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THE HISTORY OF SCOTTISH THEOLOGY
The History of Scottish Theology, Volume I
Celtic Origins to Reformed Orthodoxy
The History of Scottish Theology, Volume II
The Early Enlightenment to the Late Victorian Era
The History of Scottish Theology, Volume III
The Long Twentieth Century
 EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

PROFESSOR ALEXANDER BROADIE

(University of Glasgow)
PROFESSOR STEWART J. BROWN
(University of Edinburgh)
PROFESSOR SUSAN HARDMAN MOORE
(University of Edinburgh)
PROFESSOR COLIN KIDD
(University of St Andrews)
PROFESSOR DONALD MACLEOD
(Edinburgh Theological Seminary)
PROFESSOR CHARLOTTE METHUEN
(University of Glasgow)
PROFESSOR MARGO TODD
(University of Pennsylvania)
PROFESSOR IAIN TORRANCE
(University of Aberdeen)
The History of Scottish
Theology
Volume I

Celtic Origins to Reformed Orthodoxy

Edited by
DAVID FERGUSSON
and
MARK W. ELLIOTT

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
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 Acknowledgements

We wish to record our thanks to several people who have assisted with the
production of this three-volume work. Dr Sandy Forsyth has provided valuable
support with contracts, organization of conferences, and regular communication
with authors. As associate editor, he has contributed much to this project and we
are greatly indebted to him for his labours. Initial copy editing was undertaken by
Dr Cory Brock, Revd Craig Meek, and Dr Laura Mair. Three conferences were
held which enabled contributors to present initial drafts of their work; these were
held in 2016–17 at Princeton Theological Seminary and New College, Edinburgh
with financial support from the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council. We
are also grateful to the members of the Editorial Advisory Board for their advice
and encouragement, particularly during the early stages of the project.
David Fergusson and Mark W. Elliott
 List of Contributors

Alexander Broadie is an honorary professorial research fellow at Glasgow University and

Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He has been Henry Duncan prize lecturer in
Scottish studies at the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Gifford Lecturer in Natural Theology at
Aberdeen University, and Professor of Logic and Rhetoric at Glasgow University. He is the
author of some twenty books, most of them on the Scottish philosophical tradition.
Simon J. G. Burton is the John Laing Senior Lecturer in Reformation History at the
University of Edinburgh. His published work includes The Hallowing of Logic: The Trini-
tarian Method of Richard Baxter’s Methodus Theologiae (2012). He has also co-edited
Nicholas of Cusa and the Making of the Early Modern World (2019) and published articles
in journals such as Reformation and Renaissance Review, Ecclesiology, and History of
Universities, as well as a number of book chapters.
Euan Cameron is Henry Luce III Professor of Reformation Church History at Union
Theological Seminary in New York City, and Professor of Religion at Columbia University.
His books include The European Reformation (1991, 2nd edition 2012), Waldenses (2000),
Interpreting Christian History (2005), Enchanted Europe (2010), and the edited works Early
Modern Europe: An Oxford History (1999), The New Cambridge History of the Bible vol. III
(2016), and The Annotated Luther vol. 6: The Interpretation of Scripture (2017). He is a
priest in the Episcopal Church of the USA.
Richard Cross has been John A. O’Brien Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre
Dame since 2007. Before that, he was Professor of Medieval Theology at the University of
Oxford, and a Fellow of Oriel College. He is the author of seven monographs on medieval
philosophy and on the history of theology, including The Metaphysics of the Incarnation:
Thomas Aquinas to Duns Scotus (2002) and Duns Scotus on God (2005). He has also written
over one hundred articles on subjects ranging from Patristic theology to Disability Studies.
Peter Damian-Grint is a member of the Adam of Dryburgh research group at the
University of Glasgow. He is also an honorary research fellow in history at the University
of St Andrews. His works include The New Historians of the Twelfth-Century Renaissance:
Inventing Vernacular Authority (1999).
Aaron Clay Denlinger is Department Chair in Latin at Arma Dei Academy, Colorado and
Adjunct Professor of Church History at Westminster Theological Seminary, Pennsylvania.
His publications include the edited volume Reformed Orthodoxy in Scotland: Essays on
Scottish Theology 1560–1775 (2015).
Martin Holt Dotterweich is Professor of History at King University in Bristol, Tennessee,
where he also serves as Director of the King Institute for Faith and Culture. Among his
publications on the early Scottish Reformation is the edited booklet George Wishart
Quincentennial Conference Proceedings (2014).
x   

James Eglinton is Meldrum Lecturer in Reformed Theology at New College, University of

Edinburgh. He holds degrees in law and theology, and a PhD in systematic theology. He is
the author of Trinity and Organism (2012) and works primarily on the Dutch neo-Calvinist
tradition.

Marie-Luise Ehrenschwendtner was educated at Munich and Tübingen Universities. At

Tübingen, she wrote her PhD thesis on The Education of Dominican Sisters in Southern
Germany from the Thirteenth to the Fifteenth Centuries (Die Bildung der Dominikanerinnen
in Süddeutschland vom 13. bis 15. Jahrhundert). She is Lecturer in Church History at the
University of Aberdeen. Her main research area is medieval female monastic piety and
practical devotion. In recent years, she has also explored the spirituality of theologians in
north-east Scotland, who were deeply influenced by medieval and early modern continental
mysticism.
Mark W. Elliott, formerly Professor of Historical and Biblical Theology at the University of
St Andrews at St Mary’s College, School of Divinity has been since February 2019 Professor
of Divinity at the University of Glasgow. Glaswegian by birth, he was further educated at
Oxford, Aberdeen, and Cambridge, where he wrote a PhD on The Song of Songs and
Christology in the Early Church. His main focus is the relationship between biblical
exegesis and Christian doctrine, both ancient and modern, but has a particular interest in
Scottish theology in its international context.

David Fergusson is Professor of Divinity at the University of Edinburgh. He is a Fellow of

the Royal Society of Edinburgh and a Fellow of the British Academy. His publications
include The Providence of God: A Polyphonic Approach (2018).

Whitney G. Gamble is Associate Professor of Biblical and Theological Studies at Provi-

dence Christian College in Pasadena, CA. She received her PhD in Historical and System-
atic Theology from the University of Edinburgh. Her published work includes Christ and
the Law: Antinomianism at the Westminster Assembly (2018).

Giovanni Gellera is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Lausanne. He received his

PhD from the University of Glasgow in 2012, and was a Visiting Fellow at the University of
Fribourg and the University of Edinburgh. His research expertise is in the relations between
scholasticism and early modern philosophy, from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment.
His major work is the critical edition and translation of the manuscript Idea Philosophiae
Moralis (1679) by James Dundas (forthcoming, with Alexander Broadie).
Thomas M. Green is a former postgraduate and doctoral candidate at the School of
Divinity, University of Edinburgh, a former British Academy Postdoctoral Fellow at the School
of Law, University of Edinburgh, and a former Honorary Research Fellow at the School of Law,
University of Glasgow.
Ian Hazlett was educated in history and divinity at universities in Belfast, St Andrews,
Strasbourg, and Münster (Westphalia) where he did his doctorate in theology. After
research posts in Geneva and Paris, followed by a lectureship in church history at Aberdeen,
he moved to Glasgow where he later became Professor of Ecclesiastical History, and
Principal of Trinity College. Currently Honorary Professorial Research Fellow at Glasgow
    xi

University, his research interests and publications have been mostly in the area of
Reformation history and theology, especially text-critical editing of primary sources includ-
ing ones for the Opera Latina of Martin Bucer, Reformierte Bekenntisschriften, and the new
expanded edition of Conciliorum oecumenicorum generaliunque decreta. He is chief editor
of the international journal, Reformation & Renaissance Review.

Stephen Mark Holmes is Rector of Padstow, St Merryn and St Issey with St Petroc Minor in
Cornwall, an Honorary Fellow at Edinburgh University School of Divinity, and teaches at
the Scottish Episcopal Institute. He is a graduate of the universities of St Andrews,
Maynooth, and Edinburgh and has published books and articles on church history, liturgy,
and historical theology.
David G. Mullan retired at the end of 2016 as Professor of History and Religious Studies
from Cape Breton University in Sydney, Nova Scotia. He is the author or editor of eight
books, including Scottish Puritanism (2000) and Narratives of the Religious Self in Early-
Modern Scotland (2010). He has also prepared sixteen journal articles and book chapters
in multi-authored volumes. In retirement, he lives with his wife and near their family in
St Albert, Alberta.
Stephen G. Myers is Professor of Historical Theology at Puritan Reformed Theological
Seminary in Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA. Previously, he served as a pastor in the
Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church. His publications include Scottish Federalism
and Covenantalism in Transition: The Theology of Ebenezer Erskine (2015).
Thomas O’Loughlin is Professor of Historical Theology in the University of Nottingham
and a specialist in tracing how Latin theology developed in the aftermath of Augustine. In
this quest he has paid particular attention to the practice of theology in the British Isles and
how writers received theological questions and models from late antiquity, transformed
them, and then bequeathed them to the university theologians. He is the Director of Studia
Traditionis Theologiae.

