ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION TECHNOLOGY 1

Electrical Installation
An electrical installation is a combination of electrical equipment installed to fulfill a specific
purpose and having coordinated characteristics.

Sequence of control equipment

Most domestic premises receive a single-phase supply of electricity from an area electricity board
at a rating of 240 volts and frequency of 50 hertz.The supply or intake cable may enter the
building through an underground duct or via an overhead supply
An overhead supply is preferred in Kenya with underground supply being used in special cases.
The supply passes through the meter, which records the electricity consumed in units of
kilowatt/hours, to the consumer unit which has a switch controlling the supply to the circuit
breakers or circuit fuses.
These fuses are a protection against excess current or overload of the circuit since when
overloading occurs, the fuse or circuit breaker will isolate the circuit from the source of the
problem. The consumer unit should be fitted close to the point of service entry and from here the
service is divided into a number of sub-circuits. It is normal in a domestic installation to separate
power circuits and lighting circuits so that if a fault occurs then not all socket outlets or lights are
isolated.

The IEE Regulations recommend that every consumer‟s installation shouldhave a means of
isolation, a means of overcurrent protection and a means ofearth leakage protection. This
recommendation applies whatever the size ortype of installation .

Industrial installations differ basically from domestic and commercial onesonly in the size and
type of equipment used. The supplies are three-phasefour-wire, and switchgear is usually metal
clad. For extremely heavy loads,switch-fuses are replaced by circuit breakers, and much use is
made of overheadbus-bar trunking systems.

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Isolation and switching
By definition, isolation is the cutting off of electrical energy from every source of supply, and
this function is performed by a switch, a switch fuse or a fuse switch.

Isolator
This is simply a double- or triple-pole switch in which the moving switch contacts are
mechanically linked. In this way both live and neutral or all phases in a three-phase system are
disconnected from the supply

Switch fuse
This is an extension of the isolator, in that the load side of the supply is interrupted by a fuse in
the phase conductor.

Fuse switch
Fuse switches are used on three-phase systems. Hence the fuse forms part of the moving
operating blade.
Consumer unit
The consumer unit is found in nearly all domestic installations. It consists of a double-pole
isolator and a distribution board in one assembly.
Circuit breaker
The means of isolation must be double or triple pole. Some modern consumer units have a
residual current device installed in place of the usual isolator.

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CONSUMER’S MAINS EQUIPMENT
The consumer's mains equipment is normally fixed close to the point at which the supply cable
enters the building. To meet the requirements of the IEE Regulations it must provide:

1. Protection against electric shock -Section 471

2. Protection against overcurrent-Section 473
3. Isolation and switching -Section 476.
Protection against electric shock is provided by insulating and placing live parts out of reach in
suitable enclosures, earthing and bonding metal work and providing fuses or circuit breakers so
that the supply is automatically disconnected under fault conditions. To provide overcorrect
protection it is necessary to provide a device which will disconnect the supply automatically
before the overload current can cause a rise in temperature which would damage the installation.
A fuse or miniature circuit breaker (MCB) would meet this requirement.

An isolator is a mechanical device, which is opened manually and is provided so that the whole
of the installation, one circuit or one piece of equipment may be cut off from the live supply. In
addition, a means of switching off for maintenance or emergency switching must also be
provided.
A switch may provide the means of isolation but an isolator differs from a switch in that it is
intended to be opened when the circuit concerned is not carrying current. Its purpose is to ensure
the safety of those working on the circuit by making dead those parts, which are live in normal
service. One device may provide both isolation and switching provided that the characteristics of
the device meet the Regulations for both functions. The switching of electrically operated
equipment in normal service is referred to as functional switching.

Circuits are controlled by switchgear, which is assembled so that the circuit may be operated
safely under normal conditions, isolated automatically under fault conditions, or isolated
manually for safe maintenance.
These requirements are met by good workmanship and the installation of proper materials such as
switches isolators, fuses or circuit breakers.
The equipment belonging to the supply authority is sealed to prevent unauthorised entry, because
if connection were made to the supply before the meter, the energy used by the consumer would
not be recorded on the meter.

