to which a product promises to
satisfy the need for power and affluence. This relationship
will especially be true for people in an individualistic culture
and/or for those who place great importance on individual
values. These two examples demonstrate how different
values can be embedded within advertisements for products
that serve multiple functions. Although two types of con-
sumers (individualist vs. collectivist) may respond favorably
to ads using a social-identity appeal, they may do so for two
totally different reasons. This also implies that regardless of
the culture under investigation, values should be related to
attitudes when the reasons for holding such attitudes serve a
social-identity purpose.
Consumers may also form attitudes towards products
based primarily on the functional features or intrinsic
rewards of the product (i.e., whether a pain reliever relieves
headaches). For many, attitudes towards such utilitarian
products may be limited to the functions that they serve.
Aspirin and pain relievers are primarily purchased with the
intention of relieving aches and pains and are unlikely to be
chosen because of one’s individualist or collectivist value
structure. Thus, advertisers promote such products focusing
on the functional properties or attributes (i.e., active ingre-
dients, scientific evidence, etc.). Because utilitarian attitudes
935
are based more on the functional attributes and benefits of
the product rather than on normative (or social-identity)
attributes, it is expected that the relationship between values
and attitudes will be weak when subjects’ attitudes serve a
utilitarian function. Recent research by Maio and Olson
(1995) found that value – attitude relations were indeed
significant in a value-expressive attitude (ad appeal) con-
dition (conceptually similar to social-identity), but not in the
utilitarian attitude (ad appeal) condition. These results
support earlier findings (Maio and Olson, 1994), which also
indicate that value –attitude relationships are stronger when
people have value-expressive (or social-identity) attitudes
than when they have utilitarian attitudes. Based on this
discussion, the following hypothesis is offered:
Hypothesis 1: Attitude function moderates the relation-
ship between values and attitudes toward advertising
claims across cultures. Specifically, values will be related
to attitudes in the social-identity condition but NOT in
the utilitarian condition.
2.3. Universal values and the pattern of value – attitude
relations across cultures
Even though attitude functions may play a moderating
role in the relationship between values and attitudes, the
strength of this relationship may vary depending on the
types of values under investigation. Extending the work by
Rokeach (1973), Schwartz (1992) derived a set of nine
‘‘universal’’ values that are classified according to the basic
principles served by the cultural value orientation, individu-
alism –collectivism (see Table 1).
The values in Table 1 (several of which were adopted
from the Rokeach, 1973 value survey) were tested and
validated across 44 cultures (Schwartz, 1992, 1994), rep-
resent both the individual and collective interests of an
individual and can serve as guiding principles when making
any number of consumption-related decisions. These values
are further defined by motivational concerns depending on
whose interests were being served. For example, Schwartz’s
higher-order domains (self-transcendence vs. self-enhance-
ment) are based on the dichotomous tradeoff between
acceptance of others as equals and concern for their welfare
(universalism and benevolence), and emphasizing one’s
own relative success and dominance over others (power
and achievement). Likewise, openness to change vs. con-
servation is based on the tradeoff between independent
thought and action and favoring change (self-direction and
stimulation), and emphasizing submissive self-restriction,
preservation of traditional practices and protection of
stability (security, tradition/conformity). By using different
values to predict attitudes and behavior, researchers may be
in a better position to explain why people make similar
decisions yet for very different reasons.
Consistent with prior cross-cultural research, the mod-
erating role of attitude functions is likely to influence the
936 G.D. Gregory et al. / Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933–942
Table 1
Universal values: defined by motivational concerna
Individual value types
Hedonism
Hedonism: pleasure or sensuous gratification (comfortable life, pleasure,
cheerful, happiness)
Self-enhancement
Achievement: personal success through demonstrated competence
according to social standards (sense of accomplishment, successful,
ambitious, capable)
Power: status and prestige, control or dominance over people and
resources (authority, social power, wealth, preserving my public image)
Openness to change
Self-direction: independent thought and action — choosing, creating and
exploring (creativity, independent, imaginative, intellectual, logical)
Stimulation: excitement, novelty and challenge (a varied life, an exciting
life, daring)
Collective value types
Self-transcendence
Universalism: preservation and enhancement of the welfare of others
(equality, world at peace, social justice)
Benevolence: forgiving, helpful, loving, honest
Conservation
Tradition/Conformity: respect, commitment and acceptance of the
customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion impose
(respect for tradition, accepting my portion in life, devout). Restraint
of actions, impulses and inclinations likely to harm others or violate
social expectations (obedient, clean, politeness, self-discipline)
Security: safety, harmony and stability of society, of those with whom
one identifies, and of self (family security, national security, social
order, sense of belonging)
a
Taken from Schwartz (1992).