Guy M. Richard is Executive Director and Assistant Professor of Systematic Theology at

Reformed Theological Seminary in Atlanta, GA. He holds a B.I.E. from Auburn University,
a M.Div. from RTS, and a PhD from the University of Edinburgh. Before moving into his
current position, he served as the Senior Minister of the First Presbyterian Church in
Gulfport, Mississippi (PCA), for almost twelve years. He is the author of three books,
including The Supremacy of God in the Theology of Samuel Rutherford (2008) and many
articles on Reformation and Post-Reformation theology.
Lydia Schumacher is Reader in Historical and Philosophical Theology in the Department
of Theology and Religious Studies at King’s College London. From 2017–2021 she holds a
major grant from the European Research Council for research on the early Franciscan
intellectual tradition. Previously, she held posts at the University of Edinburgh and
University of Oxford, where she was also a British Academy Postdoctoral Fellow. She has
written four monographs: Theological Philosophy (2015), Rationality as Virtue (2015),
Divine Illumination: The History and Future of Augustine’s Theory of Knowledge (2011),
and Authority and Innovation in Early Franciscan Thought (2019).
xii   

John T. Slotemaker is Associate Professor of Medieval Christianity at Fairfield University.

He has co-authored Robert Holcot (2016) and co-edited A Companion to the Theology of
John Mair (2015) and Augustine in Late Medieval Philosophy and Theology (2017) with
Jeffrey C. Witt. Professor Slotemaker recently completed Anselm of Canterbury and the
Search for God (2018). The focus of his research is the development of late medieval
Trinitarian theology and the influence of medieval thought on the sixteenth-century era
of Reform.
R. Scott Spurlock is Senior Lecturer in Scottish Religious Cultures at the University of
Glasgow, the only designated Scottish church history post in the world. He is editor of the
peer-reviewed journal Scottish Church History, co-editor of the book series Scottish Reli-
gious Cultures: Historical Perspectives (Edinburgh University Press) and Christianities in the
Trans-Atlantic World (2016), and author of Cromwell and Scotland: Conquest and Religion,
1650–1660 (2007).
Iain R. Torrance is honorary professor in Early Christian Doctrine and Ethics at the
University of Edinburgh. He is a professor emeritus of Princeton Theological Seminary, a
former moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and president
emeritus of Princeton Theological Seminary. He is the author of several books including
Christology after Chalcedon (1998). He was also the co-editor of the Scottish Journal of
Theology from 1982–2015.
 1
Scottish Theology
Contexts and Traditions
David Fergusson and Mark W. Elliott

This three-volume study of the history of Scottish theology begins with the
monastic period prior to the foundation of the universities and concludes around
the end of the twentieth century. In covering fifteen hundred years of theological
work, we have sought to combine breadth of coverage with selection of key themes
and writers. Inevitably, this has resulted in some difficult decisions about inclusion
and exclusion; but our central aim has been to provide a synoptic view of Scottish
theology that is more comprehensive and diverse than any previous scholarly
effort. We have resisted the temptation to work with a ‘great men’ approach to
the subject by concentrating on contexts, themes, and texts. Some of those
contexts are far from well known, for many major movements and trends in
Scottish church history and history remain under-researched. However, the
point of our project is not to foreground church history as res gestae but instead
to situate Scottish theology through the generations. While contextual work is
necessary to understand the meaning of the key concepts and themes in the text,
we have sought wherever possible to let the texts as theological works speak for
themselves.
Hitherto, we have lacked a useful textbook treatment of Scottish theology
that affords a clear and scholarly guide to the various movements, controversies,
figures, and outputs. Now a period piece, James Walker’s The Theology and
Theologians of Scotland, chiefly of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
(Cunningham Lectures; revised edition, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1888) is almost
part of the history itself. Some of Walker’s insights one might characterize as
‘antinomian evangelical’, e.g. he criticizes James Fraser of Brea and the Marrow-
men for believing that God was ‘necessitated’ to atone for sin. Although there are
other important one-volume studies to which we remain indebted (Macleod 1943;
Drummond and Bulloch 1973, 1975, 1978), the history of Scottish theology has
not been properly narrated with sufficient attention to its diversity and breadth,
nor updated for at least a generation. And, given the progress that has been made
in the study of other areas of Scottish culture—history, literature, and
philosophy—the time is now overdue for a similarly concerted treatment of our
theological traditions.

David Fergusson and Mark W. Elliott, Scottish Theology: Contexts and Traditions. In: The History
of Scottish Theology Volume I: Celtic Origins to Reformed Orthodoxy. Edited by David Fergusson
and Mark W. Elliott, Oxford University Press (2019). © Oxford University Press.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198759331.003.0001
2     . 

Three recent models have also helped shape our thinking. First, T. F. Torrance’s
Scottish Theology (1996) offers a book-length treatment of the continuous stream
of Scottish theology over almost four centuries, while also bringing to light long-
buried treasures. At the heart of the Scottish Reformation, not least in the Scots
Confession of 1560, Torrance discerns a devout and pronounced Christocentrism.
Yet within a generation the truly evangelical stream (as Torrance would see it) had
gone largely underground, though it was still observable in John Davidson of
Saltoun’s Catechism, the Aberdeen Forbeses, in some of the works of Samuel
Rutherford and James Fraser of Brea (d. 1689)—a warrior in the lists against
‘limited atonement’—the Marrowmen, and those who might be called ‘Romantic
Presbyterians’ such as Thomas Erskine, Edward Irving, and John McLeod Camp-
bell. Torrance himself burrowed into the texts of this tradition and his method
displays a commendable critical empathy with his own Scottish theological heri-
tage. He found it regrettable that so often ‘the focus is not so much upon Christ
himself as upon (a) doctrines, with attention given to reasoning out their inner
connections with a view to deepening and clarifying believers’ grasp of their truth
on the solid ground of four “warrants to believe”, and (b) upon probing into the
ground and sincerity of personal convictions and testing whether they reveal
evidences of true faith in the soul and of their personal reconciliation with God’
(Torrance 1996: 121). This intense and pugnacious engagement of Scottish theo-
logical traditions is much indebted to biblical interpretation, spirituality, and a
strong missiological impulse. But it suffers arguably from a binary distinction
between a pure Reformed tradition and its later declension in Reformed ortho-
doxy. Since the appearance of Torrance’s work, there has been a re-evaluation not
only of ‘Puritan theology’ (by Richard Muller et al.), but also of Enlightenment
theology, in which reason and faith are viewed as having a more harmonious
relationship, together with a revisioning of the Romanticism (and Idealism) that
buoyed Scottish theology in its ‘silver age’ through the nineteenth and into the
twentieth century. In any case, while Torrance’s work begins in the early modern
era and concludes in the mid-Victorian age, this present work will cover a
significantly broader chronological span.
A second precursor was the production of the Dictionary of Scottish Church and
Theology (1993), largely through the leadership and scholarly acumen of David
F. Wright. Although its style was more akin to reportage, partly because of its
genre as a work of reference, it included longer and more evaluative essays
(e.g. Andrew Walls’ magisterial survey of ‘missions’). Yet its welcome exposure
of the breadth and richness of Scottish theology has set down a marker for further
scholarly activity, even if its slant was towards Presbyterianism, with only a few
worthwhile but hardly sufficient nods to Catholicism and Episcopalianism. Our
present project is more in-depth and selective, yet with greater ecumenical
breadth. Its multiple and diverse authorship has ensured the absence of a single
history of one grand narrative, whether of rise and fall, progressive maturation or
  :    3

prolonged struggle between orthodox and heterodox trends. The dictionary and
edited collection formats are complementary in many respects and our hope is
that the emergence of this present collection may eventually facilitate a new
edition of the Dictionary by T&T Clark.
Third, recent work on the history of Scottish philosophy, also published by
Oxford University Press (Garrett and Harris 2015; Graham 2015), has revealed the
extent of academic interest in thinkers many of whom had close links with the
Scottish church in one or other of its branches. This applies not only to Thomas
Reid and his associates, but also to other scholars, including David Hume whose
more sceptical work cannot be understood apart from the proximity of Scottish
philosophy to the Kirk. One might conclude that a revealed theology structured
around the Bible and the Westminster Confession was supplanted by a natural or
moral theology concentrated on practical matters. Instead of election, sin, atone-
ment, and effectual calling, the focus shifted to providence, ethics, and an afterlife
of reward and punishment. Yet the moderate theology that emerged in the
Enlightenment reflected distinctive Reformed elements, in particular its ethical
preoccupations and stress on our epistemological limitations. Though in some
ways distinct, the stories of theology and of philosophy have largely been inter-
twined for most of the period under review.
The construction of our three volumes has been governed by several editorial
decisions. First, we have resolved to interpret ‘Scottish’ with a degree of latitude.
As a result, we have sought to include all significant work that has been under-
taken within Scotland (i.e. anything undertaken north of the River Tweed to the
Orkney and Shetland Islands), the work of those who came from Scotland but
plied their theological trade elsewhere (e.g. Richard of St Victor, Duns Scotus,
P. T. Forsyth, and John Macquarrie), the extensive crossover with Ireland, and
also those who divided their careers between Scotland and other parts of the
world. In particular, we explore in later volumes the Scottish diaspora in other
English-speaking locations (Australasia and North America) and in missionary
activity in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Second, we have sought to avoid an
exclusive concentration on the universities. Much important theological work has
taken place outside the state-funded institutions in colleges, churches, manses,
and by freelance writers. Less familiar voices need to be heard, including those of
women who were prevented from preaching and teaching but whose theological
convictions were expressed in poetry and hymnody. Third, we have become
increasingly mindful of the importance of looking back to the richness of the
medieval period and beyond the post-Reformation Presbyterian churches to
consider other traditions. Tom McInally has described the Scots Colleges in
Europe as Scotland’s sixth university, a reminder that Scottish Catholics found
their theological voice often outside Scotland but in ways that were significant for
the enrichment of church life on home soil (McInally 2011). Hence, other
traditions—independent, Episcopalian, and Congregational—are also considered.
4     . 

