DATA COMMUNICATION

UNIT-1
Introduction to Data Communication
Components, Data Representation, Data Flow, Networks-Distributed processing, Network
Criteria, Physical Structures, Network Models, Categories of Networks Interconnection of
Networks, The Internet- A Brief History, The Internet Today, Protocol and Standards –
Protocols, Standards, Standards and Organizations, Internet Standards, Network Models,
Layered Tasks, OSI Model, Layers in OSI MODEL, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Addressing
Introduction, Wireless Links and Network Characteristics, Wifi: 802.11 Wireless LANs- The
802.11 Architecture.
Data communication Definition:
Data communication is the transfer and flow of data from one place to another.
communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data.

Components of Data Communication :

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one
person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer,
mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone
mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels
are the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example,
Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot
understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer
connected to the internet and they are:
  TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages
into packets on the source computer and reassembling the received packet at the
destination or recipient computer. It also makes sure that the packets have the
information about the source of the message data, the destination of the message
data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and
checks if the message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
 IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how does computer determine
which packet belongs to which device. What happens if the message you sent to
your friend is received by your father? Scary Right. Well! IP is responsible for
handling the address of the destination computer so that each packet is sent to its
proper destination.

Communication Channels

Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also known as
a transmission medium. The transmission medium or channel is a link that carries messages
between two or more devices. We can group the communication media into two categories:
 Guided media transmission
 Unguided media transmission
1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using wires or
cables between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is transmitted using
these cables in terms of signals. Guided media transmission of the following types:
1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In a
twisted-pair cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The twisting
of the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a signal from one wire to
another due to which signal can corrupt and can cause network errors. The twisting protects
the wire from internal crosstalk as well as external forms of signal interference. Types of
Twisted Pair Cable :
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones
widely. As the name suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not
protects from external interference. It is cheaper than STP.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to
shield. Due to shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and
costlier as compare to UTP.
2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more foil or
wire shields. The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer shield
provides the ground. It is widely used for television signals and also used by large
corporations in building security systems. Data transmission of this cable is better but
expensive as compared to twisted pair.
3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts of
data at very high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries data as a
light that travels inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made up of three pieces:
1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally created using
glass or plastic.
2. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.
3. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the
environment.
2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in which the
signals are propagated from one device to another device wirelessly. Signals can wave
through the air, water, or vacuum. It is generally used to transmit signals in all directions.
Unguided Media is further divided into various parts :
1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables. Microwave
signals are just like radio and television signals. It is used in long-distance communication.
Microwave transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver, and atmosphere. In microwave
communication, there are parabolic antennas that are mounted on the towers to send a beam
to another antenna. The higher the tower, the greater the range.
2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is termed
radio waves transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the transmitter and the
receiver. Both use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.
3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is
generally used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.

Data Representation:
Data to be transferred or communicated from one device to another comes in various formats
like audio, video, etc.

Different Data types in a computer network:

1. Texts
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Videos
5. Audios

1. Textual data:

Data in text format is represented using bit patterns (combinations of two binary bits - 0 and
1). Textual data is nothing but a string, and a string is a collection of characters. Each
character is given a specific number according to an international standard called Unicode.
The process of allocating numbers to characters is called "Coding," and these numbers are
called "codes".

Unicode:

It is the universal standard of character encoding. It gives a unique code to almost all the
characters in every language spoken in the world. It defines more than 1 40 000 characters. It

File extensions:

.doc, .docx, .pdf, .txt, etc.

2. Numerical data

Numbers are directly converted into binary patterns by dividing by 2 without any encoding.
The numbers we want to transfer generally will be of the decimal number system- ( ) 10. We
need to convert the numbers from ( )10 to a binary number system - ( )2 to get a bit stream.

Number formats:

Integers

Date

Boolean

Decimal

Fixed point

Floating point

Example:

Number: 780

Binary representation: 1100001100

3. Image

Image data is also transferred as a stream of bits like textual data. An image, also called a
picture, is a collection of little elements called "Pixels". A single pixel is the smallest
addressable element of a picture, and it is like a dot with a size of 1/96 inch/ 0.26 mm. The
dimensions of an image are given by the number of pixels along the height of the image X
Number of pixels along the width of the image.

Representation in a computer:

Grayscale images:

It can be considered as just the varying intensity of the White color. The intensity of the
white color in a pixel is given by numbers called "Pixel values". The pixel value in a
Grayscale image can be in the range of 0 to 255, where 0 represents Black and 255 represents
White, and all the numbers in the interval represent different shades. A matrix is created for
the image with pixel values of all the pixels in the image. This matrix is called a "Channel".

Colored images:

Each pixel comprises three transistors representing three standard colors: Red, Green, and
Blue (RGB), Yellow, Cyan, and Magenta (YCM). Any color known can be generated by
using these three colors. Based on the intensity of a color in the pixel, three matrices/
channels for each color are generated.
File extensions:

.jpg, jpeg, .png, etc.