relationship between different types of values and attitudes
across cultures. Based on the premise that there will be a
significant value –attitude relationship when social-identity
attitudes are served, a closer examination of how different
types of values relate to attitudes across cultures is neces-
sary. Because individualistic cultures place greater emphasis
on individual value types such as achievement and social
power, attitudes may be driven more by individual interests.
In collectivist cultures, people emphasize collective value
types such as benevolence and universalism, where attitudes
are driven more by collective interests. Hence, the following
hypotheses are offered:
Hypothesis 2: The moderating role of attitude function in
the value – attitude relationship will vary across cultures
for attitude measures.
Hypothesis 2a: Within individualist cultures, individual
values will be positively related and collective values
will be negatively related to attitude measures.
Hypothesis 2b: Within collectivist cultures, collective
values will be positively related and individual values
will be negatively related to attitude measures.
2.4. Pattern of value –attitude relations within cultures
Prior research examining individualism vs. collectivism
at the individual level has identified persons who display
individualist tendencies (i.e., emphasize personal goals over
in-group goals) as idiocentrics; and persons who display
collectivist tendencies (emphasize in-group goals over per-
sonal goals) as allocentrics (Bontempo et al., 1990; Triandis
et al., 1990). Most cultures, however, contain individuals
that display both idiocentric and allocentric tendencies,
depending perhaps on personalities and/or the specific
behavior under investigation. Therefore, studying individu-
als in cultures that vary in individualism – collectivism
depends largely on the examination of a mediating variable
of interest that attempts to connect individual behavior to
culture-level phenomenon — in this case, values. Since
consumers may not always behave in a strict individualist or
collectivist manner, it becomes increasingly important to
examine individual-level behavior based on the motivational
goals associated with a purchase. Thus, it is very likely that
idiocentric individuals may engage in purchase behavior
based on their individual values (e.g., achievement, self-
gratification, pleasure seeking) and allocentric individuals
may engage in purchase based on their collective values
(e.g., tradition, family security, benevolence). Based on this
logic, the following hypotheses were formulated:
Hypothesis 3: The moderating role of attitude function in
the value – attitude relationship will vary within cultures
for attitude measures.
Hypothesis 3a: Individual values will be positively
related and collective values will be negatively related to
attitude measures for idiocentric individuals.
Hypothesis 3b: Collective values will be positively
related and individual values will be negatively related to
attitude measures for allocentric individuals.
3. Method
In the present study, we test hypotheses concerning (1)
the moderating role of attitude functions in the value –
attitude relationship, (2) the pattern of value – attitude rela-
tions between cultures and (3) the pattern of value – attitude
relations within each culture.
3.1. Subjects
The US and Colombia were chosen based on Hofstede’s
(1980) country individualism index (from 0 to 100). A
rating of 91 for the US indicates extremely high individu-
alism, and a rating of 13 for Colombia indicates extremely
low individualism (or highly collectivist). These archival
records (indices) were used to classify each country accord-
ing to their overall cultural value orientation. Two hundred
and eighty-four subjects were recruited for participation in
this study. Due to possible hypothesis guessing and incom-
plete data sets, eight subjects were dropped from the sample,
resulting in a final sample size of 276 (141 subjects in the
US and 135 subjects in Colombia). Subjects in the US
 G.D. Gregory et al. / Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933–942
consisted of both business students (n=95) and psychology
students (n=46) who attend a large southwestern university.