Fourth, we have sought to balance a stress on key theological figures with the study
of movements, themes, and challenges. So for example while we profile familiar
figures such as Scotus, Mair, Knox, Melville, Rutherford, McLeod Campbell,
Robertson Smith, and Torrance we also consider inter alia the sacraments,
spiritual practice, the atonement, biblical criticism, Darwinism, slavery, the
Gifford Lectures, and feminism. Finally, we have resolved to consider more
popular expressions of theology that had a wide impact upon church and society,
perhaps more so than some academic efforts. Several essays are devoted to
theological media—Bible translation, liturgy, art, reference works, popular writ-
ing, and some of the most important figures in the canon of Scottish literature—all
of which represent the expression and reception of theology.
One question that arises is whether there is a distinctively Scottish theology,
analogous to Scottish philosophy. Gordon Graham and Alexander Broadie have
pointed to ways in which there is a continuous Scottish philosophical tradition
from the time of Hume and Reid until at least the early twentieth century (Broadie
2009: 1–6; Graham 2015: 303–22). This can be defined narrowly or broadly.
On one reckoning, it can be considered in terms of allegiance to a single doctrine
regarding the so-called principles of common sense—‘a spiritualistic philosophy,
cautious and measured, designed to meet scepticism’ (Davidson 1925: 261)—or to
a shared set of convictions that exclude idealism and other speculative trends
(McCosh 1875: 2–6). More capaciously understood, Scottish philosophy repre-
sents a tradition spanning a time period from about the late seventeenth century
(when the first chair of philosophy was established in Glasgow) to about the
middle of the twentieth century. Within this more broadly conceived tradition,
philosophy is characterized by a common set of questions, an acknowledged set of
resources, and an institutional context in which its study was a required compo-
nent within a broad curriculum. As a moral project, moreover, philosophy was
tasked with equipping students with skills of knowledge and wisdom that would
serve them well in a variety of professions. Hence, there was a time when many
people entering the medical, legal, or teaching professions would have undergone
some instruction in philosophy. Much of this work was closely aligned both
institutionally and intellectually with the Scottish Kirk. Graham notes that in
T. E. Jessop’s review of seventy-nine distinctively Scottish philosophers, about half
were also clergy (Jessop 1938: 75–184; Graham 2015: 315). Not unexpectedly, this
fusion of religious and philosophical interests also generated a theological climate
that was marked by the constraints of philosophical work, a confidence in the
power of reason allied to an awareness of its limitations, a commitment to the
unity of church and society, and a pathway into ministry that often required a
prior training in classics and philosophy. Although this milieu allowed a good deal
of diversity in relation to method and content, the institutional setting of much
(though not all) theology with its proximity to other disciplines shaped much of
the output of the divinity professoriate. It is not surprising therefore to discover
  :    5

that McCosh, in his survey of Scottish philosophy, judges Thomas Chalmers not
only the greatest preacher of his age but also the foremost exponent of the unity of
philosophy and theology. For example, with his commitment to the design
argument, especially with reference to the human mind, Chalmers establishes a
theistic philosophy of conscience which is strikingly matched with the Christian
doctrine of the forgiveness of sins (McCosh 1875: 393).
Notwithstanding this context, as far as theology is concerned we see little
evidence of a single, distinctive tradition with leading authorities and methods
of study. In this respect, Scottish theology does not track Scottish philosophy.
While planning these volumes, therefore, we have not assumed that we are dealing
at any stage with a demarcated tradition in the sense of a body of thinkers whose
work acknowledges discrete authorities and magisterial texts as a point of refer-
ence, or one set of common problems, or a single universe of discourse or a social
purpose that sets Scottish theologians apart from other traditions. Although
Scottish theology has been marked by recurrent themes, influences, and orienta-
tion, it does not constitute a single tradition of enquiry in the MacIntyrean sense
(MacIntyre 1988). Obviously, the Reformed tradition has been the province of
many Scottish thinkers since the middle of the sixteenth century but not to the
exclusion of other trends. In any case, the Reformed tradition itself is very
capacious, to the point that some have accused it of bending in the direction of
every prevailing cultural breeze. Within Scotland, Reformed theology has com-
prehended Amyrauldian thinkers in the seventeenth century, the moderates of the
eighteenth century, the liberal evangelicals of the late Victorian period, as well as
those who might be characterized as neo-orthodox, existentialist, and liberationist
in the twentieth century. And, although the Westminster Confession of Faith
(1646) may have commanded widespread subscription amongst all the Presby-
terian churches, it hardly induced theological uniformity.
Another hallmark of Scottish theology is the strong continental influence
especially from Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Germany. Much has been
written on this and it characterizes Scottish theology throughout the entire period
under review. But these three volumes also display the very significant influence
of English influences upon much of what has been written. The Reformation
was supported by English allies and, as Jane Dawson’s recent biography shows,
Knox was both a Scottish and a British figure (Dawson 2016). The Westminster
Confession was produced in London, as was the Marrow of Modern Divinity.
Deism influenced the Moderates. Newtonian science, the Cambridge Platonists,
and the natural theologies of Butler and Paley left their mark on Scottish theolo-
gians including Chalmers and Flint. From the seventeenth century, Episcopalian
theology and spirituality made a distinctive contribution even when representing
only a small minority. More recently, John Baillie’s Diary of Private Prayer (1936),
probably the best-selling work by any Scottish theologian, reveals the steady
influence of the Book of Common Prayer. One can find many more examples of
6     . 

Anglican influences in Scotland and we should not disregard these by singular

concentration on the continental impact, important though this remains.
In terms of its orientation, Scottish theology has generally been directed
towards the ends of the Church and therefore the nation. Most theologians were
ordained and preached regularly. Some of them produced important devotional
books. Their work assumed an academic and public influence that can be difficult
to understand today. Writing for an informed and engaged public, their output
was not directed exclusively to a specialist audience. If we, for our part, might
wonder at how they would have fared in a research assessment exercise, they
would surely have been puzzled, even dismayed, by the extent to which contem-
porary academic writing is so inaccessible to a wider audience.
Largely for presentational reasons, the three volumes are divided chronologic-
ally—(i) from the middle ages to the early Enlightenment; (ii) from the Enlight-
enment to the mid-nineteenth century; and (iii) from the late nineteenth century
until the very early twenty-first century. But these boundaries are intended to be
porous and we fully recognize that they are somewhat arbitrary. In any case, some
essays intentionally offer broader perspectives that traverse two or more periods.
Fittingly, this has been an international effort in gathering scholars from several
continents to coordinate current expertise in the field. Conferences were held in
Princeton and Edinburgh to facilitate discussion of early drafts of papers. These
events in turn revealed significant gaps in the initial plan and enabled us to
commission additional essays and scholars.
Each essay must speak for itself, but several themes have come more clearly into
focus through this collective endeavour. Though less well known, the medieval
period has emerged as a rich era in terms of its theological artefacts, monastic
traditions, and the foundation of three universities. Much of this earlier period
reveals a theology that was presented less by text and more through architecture,
images, ritual practices, and liturgical forms. And even while written manuscripts
and printed books dominated later Scottish theology, other media remained
important, not least in the wider reception of theologies. Several influential figures
achieved prominence in medieval Europe including John Duns Scotus, Richard
of St Victor, and John Mair. Much of what was achieved in these centuries was
inflected rather than abolished in the Reformation, a process itself that was
gradual and shared a good deal with other reforming movements in the late
middle ages.
Given its indebtedness to the catholic traditions of the Church, we should not
be surprised that so much Scottish theology reflected a commitment to spiritual
practice; its image as relentlessly cerebral, hair-splitting, and arid now needs to be
debunked. From Henry Scougal’s Life of God in the Soul of Man, through the
poetry of Gaelic women and the hymns of the Borthwick sisters, to John Baillie’s
Diary, Scottish theologians proved capable of generating spiritual classics that
revealed a devotional intensity bordering on the erotic, as well as deep pastoral
  :    7

bonds with the people they served. And, although the relationship of the
Reformed churches to the arts could be fraught and complex, this was never
simply iconoclastic or repressive in the way that some critics of Calvinism have
suggested. One-sided fictional caricatures of the Scottish clergy now need to be
discarded in favour of more historically alert and nuanced portraits.
Produced in London, the Westminster Confession of Faith has shaped much of
Scottish Reformed theology whether through allegiance, contested interpretation,
or the outright opposition it has generated. From 1647, it became the subordinate
standard in the Presbyterian churches, though some dissent surrounding its
teaching on the role of the magistrate, the destiny of the ‘heathen’, and double
predestination emerged in succeeding centuries. The different ways in which it has
been read, defended, and accommodated have provided a point of reference for
several essays in these volumes. As the companion document to the Confession,
the Shorter Catechism, was arguably more influential in shaping the mind-set of
successive generations of Scots through recitation and testing, until the mid-
twentieth century. Its theology was thus internalized by much Scottish Protestant
culture. While more attention to its influence is now required in historical study,
what seems clear to us is that there has seldom been a time in when this theological
paradigm has commanded universal consent throughout the Scottish Presbyterian
churches. To this extent, its durability is itself quite remarkable and confirms the
absence of any other influential Reformed confession in Scotland after 1647.
As already noted, a prominent feature of Scottish theology throughout its
history has been its European dimension. This has played out in different ways.
The commerce of ideas is apparent from the early middle ages and continues into
the Reformation with important French, Swiss, and Dutch influences all apparent
into the seventeenth century. Scottish theologians themselves made their way to
the continent whether to take advantage of opportunities to study and teach or as
exiles. This is apparent not only during the political turbulence and religious
ferment of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries but also through the achieve-
ments of beleaguered Scottish Catholics who maintained colleges across Europe
for the training of priests. Given these contexts, it was inevitable that Scottish
theology would be European in character. This continued into the later nine-
teenth century and beyond with the ‘Scottish caravan’ that travelled to Germany
each summer, thus ensuring that the works of Schleiermacher, Hegel, Ritschl,
Herrmann, Barth, Brunner, Bultmann, and Bonhoeffer would become translated
and thereafter line the walls of manses throughout the country.
But the European dimension of Scottish theology should not obscure the links
with other parts of the UK and Ireland. The connections between Presbyterians in
Scotland and Ireland ensured a steady flow of students across the Irish Sea to
Glasgow and other centres of learning, while many of the theological disputes that
divided Scotland in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were played out,
albeit rather differently, in Ireland. The aforementioned influence of theologians
8     . 