4. Audios

Transferring an audio signal is different from other formats. Audio is broadcasting recorded
sound or music. An audio signal is generated as an analog wave, converted into digital
format to be stored in a computer by representing the wave amplitude at moments in bits.
Another parameter is the sample rate. It represents the number of samples or, in other words,
samples saved.

The audio quality depends on the sampling rate and the bit rate. If more bits are used to
represent the amplitudes in moments and more moments are captured accurately, we can save
the audio with every detail accurately.

File extensions:

.mp3, .m4a, .WAV, .AAC, etc.

5. Videos

A video is a collection of frames; each frame is a picture with the same or different
dimensions. These frames/ images are represented as matrices, as we discussed above. All the
frames/ images are displayed continuously, one after the other, to show a video in movement.
To represent a video, The computer will analyze data about the video like:

1. FPS (Frames per second)

2. Duration of the video
3. Image resolution (Number of pixels Horizontally X Vertically)
4. Bit depth (Number of bits required to represent a pixel -> number of colors)

A video is mostly combined with an audio component, like a film or a video game.

File extensions:

.mp4, .MOV, .AVI, etc.

Data Flow:
The data communication is divided into three types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that
unidirectional communication in which one device only receives and another
device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For
example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.
 Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a
bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at
the same time. When one device is sending data then another device is only receiving and
vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.

1. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it

is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive
data at the same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

Networks-Distributed processing:
Networking and distributed systems provide the infrastructure for computation,
communication and storage involving a heterogeneous and potentially large number of
people, hardware devices, and software processes.
Definition ofDistributed processing
Distributed processing cleverly divides processing tasks among numerous nodes within a
network. This smart allocation enables scalability, accessibility, outstanding performance,
reliability, and cost-effectiveness in data communication. As a result, data-driven applications
significantly enhance their functionality, dependability, and adaptability.

Types of Networks
PAN - A personal area network links electronic devices near a user's vicinity. A PAN can
range in size within a few meters. Both wired and wireless PAN network connections are
possible. A PAN's devices may communicate data with one another, but as most PANs lack a
router, they cannot directly access the Internet. On the other hand, a device within a PAN can
be linked to a local area network, which subsequently connects to the Internet.

Below mentioned are different types of networks:

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

 LAN (Local Area Network)

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 WAN (Wide Area Network)

What Is Local Area Network (LAN)?

The Local Area Network (LAN) is designed to connect multiple network devices and
systems within a limited geographical distance. The devices are connected using multiple
protocols for properly and efficiently exchanging data and services.

Advantages and Disadvantages of LAN Network

Advantages Disadvantages

Need constant administration of

Transmission of data and services is relatively higher
experienced engineers for
than other network connections.
functioning.

The Network Server acts as a central unit for the whole Probability of leak of sensitive data
network. by LAN administration.

What Is Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)?

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network type that covers the network
connection of an entire city or connection of a small area. The area covered by the network is
connected using a wired network, like data cables.
Advantages and Disadvantages of MAN Network:

Advantages Disadvantages

High probability of attack from

Provides Full-Duplex data transmission in the network
hackers and cybercriminals due to
channel for devices.
large networks.

The need for good quality

The network connection area covers an entire city or some
hardware and the installation cost
parts using the optic cables.
is very high.

What Is Wide Area Network (WAN)?

The Wide Area Network (WAN) is designed to connect devices over large distances like
states or between countries. The connection is wireless in most cases and uses radio towers
for communication.

The WAN network can be made up of multiple LAN and MAN networks.

Advantages and Disadvantages of WAN Network:

Advantages Disadvantages

High cost to set up the network and

This network covers a high geographical area and is used the Support of experienced
for large-distance connections. technicians is needed to maintain
the network.

It is difficult to prevent hacking and

They also use radio towers and connect channels for users.
debug a large network.
Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Basis LAN MAN WAN

Several computers
The WAN
LAN is a network that enables can be connected
network extends
the communication between to MAN in the
to a much
many linked devices. It is in same city or
greater area. It
Meaning charge of establishing separately. It
can link
connections among encompasses a
multiple
neighborhood units, including greater region,
countries
universities and schools. including minor
together.
towns and cities.

MAN can be
A single
either public or
LAN is a private and secured company may
Network private. A lot of
network. Hospitals, schools, not own WAN.
Authority businesses and
offices, etc., can own it. It can be private
telephone
or public.
companies could
own them.
 MAN provides a WAN provides
The Internet speed provided
Speed modest Internet a slow Internet
through LAN is fast.
connection speed. connection.

MAN's
WAN
maintenance is
Maintenance LAN maintenance is very easy. maintenance is
easier compared to
very difficult.
LAN.

Congestion is
more in WAN
Congestion is less in the LAN
Congestion It is more in MAN. when
network.
compared to
LAN and
MAN.

WAN
The bandwidth in LAN is very In MAN,
Bandwidth bandwidth is
high. bandwidth is less.
quite limited.

It isn't easy to It is
It is very easy to design a LAN
Designing design a complicated to
network.
MAN design WAN.
network.
Characteristics of These Networks

LAN

 LANs are simple to construct and maintain.