In practice it is the aim to bring the Electrical supply to the appliance with as small a loss of
voltage through the conductor as possible. This means that the wiring must have the smallest
resistance that is economical.

INTERPRETATION OF DIAGRAMS
Block diagrams -These show, using squares, rectangles etc., the sequence of a system without too
much technical detail.block diagram is a very simple diagram in which the various items or
pieces of equipment are represented by a square or rectangular box. The purpose of the block
diagram is to show how the components of the circuit relate to each other and therefore the
individual circuit connections are not shown.

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Layout diagrams-These are very similar to block diagrams, but they indicate more technical
detail and tend to show items in their correct geographical location.

Circuit/schematic- These show how a circuit functions and takes no accountof exact locations of
terminals or equipment.

Schematic diagrams
A schematic diagram is a diagram in outline of, for example, a motor starter circuit. It uses

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graphical symbols to indicate the interrelationship of the electrical elements in a circuit. These
help us to understand the working operation of the circuit. An electrical schematic diagram looks
very like a circuit diagram. A mechanical schematic diagram gives a more complex description
of the individual
elements in the system, indicating, for example, acceleration, velocity, position, force sensing
and viscous
damping

Circuit diagrams
A circuit diagram shows most clearly how a circuit works. All the essential parts and connections
are
represented by their graphical symbols. The purpose of a circuit diagram is to help our
understanding of
the circuit. It will be laid out as clearly as possible, without regard to the physical layout of the
actual components, and therefore it may not indicate the mostconvenient way to wire the circuit.

Wiring diagram- These indicate how a circuit or system is physically wired.A wiring diagram or
connection diagram shows the detailed connections between components or items of equipment.
They do not indicate how a piece of equipment or circuit works. The purpose of a wiring
diagram is to help someone with the actual wiring of the circuit.

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Final Circuits
Distribution circuits supply power to other final circuits while final circuit supply power to
loads e.g. lights.A final circuit is one of the outgoing feeders from a distribution board(DB). It
supplies a load or a group of loads without intervention of other final circuits of the DB or some
other final circuits connected to other DBs. An internal electric distribution system in a building,
therefore, consists of several parallel loads connected to a local DB.

All wiring cables must be covered and positioned to satisfactory protection against external
damages resulted from mechanical impacts, heat, water or high humidity, corrosion and pollution
For covering cables plastic or stainless-sheath conduit or trunking systems are installed which
are erected vertically or horizontally or parallel to edges of the interior

Every installation should be divided into final circuits to avoid danger in the event of a fault to
provide;safe operation, inspection, testing and maintenance

Types of standard final circuits (FC):

- Lighting final circuits- Socket-outlet final circuits- Radial socket-outlet circuits- Ring socket-
outlet circuits- Final circuits supplying fixed loads- Control and signaling final circuits-
Information, audio-visual and monitoring final circuits. As a rule current rating of a PD
protecting a FC should not exceed current rating of its FC cable.

Light Final Circuits

A lighting final circuit (FC) sets out from a local DB with a protective device connected only on
any of the phase line, and cut off by a single-pole switch connected to the same phase line
conductor. Lighting of rooms may be controlled from one point as in the case of room,
bathroom, kitchen lighting, etc., but in the case of staircase or corridor lighting, it is necessary to
control the lamp circuit from more than one point using two-way and/or intermediate switches.

Lighting FCs are commonly protected by 5-A or 6-A MCBs and wired by 1.5 mm2 single-core
line and neutral cables and protective earthing (PE) conductor. The final circuit may serve one or
more number of lamps controlled from the same switch . The standard color codes on cables
should be observed for connecting PD and switch to the line (L) and PE conductor in each
element.

A simple lighting final circuit.

Looped-in three simple lighting fittings controlled from different positions using three-plate
(four-terminal) ceiling rose.