in England is also apparent from the very beginning so that the more inclusive
term ‘insular’ may be preferred to ‘English’ or ‘Scottish’ in characterizing the
theology of the British Isles in the pre-scholastic era. These links continued
through the Reformation—Knox had ministered to English exiles in Frankfurt
and Geneva, and of course it was the English Bible that was adopted in Scotland.
Further influences can be discerned during the era of the Puritans, the Enlight-
enment, and the Oxford Movement which had a significant impact upon Scottish
Episcopalianism.
By the 1830s, a majority of Scots were already worshipping outside the
established church (Brown 1987: 61). Much of this plurality both reflected and
generated divisions not only within the Presbyterian church, but amongst
Episcopalians, Roman Catholics, and a variety of evangelical groups. Each of
these manifested different theological tendencies and social contexts which
require some consideration. Other voices on the margins of the Church and
in alternative spiritualities have not received adequate scholarly attention but we
seek to register their presence in some of these essays.
The extent to which theology has shaped Scottish society, contributing to its
ethos, mind-set, and overseas export, is considered by several contributors. Tom
Devine has written of the ‘parish state’ that emerged in the eighteenth century as
an enabling condition of the Scottish Enlightenment (Devine 1999: 84–102).
This may apply a fortiori to much of the nineteenth century in the work of
scientists, architects, politicians, diplomats, and scholars. Though understated
and unpretentious, a Presbyterian self-confidence seems to have manifested
itself in a commitment to education, industriousness, and social improvement.
Disseminated through para-church organizations such as the Boys’ Brigade, this
was a powerful force through Scottish society. Much of the architecture in our
towns and cities continues to attest this, albeit in markedly different social and
religious milieux. Even today, the obituary notices of those steeped in this
culture (until about the middle of the twentieth century) continue to reveal its
formative influence. The social theology of the Scottish churches reflects an
ethos largely shaped by the dominance of a Presbyterian culture, though admit-
tedly this could manifest itself in very different ways including political quietism,
a commitment to social justice, bouts of sectarianism, and a readiness, as in the
case of the wartime Baillie Commission, to commit to a programme of reform
for both church and society.
These three volumes tell the story until around 2000. As a historical project,
our work does not attempt to take the pulse of Scottish theology today or to offer
a prescription for its future. But a few comments may be in order here. Charted
by Callum Brown, the rapid dechristianization of British society since the 1960s,
puts the churches and their theologians in a different social space (Brown 2001).
With the shift from a culture of obligation to one of consumption (Davie 2015:
133–74), there is a much greater degree of plurality evident in the study of theology
  :    9

and religion. This has generated an ecumenical and multi-faith dimension in the
universities accompanied by the relative decline of the Church of Scotland as the
national church. One significant institutional indicator is the quiet disappearance
of the statutory committees comprising equal numbers of church and university
representatives to appoint professors in the Divinity Faculties. While several faith-
based theological colleges continue to survive and prosper, the universities have
increasingly combined their traditional theological pursuits with more compara-
tive and less confessional approaches to the study of religion. This has coincided
with the arrival of scholars representing other faith traditions—Mona Siddiqui is
one prominent example—whose work suggests that more comparative approaches
will prevail in the future. From this vantage point, it is surprising how little
attention was devoted to the study of other faiths by Scottish theologians, though
they were hardly egregious in this respect. Occasional attempts were made to show
that the practitioners of different faiths could be included in the economy of
salvation, but these were largely intra-Christian exercises intended to solve an
intellectual and moral puzzle. In part, this dearth of reflection may reflect the
relatively late appearance of other faith communities in Scotland—not until the
early nineteenth century is there evidence of a Jewish community in Edinburgh
(Daiches 1929). Contact with other faiths being more evident through missionary
activity, this resulted in attempts to present Christianity as the fulfilment, correc-
tion, or clarification of what could be discerned in other cultural contexts.
A fulfilment model enabled Scottish theologians to see different faiths on a similar
path, but with Christianity surpassing the others. In the process of encounter,
however, the Christian faith would develop through the enrichment offered by
other traditions ‘as a gradual process of absorption rather than an abrupt one of
confrontation’ (Stanley 2009: 246). This was the approach favoured in 1910 at the
World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh. Chaired by David S. Cairns of
Aberdeen, Commission IV attracted a good deal of attention in advocating this
model, though as Stanley notes the success of the approach was limited, particu-
larly in relation to Islam which did not seem to fit the model at all. While
missionary endeavour continued, it became more effective when Christianity
was presented as a novum rather than as the development of what was already
present (Stanley 2009: 247). Academic work that involved greater reference to the
empirical study of other religions similarly resulted in Christianity being presented
in Hegelian manner as the sublimation of other faiths or in treating the incarnation
as the high point of religious self-consciousness (Caird 1893). More focused
reflection has taken place on the empirical study of religion, partly through the
Gifford Lectureships (Hick 1989; Pannikar 2010), but this has largely been the
work of scholars from other contexts using paradigms less recognizably Hegelian.
The future is likely to involve more work in comparative mode, perhaps on a much
less ambitious scale, as theologians from different faith traditions identify prob-
lems, themes, and questions for common exploration.
10     . 

Despite the apparent secularization of Scotland where a significant majority

now self-identify as belonging to ‘no religion’, the Faculties (now Schools) of
Divinity in the ancient universities of Scotland appear to attract more students
than at any other time in their history. In part, this reflects a perennial fascination
with religion. But it is also indicative of the strength of faith communities in other
parts of the world. With staff and students increasingly recruited from other parts
of the world, Scottish theology is now much more of a net importer than an
exporter. For the future, this presents both an opportunity and a challenge. The
opportunity is in the excitement generated by a more diverse and international
body. Meanwhile, for faith communities in Scotland, the challenge is to nurture
scholars who, in altered circumstances, can continue the work of their predeces-
sors. But perhaps it was ever thus. If H. R. MacIntosh was even half-right when he
said (allegedly) that theology is created in Germany, corrupted in America, and
corrected in Scotland, then Scotland might see itself today not only as a bridge
between Europe and North America, but also to and from other global places, and
not all of these by former colonial churches and nations. Even if the status of
Scottish theology is no longer as internationally significant as it was for MacIntosh
in the early twentieth century, Scotland and its theologians can continue to play a
facilitating role. Moreover, both in its political and cross-cultural theological
endeavour and in its resolute attempt to keep biblical studies, church history,
and theology (whether historical, systematic, or practical) on the books of the
universities, Scotland is fairly unique. This may even ensure that theology will
continue to negotiate its place alongside other fields of knowledge and forms of
enquiry as a integrative project that has been consistently pursued in Scotland
since the middle ages.

Bibliography

Broadie, Alexander (2009). A History of Scottish Philosophy. Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press.
Brown, Callum (1987). The Social History of Religion in Scotland Since 1730. London:
Methuen.
Brown, Callum (2001). The Death of Christian Britain. London: Routledge.
Caird, Edward (1893). The Evolution of Religion, 2 vols. Glasgow: Maclehose.
Cameron, Nigel M. de S. (ed.) (1993). Dictionary of Scottish Church History and
Theology. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.
Daiches, Salis (1929). ‘The Jew in Scotland’, Records of the Scottish Church History
Society 3: 196–209.
Davidson, William L. (1925). ‘Scottish Philosophy’, in James Hastings (ed.), Encyclo-
paedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. XI. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 261–71.
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 Fig. 29. Posterior Limb.

ca, calcaneum or fibulare; cl, claw; f, femur; fb, fibula; t, tibia; t³, t⁴⁻⁵,
tarsalia; tb, tb′, tibiale-centrale; IV, V, 4th and 5th metatarsals.