 To link the LAN networks, a centralized database is needed.

 A private owner owns the network.

MAN

 The geographical region covered exceeds that of LAN.

 Through this network, there is more than one computer connected.

WAN

 WAN covers the biggest region, comparable to a nation.

 WANs can be networked all over the world.

 Through phone lines or satellites, the networks are connected.

Benefits of These Networks

LAN

 Its main advantages are the local area network's rapid, simple setup and low cost.

 Keeping everything stored on the server safe and secure is done through data
protection.

 LAN model and established ethernet cabling allow a system linked to a LAN to
interact directly at a very high speed.

MAN

 MAN offers more security than WAN and is simpler to deploy.

  Due to MAN's lower resource requirements than WAN, MAN deployment costs
are lower than WAN. It reduces the cost of implementation.

 MANs may be controlled centrally, making network traffic monitoring and

control easier.

WAN

 WAN has a wide geographical coverage.

 The information connected to every device in the relevant network can be

shared through the WAN network.

Network Criteria :

A Network is a group of connected devices capable of communicating. The device can be a

computer, printer, or scanner that either receives or transmits data. The devices connected in
the Network are called "Nodes," and the means of connection can be wired or wireless.

This tutorial explains the criteria a computer network must attain to fulfill all the connected
nodes' needs properly.

There are a lot of criteria that make a network better than others, but; there are three basic yet
important criteria to be fulfilled for a network:

1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Security

Performance

It measures how well a network can support communication between two nodes in the
Network or with nodes of other networks in the global scope. The two major tasks in a
network are the Transmission and reception of information. We need to focus on how
fast a message is transmitted and how fast a node can receive a request and find the
needed information. Hence, to measure the performance of a network, here are the major
factors to be considered:

1. Transit time: The total time a node takes to transmit a message from the beginning
until the last character of the message. Transit stands for Transmission.
2. Response time: The total time a node takes to process an inquiry or a request from
another node/ device and respond. It is the time between the inquiry's end and the
response's beginning.
 3. Throughput: Throughput measures how much data is transferred successfully from
the sender node to the receiver node in a particular time frame. It is measured in bits
per second or data per second.
4. Bandwidth: The maximum possible throughput capacity of the Network. We can
measure it in bits, megabits, or gigabits per second. It defines the highest limit.
5. Delay/ Latency: As we discussed, Throughput is the number of data packets
successfully delivered in a given time. Delay is the measure of time taken to do the
delivery.

Physical Structures: Physical Topologies. There are three basic physical topologies: bus,
ring, and star.

In computer networking, physical structures refer to the tangible components and

infrastructure that make up a network. These physical elements provide the foundation for
data transmission and communication between devices within a network.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender
and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the
sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.
In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are
known as links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In
Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of
ports required by each device is 4. The total number of ports required = N * (N-
1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them
is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other,
hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among
the devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet
service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also
used in military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Mesh Topology.

Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be
passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time
the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many
popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e.
hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks
where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected
to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various
MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like
TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the
channel via drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines
are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid
this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted
Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected
to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television
networks. For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100
nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-
Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the
data.

Ring Topology

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from
one node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is
done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases
the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the
token after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the
whole topology.
 Less secure.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology.
Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration
) are used.

Tree Topology

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the
secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub
and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of
the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes)
of the company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing
different teams (grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the
hierarchy, connected to their respective managers and departments.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology.

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we
have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It
means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of
various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has
been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains
a combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling and network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may
have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a
switch or router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the
different rooms and offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for
wireless devices. This hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between
different buildings while providing flexibility and redundancy within each building.
Categories of Networks Interconnection of Networks:

There are two main types of interconnection networks: static and dynamic. When the
connections are hard-wired, fixed, and unchangeable it is a static network. Dynamic networks
make use of switches and allow for reconfiguration of the network even during the execution
of a parallel program.
 Direct connection networks − Direct networks have point-to-point connections
between neighboring nodes. These networks are static, which means that the point-to-
point connections are fixed. Some examples of direct networks are rings, meshes and
cubes.
 Indirect connection networks − Indirect networks have no fixed neighbors.
The communication topology can be changed dynamically based on the
application
 demands. Indirect networks can be subdivided into three parts: bus networks,
multistage networks and crossbar switches.
o Bus networks − A bus network is composed of a number of bit lines onto
which a number of resources are attached. When busses use the same
physical lines for data and addresses, the data and the address lines are time
multiplexed. When there are multiple bus-masters attached to the bus, an
arbiter is required.
o Multistage networks − A multistage network consists of multiple stages of
switches. It is composed of ‘axb’ switches which are connected using a
particular interstage connection pattern (ISC). Small 2x2 switch elements are a
common choice for many multistage networks. The number of stages
determine the delay of the network. By choosing different interstage
connection patterns, various types of multistage network can be created.
o Crossbar switches − A crossbar switch contains a matrix of simple switch
elements that can switch on and off to create or break a connection.
Turning on a switch element in the matrix, a connection between a
processor and a memory can be made. Crossbar switches are non-blocking,
that is all communication permutations can be performed without blocking.