From the 141 US subjects, 71 subjects were randomly
assigned to the utilitarian experimental condition, and 70
subjects assigned to the social-identity condition. The US
sample consisted of 60 males (43%) and 81 females (57%).
Colombian subjects consisted of business students (n=69),
psychology students (n=45) and mathematics students
(n=21) who attended a large Colombian university in
Medellin, Colombia. From the 135 subjects, 69 subjects
were randomly assigned to the utilitarian experimental
condition, and 66 subjects assigned to the social-identity
condition. The Colombian sample included 40 males (30%)
and 95 females (70%).
3.2. Manipulation of attitude functions (ad appeals)
As suggested by Shavitt et al. (1992), the operationaliza-
tion of these two attitude functions was manipulated through
the use of different advertising appeals. Therefore, the
development of ads focused on two different ad appeals
for a multiple function product (capable of evoking both
utilitarian and social-identity reasons for purchasing the
product.
Lee and Green (1991) recommend that products exam-
ined cross-culturally should demonstrate functional equiva-
lence; that is, products should be familiar in each of the
cultures under investigation, readily available in each cul-
ture, and used for relatively the same purpose. Based on
these criteria, the product selected for this study was a
wristwatch. The fictitious brand name, GENEVEX, was
used for the watch product to reduce possible brand image
effects.
To minimize possible effects of use of one type of claim
over another, each advertisement developed for use in this
study consisted of three product attribute claims: one search
claim (e.g., leather band), one experience claim (e.g.,
comfort) and one credence claim (e.g., latest technology).
The utilitarian ad appeal contained three claims that focused
on product quality, performance features and product attrib-
utes that allow one to maximize their personal goals. Using
the same three types of claims, the social-identity function
appeal focused on product image, reference group influence
and product attributes that allow one to maximize their
social-identity (group) goals. Headlines, text, ad claims and
illustrations supporting either a utilitarian or a social-identity
appeal were included in the final ads used in this study.
Subjects in each culture were exposed to only one of the two
manipulated experimental conditions.
3.3. Measures
3.3.1. Measurement of values
A 27-item adaptation of Schwartz’s (1992) Value Survey
was used to capture subjects’ ratings of values as guiding
principles in their lives. This scale has also been validated in
937
previous studies (Schwartz, 1992, 1994; Schwartz and
Bilsky, 1987, 1990) by measuring individual-level differ-
ences across 97 samples within 44 different cultures. This
instrument is considered an etic (or culture-free) instrument
that captures subject’s responses to a set of nine universal
values (hedonism, self-direction, stimulation, achievement,
power, universalism, security, tradition/conformity, benevo-
lence). In each of the nine domains, three items were chosen
based on the underlying values for each domain. Consistent
with Schwartz’s (1992, 1994) survey, each of the values was
printed beside a definition of that value. Subjects were asked
to rate each of the 27 underlying values according to how
each serves as a ‘‘guiding principle in their life.’’ These
ratings were made using a nine-point scale that was marked
with the following scale labels: extremely important (7),
very important (6), (unlabeled; 5, 4), important (3), (unla-
beled; 2, 1), not important (0), opposed to my values ( 1).
This rating system allows subjects to indicate the values that
they promote as guiding principles in their lives, as well as
those values they seek to avoid expressing or reject from
other cultures.
3.3.2. Allocentric –idiocentric measure
A 16-item adaptation of Triandis et al.’s (1986, 1990)
individualism – collectivism scale was used in the US and
Colombia to determine an individual’s value orientation (or
personality measure). This scale has been validated in
previous studies by measuring individual level differences
both across and within cultures, and is considered an etic (or
culture-free) instrument. This means that the items in
this scale, when properly translated to different languages,
have virtually the same conceptual meaning across different
cultures. Subjects were asked to consider each of the 16
items, and to indicate, using a nine-point Likert-type
scale, their degree of agreement or disagreement with
the statements.