The tibia consists of a cylindrical shaft with enlargements of about

equal size at the ends. The proximal end forms most of the knee
joint, the distal end articulates with a tarsal element said by Reynolds
to represent the fused astragalus and centrale, by Wiedersheim
called the astragalus, and said to represent the united tibiale,
intermedium, and centrale (tb, tb′). The fibula articulates by a small
enlargement at its proximal end with the femur, and by an
enlargement of about equal size, at its distal end, with the fibulare or
calcaneum (ca), and with a small facet on the above-mentioned
tibiale-centrale element.
The tarsus is much modified and consists of four elements, in two
rows; those of the proximal row are much larger than the two distal
elements. Articulating with both tibia and fibula, as mentioned above,
and with the first metatarsal and one of the distal tarsalia, is the large
and irregular tibiale-centrale element of Reynolds (tb, tb′). In the
tarsus here shown it consists of two elements. Post-axial in position
is the calcaneum or fibulare (ca), articulating with the preceding
tarsal element, with the fibula, with the rudimentary fifth metatarsal,
and with the distal tarsal element said by Reynolds to represent the
fourth and fifth tarsalia. The calcaneum is extended caudad into a
prominent knob quite like the heel of the higher mammals.
The two distal tarsal bones are small; one is said by Reynolds to
represent the first three tarsalia (t³), the other (t⁴⁻⁵) the fourth and
fifth. Wiedersheim says one of these bones represents the first three
tarsalia, the other the fourth. In the tarsus here shown these two
elements are fused.
The foot has five digits, though the fifth is small and consists
merely of a small, distally pointed metatarsal bone. According to
Wiedersheim this fifth metatarsal is fused with the fifth tarsalia. The
metatarsals of the first four digits are long and progressively more
slender from the first to the fourth; each is distinctly enlarged at the
ends. The first digit or hallux has two phalanges, the second has
three, the third has four, and the fourth has four. According to
Reynolds, the fourth toe has five phalanges; the figure here shown,
which was drawn from nature, has only four on the fourth toe; the
latter is the number given by Bronn for the crocodiles. The terminal
phalanges of the first three digits are large and pointed, with the
same lateral grooves noted in connection with the fore foot; each is
sheathed in a horny claw. The four fully developed digits of the pes
are nearly twice as long as the corresponding digits of the manus,
but they are not proportionately thicker.
 CHAPTER III
THE MUSCLES

he description of the muscles here given is taken from Bronn

T (11), who, in turn, largely follows Gadow. The animal described
is the crocodile, but while Bronn does not indicate the species,
it is probable that the differences between the various members of
the Crocodilia would be slight. The figures of the muscular system
are mainly from the Florida alligator.
In his description Bronn gives for each muscle the various
synonyms (often more than half a dozen) that are employed by
different writers; in this work Bronn’s nomenclature is given first and
the synonyms follow in parentheses.

The Chewing Muscles

Temporalo-maxillaris (Temporalis) (Masseter, Temporal, Aeussere
ober Heber or Schlafmuskel). Arises in the temporal fossa, passes
under the zygoma, and inserts itself on the inner and outer sides of
the lower jaw.
Pterygo-maxillaris (Pterygoideus) (Pterygoidien, Aeusser
Flügelmuskel, Pterygoideus externus, Pterygoideus internus). A
large muscle which consists of two portions: the outer, weaker
portion springs from the pterygoid process, the inner stronger part
from the pterygoid fossa and pterygoid process; they run together
around the angle of the lower jaw, where they form a large, bulging
fold. They are the chief muscles of this part of the body since the
masseter is lacking and the temporalis is weakly developed.
Occipito-maxillaris (Digastricus maxillæ) (Niederzieher des
Unterkiefers, Abaisseur ou l’analogue du digastrique, Senker des
Unterkiefers, Aristotelis apertor oris, Digastricus, Aperator oris).
Arises from the hinder border of the lateral occipital and is inserted at
the hinder end of the lower jaw. Its course is from front to back. If the
skull be stationary this muscle drops the lower jaw; if the jaw be fixed
it raises the skull.

Muscles of the Ventral Surface of the Neck

Intermaxillaris and Sphincter Colli (Intermaxillaire, Mylo-hyoideus,
Zwischenkiefermuskel, Latissimus colli). This muscle consists chiefly
of transversely running fibers, and has in its middle third a small,
median, longitudinal raphe or aponeurosis. In the posterior part of
the neck it is very thin, but increases in thickness more and more as
it passes cephalad. A short anterior and a long posterior portion may
be distinguished. The former extends from the inner side of the right
to that of the left half of the lower jaw, without a median aponeurosis.
The hinder half of this muscle is united by a pair of aponeuroses to
the lower jaw, on one hand (the smaller part), and to a fascia, on the
other hand (the far larger part), that separates several of the neck
muscles. The smaller part begins immediately behind the pterygoid
on the inner side of the halves of the lower jaw but ends on the outer
side of the two halves of the jaw.
Latus Colli (Latissimus colli accessorius). Lies underneath the
preceding. Its muscle bundles lie between the collo-capitis muscle
and the bodies of the first three cervical vertebræ, and form a broad
band that extends from the hyoid bone to the backwardly directed
cervical ribs of the first and second pairs.
Coraco-ceratoideus (Omo-hyoideus, Coraco-hyoideus). A long,
narrow, and moderately thick muscle which takes its origin from the
upper border of the coracoid, where the latter touches the scapula. It
extends forward near the œsophagus and attaches itself to about the
middle of the backwardly turned border of the horn of the hyoid of
that side.
Episterno-ceratoideus (Niederzieher des Zungenbeins, or
Brustbeinzungenbeinmuskel, Sterno-hyoideus). A flat and fairly
broad muscle which springs from the ventral surface of the
episternum; behind, it is separated by a slight space from the
corresponding muscle of the other side, with which it nearly covers
the cervical part of the trachea. Towards its anterior end it divides
into two heads; one of these inserts itself on the outer border and
outer surface of the cornu of the hyoid; the other head, lying laterad
to the former, is suddenly reduced to a short tendon by which it is
attached to the following muscle.
Maxillo-coracoideus (Mylo-hyoideus anterior, Sterno-maxillare).
This muscle arises from the upper border and inner surface of the
caudal third of the lower jaw. In its further course it becomes
tendinous and projects by a short tendon outwards from the hyoid
cornu to unite with the head of the preceding muscle, as noted
above; it then becomes fleshy again and is inserted on the medial
part of the upper border of the coracoid.
Maxillo-hyoideus (Genio-ceratoidien, Hyomaxillaris, Hyoglossus,
Hyomandibularis, Mylo-hyoideus posterior). This muscle arises, very
thin, from the mandibular symphysis, goes thence immediately
backward and inward to insert itself, by its broad end, on the whole
anterior end of the horn of the hyoid and on the hyoid itself.
Cerato-hyoideus. Arises from the horn of the hyoid and inserts
itself on the body of the hyoid.
Costo-coracoideus. This muscle arises from the distal ends of the
first and second ribs and is inserted on the ventral surface of the
coracoid at the boundary of the scapula.
Costo-scapularis (Collo-scapularis superficialis, Levator scapulæ
superficialis). See shoulder muscles.
Costo-vertebralis Medialis (Scaleni). Fairly large, flat, and long-
drawn-out three-cornered muscle. Attached by its base to the most
anterior sternal rib, by its upper border to the fifth cervical rib, and by
its point to the end of the second cervical rib.
Costo-vertebralis Lateralis (Longus colli). Originates thin and
sharp on the body of the fifth thoracic vertebra, increases in
thickness slowly but decidedly cephalad, then again becomes
thinner and inserts itself on the inner side of the ribs of the most
anterior two cervical vertebræ.
Collo-capitis (Rectus capitis anterior). Arises, as a rule, from the
cervical centra, at times from the second thoracic vertebra (Gavialis).
It extends forward and is inserted on the basi-occipital and the hinder
border of the pterygoid. For a greater part of their length the two
muscles lie close together, but forward they separate somewhat from
each other.

Dorsal Neck Muscles

Occipito-cervicalis Medialis (Complexus cervicis, Biventer cervicis,
Zweibäuchiger Strecker or Zweibäuchiger Nackenmuskel, Splenius
capitis). It springs, by separate points, from the dorsal processes of
the four anterior body vertebræ and the six posterior neck vertebræ;
it is convex on its dorsal, weakly concave on its ventral surface; it
leads cephalad as a short, strong tendon by which it is attached to
the angle between the upper hinder border of the skull, i.e. to the
superior and lateral occipital region.
Squamoso-cervicalis Medialis (Kopfbäuchmuskel [Splenius] or
durchflochtener Muskel [Complexus], Trachelo-mastoideus,
Complexus). This muscle lies laterad and ventrad to the preceding
and is at times partly covered by it in its posterior half. It arises from
separate heads from the spinal processes of the two anterior and six
posterior cervical vertebræ; beginning caudad, thin and sharp, it
gradually becomes thicker as it passes cephalad until it becomes
partially tendinous and inserts itself on the hinder border of the
squamosal, laterad to the occipito-cervicalis medialis muscle.
Epistropheo-vertebralis (Splenius colli). This muscle springs from
the spinous processes of the most anterior three body vertebræ and
the last cervical vertebra; it receives fibers from the articular
processes and intermediate parts of the six posterior cervical
vertebræ and is inserted on the second cervical vertebra.
Collo-squamosus (Splenius capitis, Nackenwarzenmuskel,
Trachelo-mastoideus). Springs from the upper transverse processes
of the last three neck vertebræ, and, becoming tendinous, is inserted
on the hinder border of the squamosal.
Collo-occipitis. Arises from the transverse processes of the
posterior five cervical vertebræ, extends directly forwards on the ribs
of the vertebræ, and is inserted under the articular surface of the
lateral occipital.
 Occipito-epistropheus (short, straight, hinder head-muscle, or
extensor). This muscle springs from the lateral surface of the body of
the second neck vertebra and inserts itself on the basi-exoccipital,
under the preceding muscle.
Cervicalis Adscendens. Arises in great part from the angles under
the most anterior ribs; a smaller part appears farther above where it
is covered by the rhomboideus muscle. It is inserted on the upper
side of the five posterior cervical ribs and on the distal ends of the
long second cervical rib.