Organizational Structure

Interconnection networks are composed of following three basic components −

 Links − A link is a cable of one or more optical fibers or electrical wires with a
connector at each end attached to a switch or network interface port. Through this,
an analog signal is transmitted from one end, received at the other to obtain the
original digital information stream.
 Switches − A switch is composed of a set of input and output ports, an internal
“cross-bar” connecting all input to all output, internal buffering, and control logic
to effect the input-output connection at each point in time. Generally, the number of
input ports is equal to the number of output ports.
 Network Interfaces − The network interface behaves quite differently than switch
nodes and may be connected via special links. The network interface formats the
packets and constructs the routing and control information. It may have input and
output buffering, compared to a switch. It may perform end-to-end error checking
and flow control. Hence, its cost is influenced by its processing complexity, storage
capacity, and number of ports.

The Internet- A Brief History, The Internet Today :

The Internet- A Brief History;
The United States Department of Defense created the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) in the late 1960s, which is when the internet first emerged.
TCP/IP and the birth of the internet protocol suite (1970s)

The transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) is a protocol framework created

in the 1970s that laid the groundwork for the current internet. TCP/IP offered a set of
uniform guidelines for sending and receiving data packets across networks, allowing various
kinds of
computers and networks to communicate without any problems. This innovation gave rise to
the internet protocol suite, which serves as the foundation of the internet.
Usenet and email’s development (1980s)

The internet saw considerable breakthroughs in communication technologies during the

1980s. During this period, email — a crucial element of contemporary online communication
— was developed. It improved worldwide connectedness by enabling users to send and
receive electronic messages through networks. A distributed discussion system called Usenet
was also created, allowing users to participate in newsgroups and exchange information on a
variety of subjects.
The World Wide Web (1990s)

With the creation of the World Wide Web (WWW), the 1990s were a transformative decade
in the history of the internet. British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee first proposed a
system of linked hypertext documents accessible via the internet.
In 1991, the first web page was published, and by 1993, web browsers like Mosaic and
Netscape Navigator had been created, making it more user-friendly to navigate the web.
E-commerce and the dot-com boom (late 1990s)

The dot-com boom — a time of explosive growth and investment in internet-based

businesses — occurred in the late 1990s. E-commerce flourished during this period, with big
players in online retail emerging, like Amazon and eBay. Advancements in web
technologies and the widespread use of secure online payment methods fueled the expansion
of online shopping, revolutionizing the buying and selling of goods and services.
The emergence of Web2 and social media (Early 2000s)

Social networking websites and the idea of Web2 came into existence in the 2000s.
MySpace, Facebook (now Meta) and Twitter, among other websites, transformed online
communication by enabling users to set up accounts, exchange information, and connect with
people all over the world.

Web2 promoted user-generated content, interaction, and collaboration, making the online
experience more interactive and dynamic. Additionally, cloud computing emerged in the
early 2000s, providing scalable, adaptable computing resources to individuals and
companies.
Remote data storage, access to processing power and the capacity to host applications were
all made available by services like Amazon Web Services (AWS) in 2006.
The Internet Today:
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)
Today's Internet operates over the common network layer datagram protocol, Internet
Protocol version 4 (IPv4). In the early 1990s, a new design of addressing scheme was
initiated within the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) due to the recognized
weaknesses of IPv4. The result was IPv6 (see Figure 14.7).
The single most significant advantage IPv6 offers is increased destination and source
addresses. IPv6 quadruples the number of network address bits from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128
bits, which provides more than enough globally unique IP addresses for every network
device on the planet.

IPv6 will allow a return to a global end-to-end environment where the addressing rules of the
network are transparent to applications. The current IP address space is unable to satisfy the
potentially large increase in number of users or the geographical needs of Internet expansion,
let alone the requirements of emerging applications such as Internet-enabled personal digital
assistants (PDAs), personal area networks (PANs), Internet-connected transportation,
integrated telephony services, and distributed gaming.
The success of IPv6 will depend ultimately on the innovative applications that run over IPv6.
A key part of IPv6 design is its ability to integrate into and coexist with existing IP networks.
IPv6 does not allow for fragmentation and reassembly at an intermediate router; these
operations can be performed only by the source and destination.
If an IPv6 datagram received by a router is too large to be forwarded over the outgoing link,
the router simply drops the datagram and sends a packet too big ICMP message back to
sender. The checksum field in IPv4 was considered redundant and was removed because the
transport layer and data link layer protocols perform checksum.