3.3.3. Attitude measures
Multiple-item questions regarding attitude toward the
advertisement, attitude toward the product, how well the
ad copy portrays the product, appropriateness of ad copy for
the product, persuasiveness of advertisement and purchase
intentions were asked for each copy ad. Subjects’ attitude
toward the advertisement and attitude toward the product
were measured using self-report responses to three nine-
point semantic differentials: from ‘‘dislike’’ to ‘‘like,’’
‘‘negative’’ to ‘‘positive’’ and ‘‘bad’’ to ‘‘good.’’ Subjects’
attitude toward how well the ad copy portrays the product
was measured using self-report responses to one nine-point
semantic differential from ‘‘does NOT portray the product
very well’’ to ‘‘does portray the product very well.’’ Appro-
priateness of ad copy for the product was measured using
one nine-point semantic differential from ‘‘not at all appro-
priate’’ to ‘‘very much appropriate.’’ This procedure was
also used for persuasiveness of ad (‘‘not at all persuasive’’ to
‘‘very much persuasive’’). Two purchase intention measures
938 G.D. Gregory et al. / Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933–942
were included in this study. The first measure asked how
likely is it that the ad copy is consistent with some of the
reasons why you would consider purchasing the product.
The second item simply asked how likely is it that you
would consider purchasing the product. Both purchase
intention questions were measured using a rating scale
from ‘‘impossible’’ to ‘‘possible,’’ ‘‘very unlikely’’ to
‘‘very likely’’ and ‘‘definitely purchase’’ to ‘‘definitely
not purchase.’’
3.4. Translation of instruments
All instruments and advertisements used were translated
into Spanish for the Colombian populations then backtrans-
lated to English by two native South American translators
fluent in both Spanish and English, to assure that a proper
translation has taken place. The backtranslated version was
then compared to the original English version, and any
differences were corrected (using a decentering process) by
making any necessary modifications to assure proper con-
ceptual translation. Decentering involves making adjust-
ments in both the original and the translated versions
simultaneously (Brislin, 1980; Werner and Campbell,
1970). This additional process helps alleviate problems such
as phrases that have no ready equivalent in the target
language. The modified instruments again went through
translation until the two translators agree that the meaning
behind each original item was translated to an identical or
equivalent meaning for the Colombian population. The
Spanish version was then pretested in Colombia for gram-
matical and conceptual errors. A few minor errors were
detected and corrections were made to the instrument for
final use in this study.
4. Results
4.1. Manipulation check
To assess the degree to which an advertisement focuses
on a utilitarian attitude function (ad appeal), subjects were
asked to rate, on a nine-point scale (where 1=strongly
disagree and 9=strongly agree), the following manipulation
check items: (1) The ad copy in the (product) ad focused
mainly on why I alone might benefit from the product. (2)
The product features stated within the ad copy of the
(product) ad primarily emphasized benefits that only I
would receive. Subjects followed the same rating procedure
for the social-identity attitude function condition. The two
social-identity attitude function (ad appeal) manipulation
check items were as follows: (1) The ad copy in the
(product) ad focused mainly on why both my family/friends
and I might benefit from the product. (2) The product
features stated within the ad copy of the (product) ad
primarily emphasized benefits that both my family/friends
and I would receive. In the US and Colombia, the interitem
correlation between the two utilitarian items was .91 and
.86, respectively. The interitem correlation for the two
social-identity items was .91 in each culture.
A one-way ANOVA showed that both the utilitarian and
social-identity function manipulations were successful in
each culture. In the US, the mean response value in the
utilitarian condition was 6.94 and 6.85, for the first and
second utilitarian manipulation items, respectively; whereas
the mean response value in the social-identity condition was
3.17 and 3.06, respectively. These differences were statis-
tically significant ( F=114.35, P<.001; F=106.67, P<.001)
for both the first and second manipulation check items. In
Colombia, the mean response value in the utilitarian con-
dition was 7.10 and 6.97, for the first and second utilitarian
manipulation items, respectively; whereas the mean
response value in the social-identity condition was 3.09
and 3.29, respectively. These differences were also statist-
ically significant ( F=118.74, P<.001; F=155.65, P<.001)
for the first and second manipulation check items.