The Muscles of the Scapula

Capiti-sternalis (Sterno-mastoideus). This is a fairly large muscle,
on the side of the neck, that extends from the skull to the breast and
from the middle of the neck is divided into two portions: (a) an
anterior part or atlanti-mastoideus (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 2, cst¹)
(upper end of the “head nodder,” sterno-mastoideus, anterior part of
sterno-mastoideus, anterior part of atlanti-mastoideus); (b) a
posterior part or sterno-atlanticus (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 2, cst²)
(sterno-mastoideus, inner belly of the “head-nodder,” posterior part
of the sterno-atlanticus). The former part is a rather short but not
weak muscle that arises from the squamosum and inserts itself on
the rib of the atlas (alligator) or of the atlas and epistropheus
(crocodile).
The latter part is fairly strong and exceeds the anterior part in
length; it springs from the rib of the first cervical vertebra, opposite
the insertion of the anterior part, and inserts itself on the anterior
border of the outer surface near the episternum. At times superficial
fibers pass into the pectoral fascia.
Dorso-scapularis (Cucullaris) (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 2, Cu)
(Trapezius). A broad but thin muscle that begins as an aponeurosis
from the dorsal fascia in the middle line of the hinder part of the neck
and beginning of the back; with converging fibers it passes within to
insert itself partly on the spine of the scapula and partly by superficial
fibers in the fascia that cover the deltoides scapularis inferior muscle.
 Collo-scapularis Superficialis (Plate I., Fig. 1, cssp) (Levator
scapulæ superficialis, Levator scapulæ, Heber des Schulterblatts,
Acromio-trachélien, Teil des Serratus magnus, Levator anguli
scapulæ). A considerable muscle on the side of the neck. It arises
from the tips of the ribs of the first and second cervical vertebræ
(where it is fused with the sterno-atlanticus muscle), and also from
the transverse process of the third and fourth cervical vertebræ; it
goes with diverging fibers to the entire anterior border of the scapula.
Thoraci-scapularis Superficialis (Serratus superficialis, Pectoralis
minor, Hinterer Theil des inneren grösseren Rückwärtsziehers, Pars
posterior m. serrati antici majoris, Theil des Grand dentelé, Serrati
posteriores, Latissimus dorsi scapulo-costalis). A strong muscle of
three prongs that go directly, by superficial fibers, over into the
oblique abdominal muscle and meet the ribs. The first and smallest
prong arises from the under end of the rib of the ninth vertebra (last
cervical); the second and medium-sized prong comes from the
uncinate process of the tenth rib (first thoracic) and from beneath the
uncinate process of the second thoracic rib; the third and strongest
prong takes its origin from the uncinate processes of the second and
third thoracic ribs. All three prongs unite to form a broad,
homogeneous muscle which passes forward and above to the hinder
border of the scapula, upon whose entire surface, except at the
lower end, it is inserted.
Collo-thoraci-suprascapularis Profundus (Plate I., Fig. 3, cthspr)
(Levator scapulæ et serratus profundus, Serrati anteriores, Serratus
anticus major, Vorderer Theil des inneren grösseren
Rückwärtsziehers or vorderen grossen gezahnten Muskels, Pars
anterior m. serrati antici majoris, Theil des Grand dentelé, Theil des
Serratus magnus). This muscle arises in varying extent from the
transverse process of the fifth cervical vertebra to the first (crocodile)
or second (alligator) ribs. It is inserted on the inner surface of the
suprascapula, except on its forward part, and is made up of two
layers—a superficial and a deep one. The former layer (Fig. 3,
cthspr¹) is weakly developed and is composed of two or three thin,
distinct bundles, that extend from the ribs of the eighth, ninth, and
eleventh vertebræ (alligator) or from the transverse process of the
seventh vertebra and the rib of the tenth. The deeper layer is
considerably developed; its bundles come, in the alligator, from the
fifth to tenth vertebræ; in the crocodile from the fifth to ninth.
Rhomboideus (Plate I., Fig. 3, rh) (Rautenmuskel, Angulaire de
l’omoplate). This is a very small, independent muscle that springs, by
two or three distinct bundles, from the fascia covering the
longissimus dorsi muscle, in the region of the eighth and ninth
vertebræ; after a short course it inserts itself on the antero-dorsal
angle of the suprascapula.
Costo-coracoideus (Plate I., Fig. 3, cc) (Subclavius et Triangularis
sterni and Levator secundæ superioris costæ, Petit dentelé,
Pectoralis minor, Pectoralis). This is a broad muscle of considerable
size on the ventral side of the breast; it consists of a lateral and of a
medial portion, the former springing from the last cervical rib, the
latter from the anterior border of the first sternocostal ridge. The two
parts unite and are inserted on the whole posterior border of the
coracoid.
Pectoralis minor (Pectoralis, Costo-coracoideus). A broad,
considerable muscle on the under side of the breast, which is made
up of two parts, of which the lateral springs from the anterior border
of the last (ninth) cervical rib, and the medial from the anterior border
of the first sternocostal ridge. Both parts unite into a homogeneous
layer which is inserted broadly on the whole hinder border of the
coracoid.
Pectoralis (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 2, p) (Pectoralis major, Grosser
Brustmuskel). A broad muscle on the under side of the breast,
bounded behind by the rectus abdominis and obliquus abdominis
externus muscles, with which it is united. It arises from the whole
episternum, from the whole sternum, except from the median line of
its posterior part, from the sternal ends of the first six thoracic ribs,
from all six sternocostal ridges, and, with a small prong, from the
eighth rib. It is inserted on the distal part of the convex surface of the
processus lateralis humeri.
Supracoracoideus (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 2, spc)
(Supracoracoscapularis, Deltoideus, Schlüsselbeinhälfte, Theil der
Schulterblatthälfte des Hebers des Armes, Obergrätenmuskel,
Hebemuskel des Oberarmes, Epicoraco-humeralis). A muscle of
considerable size at the anterior region of the coracoid and the under
region of the scapula, which is divided into two parts: (a) the
coracoid (inferior) division is the stronger and arises from the whole
anterior half of the coracoid, from its outer and inner surfaces; it is
inserted, together with the second part, on the proximal, little-
developed part of the processus lateralis humeri; (b) the scapularis
(superior) division is the weaker of the two and is covered by the
deltoides scapularis inferior muscle; it arises from the surface of the
under third of the scapula, behind the spine; it unites with the
preceding part to form a single muscle and inserts itself, as said
above, on the proximal part of the processus lateralis humeri.
Coraco-brachialis (Brevis) (Plate I., Figs. 4, 5, and 6, cbb) (Theil
des grossen Brustmuskels oder Hakenarmmuskel, Pectoralis II.,
Pectoralis minor). A fairly strong muscle. It arises from the outer
surface of the coracoid, except the median edge and the anterior
section, and runs to the flexor surface of the upper arm where it is
inserted on the proximal third between the lateral and median
processes.
Coraco-antebrachialis (Plate I., Figs. 2 and 5, b¹) (Biceps,
Coracoideus, Langer Kopf des langen Beugers, Langer Kopf des
Biceps, Biceps humeri, Biceps brachii, Coraco-radialis). A slender
and rather weak muscle on the flexor side of the upper arm. It arises
by a fairly broad but thin tendon from the outer surface of the
coracoid immediately before the coraco-brachialis. As a weak bundle
it passes between the lateral and median processes, lying medially
near the brachialis inferior muscle, with which, at the end of the
upper arm, it unites; after their union the two muscles continue as a
broad tendon that splits into two parts, which are inserted on the
proximal end of the radius and of the ulna.
Humero-antebrachialis Inferior (Plate I., Figs. 2 and 6, hai)
(Brachialis inferior, Caput breve m. bicipitis, Kurzer Kopf des Biceps,
Brachial interne, Brachialis anticus, Erster vom Oberarm
ausgehender Beuger, Portion of Brachiæus). Springs from the lateral
flexor side of the humerus, from the distal end of the lateral process
to the distal end of the bone, except the epiphysis; at the end of the
upper arm it unites with the biceps and with it is inserted, by two
tendons, to the radius and ulna.
 Dorso-humeralis (Plate I., Fig. 1, dh) (Latissimus dorsi, Breiter
Rückenmuskel, Humero-dorsalis). It springs as an aponeurosis from
the back at the level of the first four or five dorsal vertebræ, and
passes, with converging fibers, cephalo-ventrad to unite with the
teres major muscle; in common with the latter it extends along the
extensor surface of the humerus to be inserted between the lateral
and median processes.
Dorsalis Scapulæ (Plate I., Fig. 1, dss) (Deltoides scapularis
superior, Unterer Theil des äusseren Schulterblattmuskels,
Untergrätenmuskel, Suprascapularis, Infraspinatus, Supraspinatus).
Springs from the anterior half of the outer surface of the scapula,
passes between the deltoides scapularis inferior and the caput
scapulare laterale externum m. anconæi, as a narrow band, to be
inserted on the lateral side of the humerus.
Deltoides scapularis Inferior (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 2, dsi)
(Deltoideus superior, Supra- and Infraspinatus, Theil der
Schulterhälfte des Hebers des Armes, Theil der oberen
[Schulterblatt-] Abtheilung des Deltoideus, Zweiter Hebemuskel des
Oberarmes, Theil des Deltoides). A strong muscle on the side of the
shoulder. It springs from the spine of the scapula, passes back with
slightly converging fibers, and ends chiefly on the outer surface of
the processus lateralis humeri, while a number of superficial fibers
end in the humero-radialis muscle.
Scapulo-humeralis Profundus (Plate I., Fig. 4, shpr) (Teres minor,
Erster Teres major, Scapulo-humeralis). A small muscle that springs
from the posterior border of the lower third of the scapula, and
passes, with converging fibers, to its insertion on the humerus just
distal to the medial process.
Teres Major (Grosser runder Muskel oder kleiner Rückwärtszieher
des Oberarmbein, Zweiter teres major). Springs from the posterior
half of the upper region of the outer surface of the scapula. It passes
down, with converging fibers, to unite with the latissimus dorsi
muscle to form a strong tendon that is inserted on the extensor
surface of the humerus.
Subscapularis (Unterschulterblattmuskel). Springs from the inner
surface of the scapula, except from the suprascapula, goes with
converging fibers directly over the capsule of the shoulder joint to be
attached to the medial process of the humerus.
Anconæus. This strong muscle lies on the extensor side of the
upper arm. It is made up of two layers: the superficial comes from
the pectoral girdle in two heads: (a) the caput scapulare laterale
externum and (b) caput coraco-scapulare; the deeper layer
originates on the humerus by three heads, (c) caput humerale
laterale, (d) caput humerale posticum, and (e) caput humerale
mediale. These five heads of the anconæus muscle with their
synonyms will now be described.
(a) Caput Scapulare Laterale Externum (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 4,
asl) (Brevi proximum caput m. tricipitis, Gewöhnlicher [äusserer]
langer Kopf des dreiköpfigen Streckers, Portion scapulaire externe
du triceps-brachial, Erster langer Kopf des Triceps, [Zweiter]
abducirender vom Schultergerüst entstehender Kopf des
Streckmuskels des Vorderarmes, Triceps Nr. 1, Triceps longus). This
muscle springs as a tendon from the hinder border of the scapula
directly beneath the articular cavity, and extends back, between the
scapulo-humeralis profundus and the dorsalis scapulæ muscles, into
the muscle belly.
(b) Caput coraco-scapulare (Plate I., Figs. 2, 4, 5, 6, acs)
(Externum caput m. tricipitis, Innerer langer Kopf des dreiköpfigen
Streckers, Portion scapulaire interne du triceps-brachial, Zweiter
langer Kopf des Triceps, [Erster] abducirender vom Schultergerüst
entstehender Kopf des Streckmuskels des Vorderarmes, Triceps Nr.
2, Triceps longus secundus). Arises by two distinct tendinous tips—
the upper, weaker one from the hinder border of the scapula, the
lower, broader one from the hinder border of the coracoid.
(c) Caput Humeri Laterale (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 4, ahl) (Brevius
caput m. brachiei interni, [Aeusserer] kurzer Kopf des dreiköpfigen
Streckers, Portion huméral externe du triceps brachial, Aeusserer
vom Humerus ausgehender Kopf des Streckmuskels des
Vorderarmes, Theil des Triceps Nr. 3, Triceps externum). Springs
from the lateral part of the extensor surface of the humerus dorsal to
the lateral process and the origins of the humero-radialis and
brachialis superior.
 (d) Caput Humerale Posticum (Plate I., Fig. 4, ahp) (Longissimum
caput m. brachiei internum, Theil des inneren [kurzen] Kopfes des
dreiköpfigen Streckers, Theil des Triceps Nr. 3, Theil des Triceps
internus, Theil der Portion humérale interne du triceps brachial,
[Mittler] vom Humerus ausgehender Kopf des Streckmuskels des
Vorderarmes). Springs from the middle of the extensor surface of the
humerus between the lateral and medial heads.
(e) Caput Humerale Mediale (Longius caput m. brachiei interni,
Theil des [inneren] kurzen Kopfes des dreiköpfigen Streckers, Theil
der Portion humérale interne du triceps brachial, [Innerer] vom
Humerus ausgehender Kopf des Streckmuskels des Vorderarmes,
Theil des Triceps Nr. 3, Theil des Triceps internus). This head
originates on the medial part of the extensor surface of the upper
arm at the end of the medial process where it is united with the
scapulo-humeralis profundus muscle.
The muscle mass formed by the union of all the above heads goes
over, as a broad and somewhat thick tendon, to become inserted on
the proximal part of the ulna.
Humero-radialis (Plate I., Figs. 1 and 4, hr) (Caput longum m.
bicipitis, Eigener kurzer Beuger, [Zweiter] vom Oberarm
ausgehender Beuger, Brachialis externus, Portion a of Brachiæus). A
fairly large muscle on the outer side of the upper arm, lying between
the brachialis inferior and caput humerale laterale muscles, with both
of which it is, at the beginning, united. It originates with its deeper
and chief mass from the outer surface of the humerus, just distal to
the lateral process; while its superficial layer, especially the upper
fibers, come directly from the deltoides scapularis inferior and
therefore have their origin on the scapula. In the middle of the upper
arm it becomes a slender round tendon that extends, through a
tendinous loop, to the radius, on whose outer side, at the end of the
proximal third, it is inserted.