The Internet today interconnects a large number of computers and networks throughout the
world. There were 1 million such computers in early 1993, 5 million in 1995, 16 million in
1997, and over 50 million in 1999 organized in 2 million domains.
The Internet has its origin in the ARPANET network sponsored by the U.S. Department of
Defense starting in the 1960s. The ARPANET was a datagram store-and-forward network
that the Department of Defense liked for its ability to reroute packets around failures. This
feature makes datagram networks survivable. Another important objective of ARPANET
was to enable the interconnection of heterogeneous networks. The technical success of the
Internet is due to the large variety of applications (from.e-mail and telnet, to file transfer and
WWW) that IP can support on the one hand and, on the other hand, the many different
networks that can implement IP.
The Internet today comprises hundreds of thousands of local area networks (LANs)
worldwide, interconnected by a backbone wide area network (WAN). LANs typically
operate at rates of 10 to 100 Mbps. Until 1995 links of the WAN supported lower bit rates,
but the dramatic increase in traffic combined with the reduction in the cost of optical links
have increased backbone link rates to as much as 10 Gbps. To deal with these large link
rates, some network service providers deploy IP routers interconnected by ATM switched
networks.

Protocols, Standards, Standards and Organizations:

A protocol defines a set of rules used by two or more parties to interact between
themselves. A standard is a formalized protocol accepted by most of the parties that
implement it.

Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for exchange of
information among devices. It is important to follow Standards which are created by various
Standard Organization like IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.

A standards organization, standards body, standards developing organization (SDO), or

standards setting organization (SSO) is an organization whose primary function is
developing, coordinating, promulgating, revising, amending, reissuing, interpreting, or
otherwise contributing to the usefulness of technical standards ...
Different types of protocols are used for different types of communication.

In above diagrams Protocols are shown as set of rules . Such that Communication between
Sender and Receiver is not possible without Protocol.
Key Element of Protocol
 Syntax : syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data that gets exchanged
between the devices. Syntax of message includes the type of data, composition of
message and sequencing of message. The starting 8 bits of data is considered as the
address of the sender. The next 8 bits is considered to be the address of the receiver. The
remaining bits are considered as the message itself.
 Semantics : Semantics defines data transmitted between devices. It provides rules and
norms for understanding message or data element values and actions.
 Timing : Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination between devices while
transferring the data. Timing ensures at what time data should be sent and how fast data
can be sent. For example, If a sender sends 100 Mbps but the receiver can only handle 1
Mbps, the receiver will overflow and lose data. Timing ensures preventing data loss,
collisions and other timing related issues.
 Sequence control : Sequence control ensures the proper ordering of data packets. The
main responsibility of sequence control is to acknowledge the data while it get received,
and the retransmission of lost data. Through this mechanism the data is delivered in
correct order.
 Flow Control : Flow control regulates device data delivery. It limits the sender’s data or
asks the receiver if it’s ready for more. Flow control prevents data congestion and loss.
 Error Control : Error control mechanisms detect and fix data transmission faults. They
include error detection codes, data resend, and error recovery. Error control detects and
corrects noise, interference, and other problems to maintain data integrity.
 Security : Network security safeguards data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity.
which includes encryption, authentication, access control, and other security procedures.
Network communication’s privacy and trustworthiness are protected by security
standards.
Standards
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for exchange of
information among devices. It is important to follow Standards which are created by
various Standard Organization like IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.
Types of Standards
Standards are of two types :
 De Facto Standard.
 De Jure Standard.
De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or “By
Convention”.These are the standard s that have not been approved by any Organization ,
but have been adopted as Standards because of it’s widespread use. Also , sometimes
these standards are often established by Manufacturers.
For example : Apple and Google are two companies which established their own rules
on their products which are different . Also they use some same standard rules for
manufacturing for their products.
De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By
Regulations”.Thus , these are the standards that have been approved by officially
recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc. These are the standard which are important to
follow if it is required or needed.
For example : All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP , TCP , IP
, UDP etc. are important to follow the same when we needed them.
Types of Protocol
 Network Layer Protocols : Network layer protocols operate in the network layer which
is also known as the Layer 3 of the network architecture. Network layer protocols are
responsible for packet routing, forwarding and addressing of data packets throughout the
network . IP and ICMP are the network layer protocols.
 Transport layer Protocols : Transport layer protocols works in transport layer which
provides end-to-end service ensuring data transfer across apps on different
devices. TCP and UDP are the most popular transport layer protocols.
 Application Layer Protocol : Application layer protocol working in the application
layer of the network architecture provides communication between applications running
 on different devices. The application layer protocols enable cross-device
communication. They format, exchange, and interpret application data. HTTP, FTP, and
SMTP are examples.
 Wireless Protocols : Wireless protocols basically used in wireless communication
which enables data transfer through wireless networks. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE
protocols are examples.
 Routing Protocols : Routing protocol establishes the best/optimal network pathways
throughout the network for fastest data transmission. Routers share information to
develop and maintain routing tables. RIP, OSPF, and BGP are examples.
 Security Protocols : security protocol protects data confidentiality, integrity, and
authenticity while transmission of data over the network. They include SSL and TLS,
encryption methods, and authentication protocols for providing data security.
 Internet Protocols : IP identifies devices uniquely. Internet protocol provides data
communication through routing and forwarding data packets from one device to another
by unique addressing scheme.
Protocol and Standard Compliance in Network Security
Protocol and standard compliance protects data, resources, and networks. Protocol and
standard compliance are crucial to network security for these reasons:
 Interoperability : Protocols and standards allow devices and systems to communicate.
These protocols ensure network components can function together, avoiding risks and
security gaps produced by incompatible or unsupported systems.
 Security Baseline : Protocols and standards contain security principles and best
practices that help secure network infrastructure. These protocols allow organizations to
protect sensitive data via encryption, authentication, and access controls.
 Vulnerability Management : Network security protocols and standards help
organizations find and fix vulnerabilities. Many standards requires regular security
assessments, vulnerability scanning, and penetration testing to discover network
infrastructure flaws. Organizations can prevent cyberattacks and address vulnerabilities
by following these compliance criteria.