In the US, the mean response value in the social-identity
condition was 6.83 and 6.66, for the first and second social-
identity manipulation items, respectively; whereas the mean
response value in the utilitarian condition was 3.07 and
3.18, respectively. These differences were statistically sig-
nificant ( F=98.21, P<.001; F=87.68, P<.001) for both the
first and second manipulation check items. In Colombia, the
mean response value in the social-identity condition was
6.64 and 6.67, for the first and second social-identity
manipulation items, respectively; whereas the mean
response value in the utilitarian condition was 3.94 and
4.07, respectively. These differences were also statistically
significant ( F=41.38, P<.001; F=40.84, P<.001) for each
the first and second manipulation check items.
In summary, the overall results indicate that the manip-
ulations were successful in each culture under investigation.
The manipulations were consistent across items for both the
utilitarian and social-identity experimental conditions; thus,
demonstrating the successful manipulation of utilitarian and
social-identity attitude functions (ad appeals) across cul-
tures.
4.2. Moderating role of attitude functions
To test the first hypothesis, it was necessary to calculate
indices for each of the five ‘‘higher-order’’ value domains
within Schwartz’s (1992) Value Survey: Self-transcendence,
Conservation, Openness to Change, Self-enhancement and
Hedonism. Indices were created for each of the five higher-
order value domains by summing up the responses to each
value item and dividing by the total number of items within
the value domain. The first four higher-order domains were
composed of six items each; while the fifth higher-order
domain (Hedonism) was composed of three items. Reliabil-
ities (Cronbach’s a) were generated for each of the five
higher-order domains. In the US, the reliabilities for the
higher-order domains Self-transcendence (a=.75), Conser-
 G.D. Gregory et al. / Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933–942 939

vation (a=.60), Openness to Change (a=.72), Self-enhance-
ment (a=.74) and Hedonism (a=.68) were considered
reasonably high enough to generate indices for each. In
Colombia, the reliabilities for the higher-order domains
Self-transcendence (a=.68), Conservation (a=.72), Open-
ness to Change (a=.80), Self-enhancement (a=.73) and
Hedonism (a=.60) were similar to those in the US and
were considered high enough to generate indices for each.
Next, we examined the correlations between each of the
five value domain’s composite measure and the six attitude
measures in each experimental condition, producing 30
possible correlations. Bivariate correlations between the
value domain indices and the six dependent attitudes meas-
ures were computed separately in each culture. An exam-
ination of the utilitarian attitude function (ad appeal)
condition showed that only two of the possible thirty
bivariate correlations are significant in the US, and only
one is significant in Colombia. The results also show that
four of the possible 30 correlations in the social-identity
condition are significant in the US, and 20 of the possible
thirty correlations in Colombia (see Table 2).
In summary, the overall results for Hypothesis 1 were only
partially supported. Although more evidence is needed before
concluding that a moderating effect occurs in the US, the
results certainly suggest a strong moderating effect in Colom-
bia. The correlations between collective value domains (Self-
Transcendence and Conservation) and attitude measures are
not only large and significant in Colombia, but they are also
positive. Likewise, the correlations between individual value
domains (Openness, Self-enhancement and Hedonism) and
attitude measures are large, significant and consistently
negative. Thus, not only does there appear to be a strong
moderating effect in Colombia, but the pattern of the corre-
lations is consistent with prior research on value – attitude
relations (Maio and Olson, 1995).
4.3. Pattern of value – attitude relations across cultures
In Hypothesis 2, specific value types and attitude meas-
ures were postulated. To test this hypothesis, the first step
was to calculate indices for individual and collective value
types within Schwartz’s (1992) Value Survey. These indices
were computed in the same way as the composite measures
discussed previously. The index for individual values was
comprised of fifteen items measuring hedonism, stimu-
lation, self-direction, achievement and power. Reliability
estimates for the individual value index in the US (a=.83)
and Colombia (a=.86) were reasonably high. The index for
collective values was comprised of 12 items measuring
universalism, benevolence, tradition/conformity and secur-
ity. Reliability estimates for the collective value index in the
US(a=.76) and Colombia (a=.78) were also reasonably
high.