Muscles of the Forearm

Humero-radialis Internus (Radialis internus, Lange
Vorwärtswender, Pronateur, Pronator teres, Pronator quadratus,
Oberflächlich gelegener, langer runder Einwärtsdreher). This muscle
arises from the condylus internus (C. ulnaris s. medialis) and
attaches itself to the radius throughout almost its entire length. It is a
fairly strong muscle.
Ulno-radialis (Carré pronateur, Pronator teres, Pronator quadratus,
Muskel welcher dem Pronator quadratus entsprecht). A strongly
developed muscle. It springs from the upper part of the flexor surface
of the ulna and is inserted on the lower part of the flexor surface of
the radius.
Humero-radialis Longus (Plate II., Figs. 1 and 2, 1) (Supinator
longus, Long supinateur, Lange Rückwärtswender, Supinator radii
longus). Among the Crocodilia this and the following muscle are well
developed. This one springs from the condylus externus humeri and
is inserted on the outer side of the entire length of the radius.
Humero-radialis Brevis (Plate II., Fig. 4, d) (Supinator brevis,
Kurze Rückwärtswender, Extensor carpi-radialis brevis [?]). Arises
near the preceding from the external condyle of the humerus and is
inserted at the upper end of the radius.
Humero-carpi-radialis (Plate II., Fig. 2, a) (Aeusserer oder langer
Speichenmuskel, Musculus quem parti superiori extensoris digitorum
communis respondere videbat, Extensor carpi-radialis longus,
Abductor pollicis longus). Towards the ulna, near the supinator
longus muscle. It springs from the external condyle of the humerus,
covers the supinator brevis muscle, and is inserted on the proximal
end of the carpi-radialis.
Humero-carpi-ulnaris (Plate II., Fig. 2, c) (Extensor carpi-ulnaris,
Ulnaris externus). Originates on the external condyle of the humerus,
is inserted on the proximal end of the os carpi-ulnare.
Humero-metacarpalis III., IV., V. (Plate II., Fig. 2, b) (Extensor
digitorum longus, Aeusserer Speichenmuskel or Speichenstrecker
der Hand, Extenseur commun, Extensor radialis longus, Extensor
digitorum communis). This muscle lies between the humero-carpi-
radialis and the humero-carpi-ulnaris muscles. It springs from the
condylus externus humeri and divides, on reaching the carpus, into
three thin, flat tendons, which in part fuse with the carpo-phalangei
muscle, and in part are inserted on the carpal bones of the third,
fourth, and fifth fingers.
 Carpo-phalangei (Plate II., Fig. 2, d). (Extensor digitorum brevis,
Extenseurs courts, Gemeinschaftlicher Strecker der Hand, Extensor
digitorum communis brevis). Springs from the carpal and, in part,
from the metacarpal bones and is inserted on the terminal phalanges
of the five fingers.
Ulno-carpi-radialis (Ein dem Strecker und Abzieher des Daumens
analoger Muskel, Extensor pollicis longus, Extensor carpi-radialis
brevior[?]). Springs from the under half of the ulna, and is inserted on
the os carpi-radiale.
Carpo-phalangeus I. (Extensor pollicis brevis). This is a small,
thick muscle that originates on the distal part of the os carpi-radiale
and is inserted on the phalanx of the thumb.
Humero-radialis Lateralis (Plate II., Fig. 1, 6) (Flexor carpi-ulnaris,
Innerer Ellenbogenmuskel, Ulnaris internus). A fairly strongly
developed muscle. It springs from the internal condyle of the
humerus, extends along the ulna, and is inserted on the proximal
part of the os carpi-ulnare, and the nearby pisiform bone.
Humero-radialis Medialis (Plate II., Fig. 1, 2) (Flexor carpi-radialis,
Radialis internus). A strongly developed muscle. It springs from the
internal condyle of the humerus, receives fibers from almost the
entire length of the radius, and is inserted on the proximal end of the
os carpi-radiale and with a thin tendon to the metacarpal bone of the
thumb. Rüdinger was not able to find this muscle in Alligator
cynocephalus.
Carpo-phalangei (Plate II., Fig. 1, 4) (Flexor digitorum communis
brevis, Oberflächlicher gemeinschaftlicher Fingerbeuger, Fléchisseur
sublime, Flexores sublimis a profundo perforati, Lange Flexoren der
Finger, Flexor digitorum communis sublimis s. brevis, Flexor
digitorum sublimis). A small thick muscle. It springs from the
ligamentum carpi-volare proprium and from the ulnar border of the
distal end of the os carpi-radiale and is divided into eight muscle-
bellies which pass over to the proximal ends of the first phalanges as
thin tendons that are penetrated by those of the humero-ulno-
phalangei muscle.
Humero-ulno-phalangei (Plate II., Figs. 1 and 2, 5) (Flexor
digitorum communis profundus, Fléchisseur profond, Tiefer
gemeinschaftlicher Fingerbeuger, Flexor digitorum profundus, Flexor
profundus). Arises with three heads. The first head takes its origin
from the internal condyle of the humerus, runs between the humero-
radialis lateralis muscles, and passes as a tendon over to the carpus
where it unites with the other two heads of this muscle. The second,
deep head comes from almost the entire length of the ulna. These
two heads may be called the long heads. The third, short head
springs from the proximal ends of the two large carpal bones of the
first row, and becomes united radially with the thick flat tendon
ending the first two heads. The common terminal tendon splits into
four points which pass among the tendons of the carpo-phalangei
muscle and are inserted on the terminal phalanges. From the
terminal tendons of this muscle spring the lumbricales muscles.
Carpo-phalangeus (Plate II., Fig. 1, 8) (Abductor pollicis). Springs
from the os carpi-radiale; is inserted on the first phalanx of the
thumb.
Carpo-metacarpalis I. (Plate II., Fig. 1, 9) (Opponens pollicis).
Originates from the os carpi-radiale and is inserted on the radial side
of the entire first metacarpus.
Metacarpo-phalangeus I. Originates from the base of the
metacarpus of digit III.; is inserted on the ulnar side of the first
phalanx of the thumb.
Pisiformi-phalangeus primus digiti V. (Plate II., Fig. 1, 7) (Abductor
digiti minimi, Abducteur du petit doigt, Abductor digiti quinti). Springs
from the pisiform bone, and is inserted on the medial border of the
first phalanx of the fifth finger.
Carpo-metacarpalis V. (Opponens digiti minimi, Opponens
primus). Springs from the carpi-ulnare bone and is inserted on the
metacarpal bone of the fifth digit.
Carpo-phalangeus primus digiti V. (Plate II., Fig. 1, 3) (Flexor digiti
minimi brevis, Opponens secundus). Arises from the ulnar border of
the proximal part of the carpi-radiale bone and is inserted on the
proximal end of the first phalanx of the fifth finger.
Metacarpo-phalangeus I. digiti V. (Adductor digiti minimi). Springs
from the metacarpal bones of the second and third fingers and is
inserted on the radial side of the first phalanx of the fifth finger.
 The Abdominal Muscles
Obliquus Abdominis Externus (Grand oblique, Aeusserer schiefer
Bauchmuskel, Obliquus externus, Obliquus externus + internus +
Serrati, Oblique descendens). Springs, with a flat prong, from the
uncinate processes of the true ribs, thence it extends as a tendinous
aponeurosis, near the lateral boundary of the ileo-costalis muscle,
caudal-ward to the region of the twenty-third (crocodile) vertebra.
From this fairly straight line of origin the muscle takes a sharply
distoventral course and is inserted, at least in part, on the outer
surface of the sternal part of the ribs of the tenth to sixteenth
vertebræ, but does not reach the mid-ventral line. Under this chief
part of the outer layer of the abdominal muscle lies a second, more
band-like muscle mass which is also strong but of considerably less
extent. It takes its origin from the outer surface of the middle third of
the ribs. In the region of the twentieth vertebra it fuses with the upper
layer, but inwardly reaches nearer the median line than the upper
layer.
Obliquus Abdominis Internus (Petit oblique, Obliquus internus,
Subcostalis). Arises as a flat muscle layer first with a strong