Standards and Organizations:

Data communication refer as the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
Transmission media such as cable ,wire or it can be air or vacuum.

DATA COMMUNICATION

Standard Organizations for Data Communication :

1) International Standard Organization (ISO) –
ISO is the International Organization for Standardization. It creates set of rules and
standards for graphics , document exchange , data communication etc.
2) Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT) –
CCITT is now standard organization for the United States. CCITT developer’s
recommended set of rules and standards for telephone and telegraph communication.
It has developed 3 set of specifications :
 V Series for Modern Interfacing.
 X series for Data Communication.
 Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN).
3) American National Standard Institute (ANSI) –
ANSI is primary organization for fostering the development of technology standards in the
United States and providing various set of rules and standard for Data Communication.
4) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (IEEE) –
It is US based professional organization of electronic , computer and communication
engineering. It provides various set of rules and standard in communication and networking
field.
5) Electronic Industries Association(EIA) –
This organization establish and recommends industrial standards. EIA has developed the
RS(Recommended Standards) series of Standards for data and telecommunication.
6) Standard Council of Canada (SCC) –
It is an official Standard Agency for Canada . It has Similar responsibilities as ANSI has.

Internet Standards:

Internet standard is a set of rules that the devices have to follow when they connect in a
network. All Internet Standards are given a number in the STD series. The series was
summarized in its first document, STD 1 (RFC 5000), until 2013, but this practice was retired
in RFC 7100.

The standardization process is divided into three steps:

1. Proposed standards are standards to be implemented and can be changed at any time
2. The draft standard was carefully tested in preparation for riverside to form the
future Internet standard
3. Internet standards are mature standards.
Network Models:
The OSI/ISO and TCP/IP models serve as fundamental frameworks for understanding
network communication and data transfer. While the OSI model provides a comprehensive
reference for communication between systems, TCP/IP forms the backbone of the internet
Layered Tasks:

In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into small
tasks. Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to
process the task only. Every layer does only specific work.
In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals with the task done by or to be
done by its peer layer at the same level on the remote host. The task is either initiated by
layer at the lowest level or at the top most level. If the task is initiated by the-top most layer,
it is passed on to the layer below it for further processing. The lower layer does the same
thing, it processes the task and passes on to lower layer. If the task is initiated by lower most
layer, then the reverse path is taken.

Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires to execute
its piece of task. All layers identify their counterparts by means of encapsulation header and
tail.

OSI Model

Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI model is
established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has seven layers:
  Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the
application user. This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with the
user.
 Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote
host should be presented in the native format of host.
 Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For example,
once user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains this session
for a while and does not ask for authentication again in that time span.
 Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.
 Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely
addressing hosts in a network.
 Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from
and onto the line. Link errors are detected at this layer.
 Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power output, pulse
rate etc.
Internet Model

Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines Internet Model
which contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general communication model but
Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its communication.The internet is independent
of its underlying network architecture so is its Model. This model has the following layers:
  Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact
with the network.For example, FTP, HTTP etc.
 Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts. Major
protocol at this layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures
data delivered between hosts is in-order and is responsible for end-to-end delivery.
 Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer facilitates
host addressing and recognition. This layer defines routing.
 Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual
data.Unlike its OSI Model counterpart, this layer is independent of
underlying network architecture and hardware.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible
for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the
Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking
on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link
layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-
link layer protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers.
 IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently.
But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware
address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy
ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols
that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from
one device to another across a network.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-
end communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were
physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-
by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes
the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the
connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer
protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP.
Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it
eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-
end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications
from the complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers.
HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket
Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
1. NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on
our computer to one standard time source
2. Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is transferred reliably
between hosts by using techniques like error correction and flow control. For example, if
a packet of data is lost during transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the
packet be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for breaking up
large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be transmitted over the network, and
then reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to be transmitted more
efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the network.
3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for
multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single network connection, and then
 demultiplexing the data at the destination. This allows multiple devices to share the
same network connection and helps to improve the utilization of the network.
4. End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-oriented
service that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-end, without the need
for intermediate devices to be involved in the communication.