As recommended by Schwartz (1992), when performing
the correlation analysis, it is important to control for mean
value ratings by calculating partial correlations between the
value indices and variables of interest. Partial correlations
remove the variance shared between the mean ratings of all
of the values in the survey and the variables of interest in the
correlation analysis. This procedure is of particular import-
ance when comparing the strength of correlations between
individual and collective value indices, and dependent
variables of interest, as well as controlling for scale use
differences in each culture under investigation (Schwartz,
1992). Based on this logic, partial correlation coefficients
were computed for the relationships between individual and
collective value indices and the six attitude measures in the
US and Colombia.
The results indicate that values are not related to attitudes
in the utilitarian attitude function condition in both the US
and Colombia. Since no significant correlations were found

Table 2
Bivariate correlations between value domains and attitudes in the US and Colombia
Attitude measures Self-tran Conserve Openness Self-enh. Hedonism
US (social-identity ad, n=70)
Ad attitude .11 (ns) .21 (ns) .14 (ns) .15 (ns) .10 (ns)
Product attitude .03 (ns) .08 (ns) .03 (ns) .04 (ns) .11 (ns)
Ad copy portrayal .30* .25* .23* .19 (ns) .06 (ns)
Appropriateness of ad copy .10 (ns) .25* .05 (ns) .06 (ns) .06 (ns)
Persuasiveness of ad .22 (ns) .21 (ns) .22 (ns) .18 (ns) .08 (ns)
Purchase intention .08 (ns) .19 (ns) .01 (ns) .10 (ns) .06 (ns)

Colombia (social-identity ad, n=66)

Ad attitude .22* .44** .23* .05 (ns) .29**
Product attitude .25** .43** .31** .01 (ns) .30**
Ad copy portrayal .26** .36** .21 (ns) .07 (ns) .22 (ns)
Appropriateness of ad copy .31** .39** .12 (ns) .05 (ns) .18 (ns)
Persuasiveness of ad .25** .32** .28** .17 (ns) .35**
Purchase intention .35** .43** .38** .16 (ns) .34**
ns=not significant.
Self-Tran=Self-transcendence; Conserve=Conservation; Openness=Openness to change; Self-Enh.=Self-enhancement; Hedonism=Hedonism.
*
P.05.
**
P.01.
940 G.D. Gregory et al. / Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933–942

in the utilitarian ad appeal condition in either culture, the values and five of the six attitude measures (all except
results for this condition are not reported. However, values attitude toward the product). Although the overall results in
do appear to be related to attitude measures in the social- the US are inconclusive, the strength of the value – attitude
identity condition, especially in Colombia (see Table 3). In relationship in Colombia is exactly as predicted. Individual
the US, collective values are significantly related to attitudes values are negatively related to attitudes and collective
in four of the six measures. Contrary to that which was values are positively related to attitudes. These initial results
predicted, individual values are not significantly related to suggest that the predicted moderating effect is much more
any of the six attitude measures in the social-identity evident in the collectivist culture (Colombia) than the
condition. Since Hypothesis 2a predicted a positive rela- individualist culture (US).