tendinous portion from the anterior dorsal border of the os pubis and
from the there-located cartilaginous inscriptio tendinea of the rectus;
second, by a dorsal portion, with a short tendon, from the
anteromedial surface of the pubo-iliac articulation from the pubis and
ilium equally; third, from the dorsal anterior ends of the last named
bones. It is inserted somewhat mediad to the lateral border of the
rectus ventralis muscle that covers it on the outside.
Transversus Abdominis (Transverse, Oblique Bauchmuskel,
Innerer Bauchmuskel, Transversus ventralis). This muscle springs by
short, flat, indistinct forks from the inner surface of the proximal ends
of the dorsal ribs but does not reach the centra of the vertebræ
because of the long, broad transverse processes. Caudally the origin
passes dorsalward to the lateral border of the quadratus lumborum
muscle between which and the ileo-costalis muscle it is attached to
the end of the transverse process.
Rectus Abdominis (Gerader Bauchmuskel + pyramidenförmiger
Muskel, Pyramidalis, Rectus abdominis + pyramidalis). This muscle
consists, in the Crocodilia, of several very distinct parts:
I. The rectus ventralis, the chief part, arises as a fleshy tendon
from the sternum and from the ventral part of the last rib that reaches
the sternum, and extends with direct longitudinal fiber-bundles of
equal mass over the ventral third of the body back to the pelvis. It is
inserted as a fleshy tendon on the anterior border of the pubis and
more laterally is united, together with the obliquus internus muscle,
chiefly to the last abdominal ribs which arise as an ossification of the
last strongly developed inscriptio tendinea. This muscle-band, which
unites with that of the opposite side to form the linea alba, is divided
metamerically by seven distinct inscriptiones tendinea. These
inscriptiones are the above described abdominal ribs which consist
of bony connective-tissue without a trace of cartilage cells. These so-
called abdominal ribs, then, are not true ribs but are ossifications of
the tendinous structures.
II. From the anterior border of the os pubis and the last strong
inscription, also, to some extent, as a process of the preceding part,
begins a new fleshy layer which, extending in diminishing size
backward, is inserted by a strong tendon on the distoventral end of
the ischium somewhat laterad to the symphysis. It is the muscle that
is called by different authors the pyramidalis.
III. Rectus lateralis. About in the region of the twentieth vertebra,
or at the level of the fifth inscription, a fleshy band-like muscle
separates itself from the edge of the rectus muscle and the obliquus
internus muscle and passes over to fuse with the ischio-coccygeus
muscle.
IV. Rectus internus. On the inner surface of the rectus ventralis,
from which it is separated by the intervening aponeurosis of the
rectus muscle, appears a muscle lying on the outside of the
diaphragmatic muscle. It extends as a broad band from the breast to
the anterior border of the os pubis, with longitudinally directed fibers,
to half the width of the rectus ventralis muscle.
Intercostales (Zwischenrippenmuskeln). The intercostal muscles in
the Crocodilia are, in proportion to the strength of the ribs, of slight
structure; they extend only from rib to rib and are, therefore, very
short, though fairly thick. They, as usual, consist of the outer muscles
with a direction like that of the external oblique, and of an inner
muscle extending in the opposite direction, i.e., at right angles. The
internal muscles are especially well developed in the breast region
and pass over into the internal oblique muscle.
Quadratus Lumborum (Carré des lombes, Viereckiger
Lendenmuskel, Psoas major). A strong, thick muscle that springs
from the inner surface of the transverse processes and bodies of the
last six presacral and the first sacral vertebræ. The muscle
diminishes as it passes in a caudoventral direction and is inserted
with a strong tendinous band to the trochanter femoris.
The Diaphragm (Diaphragmaticus, Zwerchfell, Bauchfellmuskel).
Closely inclosed between the skin and muscle of the abdomen, in
the Crocodilia, is a pair of muscles; they are, as a whole, thin
muscles that are widely separated and extend in an anteroposterior
direction. Each arises by two parts which, however, are united at the
pelvis. One of these parts is small at its beginning, is fairly thick, and
is attached by a short tendon, immediately over the pubis in front of
the hip joint, to the ilium. The other part is not a very thick layer, and
is attached, by a fairly long line, partly on the inner surface of the
hindermost abdominal rib and partly on the outer border of the pubis.
After the union of these two portions the muscle extends farther
forwards and the fibers of the stronger portion spread out like a fan,
becoming wider and thinner as they go forward and are at last
attached partly to the pericardium, partly to the lobes of the liver of
that side of the body. To be more exact, the fibers of the
diaphragmaticus that lie nearest the middle line of the belly-wall
extend forward as a fairly broad band to fuse with the pericardium.
Most of the fibers of this muscle, however, are in close connection
with a fibrous membrane which surrounds the liver parenchyma; this
membrane is mostly very thin but it gradually becomes thicker
towards the hinder border of the liver. Other muscle bands do not
reach so far as the liver but are located near the middle line of the
back; they are all, however, attached to an aponeurosis which
passes over the upper, hinder border of the liver lobes to fuse with
the fibrous capsule of the liver.
To the sternum as to the ribs is only a small part of this muscle
attached.
 Between the two above described muscles is found a space which
is filled, in great part, with a fibrous membrane that binds the two
muscles together. This membrane begins very thin and without a
marked boundary behind the kidneys; it runs forward directly under
them and the dorsal wall of the body, becoming gradually thicker,
though never very thick, and fuses, laterad to the kidneys, with the
above-mentioned aponeurosis of the two diaphragmaticus muscles.
Thence this aponeurosis goes to the upper, hinder side of the liver
where it becomes fairly thick. One thus finds in front of the stomach
a fibrous membrane, belonging to the diaphragmaticus, which is
pierced by the œsophagus and by a fairly large space that extends
around the œsophagus and between it and the liver. This membrane
fastens the liver to the œsophagus.
The muscle of the right side is covered, on almost its entire inner
surface (from its hinder end to the liver) by the belly-like skin, and is
fairly closely united with it. The left muscle, on the other hand, is only
covered by this skin from the hinder border of the stomach forwards;
farther forward it lies immediately on the under and left side of the
stomach and is united with it by loose connective-tissue. Outwardly
both muscles are united by a thin layer of connective-tissue to the
true abdominal muscles. So far as yet known this muscle is not
present in other reptiles.

Muscles of the Posterior Appendages

Ambiens (Plate III., Figs. 1 and 2, amb, Plate IV., Figs. 2 and 4,
amb, Plate V., Figs. 2 and 3, amb) (Part I., Rectus femoris and
Sartorius partim, Vastus internus, Innere Streckmuskelmasse) (Part
II., Gracilis, Rectus femoris, Sartorius). Arises by a short tendon from
the anterior spine of the ilium, near its union with the pubis. The
muscle swells quickly to a thick belly which, lying under the skin on
the forward and inner side of the upper thigh, is again reduced to a
small, flat tendon which extends abruptly over the anteromedial
surface of the knee joint to its outer side; it then passes through the
complex of tendons of the femoro-tibialis muscle, beneath which it
unites with the tendon of origin for the peroneus posterior muscle.