Addressing Introduction:

o Network Addressing is one of the major responsibilities of the network layer.

o Network addresses are always logical, i.e., software-based addresses.
o A host is also known as end system that has one link to the network. The boundary
between the host and link is known as an interface. Therefore, the host can have only
one interface.
o A router is different from the host in that it has two or more links that connect to it.
When a router forwards the datagram, then it forwards the packet to one of the links.
The boundary between the router and link is known as an interface, and the router can
have multiple interfaces, one for each of its links. Each interface is capable of sending
and receiving the IP packets, so IP requires each interface to have an address.
o Each IP address is 32 bits long, and they are represented in the form of "dot-decimal
notation" where each byte is written in the decimal form, and they are separated by
the period. An IP address would look like 193.32.216.9 where 193 represents the
decimal notation of first 8 bits of an address, 32 represents the decimal notation of
second 8 bits of an address.

Let's understand through a simple example.

o In the above figure, a router has three interfaces labeled as 1, 2 & 3 and each router
interface contains its own IP address.
 o Each host contains its own interface and IP address.
o All the interfaces attached to the LAN 1 is having an IP address in the form of
223.1.1.xxx, and the interfaces attached to the LAN 2 and LAN 3 have an IP address
in the form of 223.1.2.xxx and 223.1.3.xxx respectively.
o Each IP address consists of two parts. The first part (first three bytes in IP address)
specifies the network and second part (last byte of an IP address) specifies the host in
the network.

Addressing

An IP address is 32-bit long. An IP address is divided into sub-classes:

o Class A
o Class B
o Class C
o Class D
o Class E

An ip address is divided into two parts:

o Network ID: It represents the number of networks.

o Host ID: It represents the number of hosts.

In the above diagram, we observe that each class have a specific range of IP addresses. The
class of IP address is used to determine the number of bits used in a class and number of
networks and hosts available in the class.
Class A

In Class A, an IP address is assigned to those networks that contain a large number of hosts.

o The network ID is 8 bits long.

o The host ID is 24 bits long.

In Class A, the first bit in higher order bits of the first octet is always set to 0 and the
remaining 7 bits determine the network ID. The 24 bits determine the host ID in any network.

The total number of networks in Class A = 27 = 128 network address

The total number of hosts in Class A = 224 - 2 = 16,777,214 host address

Class B

In Class B, an IP address is assigned to those networks that range from small-sized to large-
sized networks.

o The Network ID is 16 bits long.

o The Host ID is 16 bits long.

In Class B, the higher order bits of the first octet is always set to 10, and the remaining14 bits
determine the network ID. The other 16 bits determine the Host ID.

The total number of networks in Class B = 214 = 16384 network address

The total number of hosts in Class B = 216 - 2 = 65534 host address

Class C

In Class C, an IP address is assigned to only small-sized networks.

o The Network ID is 24 bits long.

o The host ID is 8 bits long.

In Class C, the higher order bits of the first octet is always set to 110, and the remaining 21
bits determine the network ID. The 8 bits of the host ID determine the host in a network.
The total number of networks = 221 = 2097152 network address

The total number of hosts = 28 - 2 = 254 host address

Class D

In Class D, an IP address is reserved for multicast addresses. It does not possess subnetting.
The higher order bits of the first octet is always set to 1110, and the remaining bits
determines the host ID in any network.

Class E

In Class E, an IP address is used for the future use or for the research and development
purposes. It does not possess any subnetting. The higher order bits of the first octet is always
set to 1111, and the remaining bits determines the host ID in any network.

Wireless Links and Network Characteristics:

Attenuation,Path loss, Multi path propagation, CRC error detection, SNR, Bit error rate,
Hiddenterminal problem, Fading,

Channel Partitioning protocols: CDMA, Chipping rate

characteristics: Wireless communication links have several special characteristics that

differentiate them from wired communication links. These characteristics include: Mobility:
Wireless communication links allow for mobile communication, where the user can move
around freely while staying connected to the network.

A number of important differences between a wired link and a wireless link:

wired link:

 Decreasing signal strength

 Interference from other sources:
 Multipath propagation:

Wireless :

The host receives an electromagnetic signal that is a combination of a degraded form of the
original signal transmitted by the sender and background noise in the environment.
o The Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
 BER = Bit error rate

802.11 Wireless LANs- The 802.11 Architecture:

The IEEE 802.11 standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, outlines the architecture and defines
the MAC and physical layer specifications for wireless LANs (WLANs). Wi-Fi uses high-
frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN.
The term 802.11x is also used to denote the set of standards. Various specifications and
amendments include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11e, 802.11g, 802.11n etc.
Important Terminologies of IEEE 802.11