tionship between individual values and attitudes and a
negative relationship between collective values and attitudes 4.4. Pattern of value – attitude relations within cultures
in the social-identity condition, this hypothesis is not
supported. Following the same procedure in Hypothesis 2, an index
An examination of Table 3 also provides evidence for the for individual and collective values was first generated, and
predicted moderating relationship between values and atti- then partial correlations were used to remove the variance
tudes in Colombia. Collective values are related to all six shared between each subjects’ mean rating for the total
attitude measures in the social-identity condition. These number of items in the scale and the variables of interest in
correlations are large, significant and positive. Furthermore, the correlation analysis. Next, results from the Allocen-
the results in Colombia also produced significant relation- trism –Idiocentrism Scale were used to determine an indi-
ships between individual values and all six attitude meas- vidual’s overall individualism – collectivism score. An index
ures in the social-identity condition. As hypothesized, the was created in each culture by taking the sum of the scale
correlations between individual values and attitudes are items and dividing by the total number of items in the scale,
large, significant and negative. Thus, based on these results, where 1=allocentric (collectivist) and 9=idiocentric (indi-
Hypothesis 2b is supported. vidualist) tendencies. A comparison of means showed that
In conclusion, the results reconfirm the moderating role overall, subjects in the US scored higher than did subjects in
of attitude functions. In both cultures, values are related to Colombia (4.43 vs. 4.06, P.01), indicating that US subjects
attitudes only in the social-identity condition. The moderat- are more individualist than Colombian subjects. A dicho-
ing effect, however, appears to be much stronger in Colom- tomous ‘median split’ was then performed so as to categorize
bia than in the US. Results of Hypothesis 2a indicate that the persons as ‘idiocentric’ or ‘allocentric.’ A median split was
weak moderating role in the US occurs only between chosen over a scale midpoint split because there was a
collective values and attitudes. Further analysis reveals that restricted range of scores in the two cultures (Triandis et
this relationship is primarily driven by gender. For instance, al., 1990). The range of index scores in the US was from 2.38
there were no significant relationships between values and to 6.88. With a median split at 4.40, allocentrics had scores
attitudes for males in the US, yet, for females, there were between 2.38 and 4.40, and idiocentrics had scores between
large, significant, positive relationships between collective 4.42 and 6.88. The range of index scores in Colombia was
from 1.31 to 6.31. With a median split at 4.10, allocentrics
had scores between 1.31 and 4.10, and idiocentrics had
Table 3
Partial correlations between value indices and attitudes in the US and
scores between 4.15 and 6.31.
Colombia The results of the individual-level analyses once again
Attitude measures Individual values Collective values supported the moderating role of attitude functions. No
significant correlations were found between values and
US (social-identity ad, n=70)
Ad attitude .05 (ns) .19 (ns) attitudes in the utilitarian ad appeal condition for allocentric
Product attitude .04 (ns) .12 (ns) or idiocentric subjects in either culture. Additionally, no
Ad copy portrayal .14 (ns) .23* significant correlations exist in the US or Colombia between
Appropriateness of ad copy .17 (ns) .31** idiocentric subject’s values and their attitudes in the social-
Persuasiveness of ad .07 (ns) .23*
identity ad appeal condition. Because there is no evidence of
Purchase intention .10 (ns) .28**
significant positive correlations between individual values
Colombia (social-identity ad, n=66) and attitudes, or significant negative correlations between
Ad attitude .43** .40** collective value and attitudes for idiocentric subjects, Hypo-
Product attitude .43** .39** thesis 3a is not supported in the US or Colombia. Further
Ad copy portrayal .39** .35**
analysis shows that there are significant correlations in the
Appropriateness of ad copy .40** .36**
Persuasiveness of ad .41** .38* US between allocentric subjects’ values and their attitudes
Purchase intention .53** .42** in the social-identity condition (see Table 4). As predicted,
ns=not significant. there is a negative correlation between individual values and
*
P.05. appropriateness of ad copy. Furthermore, the relationship
**
P.01. between collective values and all six attitude measures are
 G.D. Gregory et al. / Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933–942 941

Table 4 when attitudes fulfill a social-identity function, but not

Partial correlations between value indices and attitudes for allocentric
when attitudes fulfill a utilitarian function.
subjects in the US and Colombia
The value – attitude relationship becomes much clearer
Attitude measures Individual values Collective values
when examining within-culture variation in allocentrism –
US (allocentrics, n=34) idiocentrism. Interestingly, the moderating role of attitude
Ad attitude .20 (ns) .34**
functions occurs only for allocentric subjects. The pattern
Product attitude .22 (ns) .34**
Ad copy portrayal .17 (ns) .32** and strength of value – attitude relations for allocentric sub-
Appropriateness of ad copy .29* .49** jects in Colombia provides evidence that attitude formation
Persuasiveness of ad .21 (ns) .45** is influenced to a great extent by the functions that attitudes
Purchase intention .26 (ns) .46** serve. Further analysis showed that allocentric and idiocen-
tric subjects responded similarly to the utilitarian and social-
Colombia (allocentrics, n=41)
Ad attitude .59** .60** identity ad appeals (e.g., no significant differences in mean
Product attitude .58** .55** responses for all six attitude measures, in either culture), yet,
Ad copy portrayal .60** .58** there were significant differences in value – attitude relations
Appropriateness of ad copy .60** .54** between allocentric and idiocentric subjects. These results
Persuasiveness of ad .59** .55**
suggest that allocentrism – idiocentrism, as a personality
Purchase intention .69** .60**
measure, is unable to directly predict attitudes. Past research
ns=not significant.
* has also been unable to detect differences between allocen-
P.05.
**
P.01. tric and idiocentric responses in attitudes toward product
advertisements (Gregory and Munch, 1997; Han, 1990). In
the present study, however, allocentrism – idiocentrism
large, significant and positive. Because the direction and appears to have a definite impact on attitudes, but only
strength of these correlations are as predicted in seven of the through the mediating effect of values. That is, allocen-
possible 12 correlations, Hypothesis 3b is partially sup- trism –idiocentrism by itself apparently has no direct affect
ported in the US. on attitudes, yet, the indirect effect (as mediated by values)
An examination of Table 4 also shows that there are seems to produce significant value – attitude relations for
significant negative correlations between individual values both individual and collective value types. Thus, allocentric
and all six of the dependent attitude measures. Likewise, subjects appear more prone to forming attitudes that fulfill
correlations between collective values and all six attitude their social– identity functions, and may be more value-
measures are very large, significant and positive. Because expressive when evaluating ad appeals.
the direction and strength of these correlations are as
predicted in all 12 possible correlations, Hypothesis 3b is
supported in Colombia. In summary, the results of Hypo- 6. Implications and suggestions for future research
thesis 3 reconfirm the moderating role of attitude functions
in the value –attitude relationship; values were related to There are a number of implications for the extension of
attitudes only in the social-identity condition in both cul- attitude functions to other cultures. First, the results support
tures. The overall results suggest that the pattern of value – earlier findings by Maio and Olson (1994, 1995) of a
attitude relations was driven primarily by allocentrics within moderating role of attitude functions in value – attitude
each culture. relations. Although the pattern of value –attitude relations
in the US is moderately consistent with prior findings, the
results in Colombia are especially encouraging. Since this is
5. Discussion the first known study to have investigated possible mod-
erating effects of attitude functions in cross-cultural con-
The overall results support the moderating role of attitude sumer behavior, additional research is necessary in other
function in the value –attitude relationship. Similar to Maio cultures to validate such an extension. It is hoped that the
and Olson (1994, 1995), value – attitude correlations were work in this study can serve as an initial foundation for
significant in the social-identity condition (conceptually future theoretical development. Second, this study has
similar to Maio and Olson’s value-expressive condition) brought forth evidence suggesting allocentric individuals
but not in the utilitarian attitude condition. The number of draw on values more strongly than idiocentric individuals,
significant correlations, along with the expected strength regardless of which culture they belong. While a moderate
and direction of these relationships, suggests that attitude value –attitude relationship for the social-identity condition
functions play only a modest role in moderating the value – was found in the US, allocentric subjects appear to account
attitude relationship in the US. Results in Colombia provide for this relationship. Similarly, the overall value – attitude
stronger support for the moderating role of attitude function relationship for the social-identity condition in Colombia
in the value – attitude relationship. Thus, the evidence sug- was quite strong for allocentric subjects. Therefore, assess-
gests that values are associated with attitudes primarily ing the degree of dependence allocentric individuals have
942 G.D. Gregory et al. / Journal of Business Research 55 (2002) 933–942
for values in attitude formation should be the subject of
future research. Finally, the results of this study also have
relevance for marketing practitioners in international ad
campaigns. For example, whether a culture leans more
toward values based on independence, self-direction and
individualism may be important initially in determining the
general type of ad appeal to be used. However, additional
factors such as product use conditions, believability of
different ad claims, persuasiveness of the ad and appropri-
ateness of ad copy used all play an important role in
designing and using certain types of ad appeals. This may
be especially true when considering how each of these
factors operate in other cultural settings. By empirically
examining attitudes toward advertisements that serve differ-
ent attitude functions, international marketers may be better
able to evaluate cultural differences and the role of values in
the attitude formation process.
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