Station: Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected to the
wireless LAN. It can be of two types:
 Wireless Access Point (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are wireless routers
that bridge connections for base stations.
 Client: Examples include computers, laptops, printers, and smartphones.
Access Point: It is a device that can be classified as a station because of its functionalities
and acts as a connection between wireless medium and distributed systems.
Distribution System: A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and integrated LANs to
create an ESS.
Frame: It is a MAC protocol data unit.
SSID (Service Set Identifier): It’s the network name for a particular WLAN. All-access
points and devices on a specific WLAN must use the same SSID to communicate.
SDU: It is a data unit that acts as an input to each layer. These can be fragmented or
aggregated to form a PDU.
PDU: It is a data unit projected as an output to communicate with the corresponding layer
at the other end. They contain a header specific to the layer.
Network Interface Controller: It is also known as network interface card. It is a hardware
component that connects devices to the network.
Basic Service Set
The Basic Service Set configuration consists of a group of stations and relies on an Access
Point (AP), which serves as a logical hub. Stations from different BSSs interact through the
AP, which functions as a bridge, linking multiple WLAN cells or channels.
Operating Modes
Depending upon the mode of operation, BSS can be categorized into the following types:
 Infrastructure BSS: Communication between stations takes place through access
points. The AP and its associated wireless clients define the coverage area and form the
BSS.
 Infrastructure BSS

 Independent BSS – Supports mutual communication between wireless clients. An ad-

hoc network is spontaneously created and does not support access to wired networks.

Independent BSS

Independent Basic Service Set

In the IBSS configuration, also referred to as independent configuration or ad-hoc network,
no single node is required to act as a server. The stations communicate directly with one
another in a peer-to-peer basis. Generally, IBSS covers a limited area instead of a large
network. Typically covering a specific area, IBSS is used for specific, short-term purposes
with a limited number of nodes.
Extended Service Set
ESS connects multiple BSSs and consists of several BSS cells, which can be interlinked
through wired or wireless backbones known as a distributed system. Multiple cells use the
same channel to boost aggregate throughput to network. The equipment outside of the ESS,
the ESS and all of its mobile stations comprise a single MAC layer network where all
stations are virtually stationary. Thus, all stations within the ESS appear stationary from an
outsider’s perspective.
Other components include:
 Distribution System (DS): Links APs within the ESS.
 Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks.
 Architecture for IEEE 802.11 Configuration

 Roaming: In an environment with multiple access points (like a large office building or
campus), a device can move from the range of one AP to another and still maintain its
connection. This is possible due to the underlying architecture of the IEEE 802.11
standard which allows for roaming between APs.
 Authentication and Association: Before a station can send or receive data frames on a
WLAN, it needs to establish its identity with an AP. This process is called
authentication. After authentication, the station then establishes a data link-layer
connection with the AP through a process called association.
Frame Format of IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 MAC layer data frame consists of 9 fields:

Frame Format for IEEE 802.11

 Frame Control
It is 2 bytes long and defines type of frame and control information. The types of fields
present in FC are:
 Version: Indicates the current protocol version.
 Type: Determines the function of frame i.e. management(00), control(01) or data(10).
 Subtype: Indicates subtype of frame like 0000 for association request, 1000 for beacon.
 To DS: When set indicates that the destination frame is for DS(distribution system).
 From DS: When set indicates frame coming from DS.
 More frag (More fragments): When set to 1 means frame is followed by other
fragments.
 Retry: If the current frame is a re-transmission of an earlier frame, this bit is set to 1.
 Power Mgmt (Power Management): It indicates the mode of a station after successful
transmission of a frame. Set to ‘1’ field indicates that the station goes into power-save
mode. If the field is set to 0, the station stays active.
 More data: It is used to indicate to the receiver that a sender has more data to send than
the current frame.
 WEP: It indicates that the standard security mechanism of 802.11 is applied.
 Order: If this bit is set to 1 the received frames must be processed in strict order.

Duration / ID
It contains the value indicating the period of time in which the medium is occupied (in µs).
Address 1 to 4
These fields contain standard IEEE 802 MAC addresses (48 bit each). The meaning of each
address is defined by DS bits in the frame control field.
SC (Sequence Control)
It consists of 2 sub-fields i.e. sequence number (12 bits) and fragment number (4 bits).
Sequence number is used to filter duplicate frames.
Data
It is a variable length field which contains information specific to individual frames which
is transferred transparently from a sender to the receiver.
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
It contains 32 bit CRC error detection sequence to ensure error free frame.
Advantages and Disadvantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture

Advantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture

 Fault Tolerance: The centralized architecture minimizes the bottlenecks and introduces
resilience in the WLAN equipment.
 Flexible Architecture: Supports both temporary smaller networks and larger, more
permanent ones.
 Prolonged Battery Life: Efficient power-saving protocols extend mobile device battery
life without compromising network connections.
Disadvantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 Noisy Channels: Due to reliance on radio waves, signals may experience interference
from nearby devices.
 Greater Bandwidth and Complexity: Due to necessary data encryption and
susceptibility to errors, WLANs need more bandwidth than their wired counterparts.
 Speed: Generally, WLANs offer slower speeds compared to wired LANs.
Applications of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
 Home Networking: Connecting devices, laptops, smart TVs, speakers, gaming consoles
etc.
 Wi-Fi Hotspots: Free or paid internet access to visitors in coffee shops, hotels, airports,
malls and restaurants.
 Connectivity in Campus: Provide internet access in university, colleges, schools or
corporate campuses.