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Multi-position Control of Lighting Final Circuits
Lighting circuits may also be required to turn on/off from different switching positions as in the
case of staircases or halls etc. For two position control two two-way swıtches

and for more than two positions two two-way switches and several intermediate switches may
be required .

Wiring diagram of a lighting final circuit to control of a single lamp or a group of lamps from
two-control

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Use of Ceiling Roses

There are basically two types of ceiling rose available, although there is a wide range of makes
and shapes. The two types are the Two-Plate Ceiling Rose, which has two terminals and the
Three-Plate Ceiling Rose, which has three terminals. Both were developed for use on different
wiring systems. Older types of ceiling roses were developed at a time when it was not necessary
to provide an earth at lighting points. It is now essential to provide an earth, and so an earth
terminal is now included on all ceiling roses. This in effect means that a Two-Plate Ceiling Rose
has a third terminal fitted, whilst a Three-Plate Ceiling Rose has four terminals.

Use of Joint Boxes

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A small metal or plastic junction box may form part of an electrical conduit

Some important recommendations related to applications of lighting final circuits are:

When the supply cable is 1.5 mm2, no lighting circuit shall be allowed to supply a total load
exceeding 10 A (this corresponds to looped in 20 lamps each 100 W). In normal installations the
number of lighting points or lamps connected to a lighting final circuit is limited to eight or ten.
Loop-in method is an effective way of supplying several lighting points wired in conduit. This
method is applicable to control a lamp or a group of lamps for both one-way and multi-way
switching .

Joints or connections are made at switch terminals, ceiling roses, outlet boxes or lampholders.
This allows to find faulty point easily.There must be one PE conductor connected to each
separate lighting circuit from DB.Looping in PE conductor of one final circuit from another final
circuit is not allowed.While wiring groups of several lighting FCs, all cables passing through the
same conduit or switch or joint boxes must be connected to the same phase in order to avoid
electrical shock during maintenance and line-to-line insulation failure of cables.

Some important recommendations for the usage switches are:

Single-pole, two-way, intermediate switches are used to control domestic lighting points or
fixed equipment although there is no objection to use of double-pole switches.Switches used to
control only discharge lamps, must have a nominal current rating of at least twice the steady
current of the circuit.Outdoor switches shall be water-tight and metal-clad.The mounting
distance of local switches after the finished floor level (AFF) should be between 1.0 m and 1.3 m
AFF (measured at dolly level). If several switches are mounted in two or more horizontal rows,
the lowest row shall have a mounting height of 1.0 m AFF.All switches shall be mounted inside
the room on the side of the door where the catch or lock is situated and the nearest switches
being approximately 30 cm from the door frame.

POWER CIRCUITS

SOCKETS AND PLUGS (IEE Reg. 553-01)

Socket outlets provide an easy and convenient method of connecting portable appliances to the
supply via a plug and a connecting flexible cable.The socket outlet is permanently connected to
final circuit cables and only correct plug can be inserted.The terminals of a socket outlet and
plug are marked with letters L, N and E and wired with appropriate colored cables to avoid

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mistakes. All domestic socket outlets are shuttered type operating single-phase a.c. or two-wire
d.c. circuit operating at 250 V.

The socket outlets and plugs having standard current ratings are:
13-A socket outlet (BS 1363) with fused plug (BS 1363) is universally accepted for domestic and
office installations. It is also extensively used in industrial premises.

It has three non-interchangeable entries and rectangular in cross-section. Accompanying with it

13-A fused plug used with flexible cords to serve portable appliances. Any appliance not
exceeding 1.5 kW may safely be connected to 13-A socket outlet via 13-A plug .Flexible cords
connected to plugs shall have brown (phase), blue (neutral) and yellow/green (earth).

Current ratings of socket outlets and plugs used for different applications are;- 2 A is used for
fixed workshop equipment- 5 A, 15 A and 30 A socket outlets and plugs (BS 196) are used for
industrial applications with a maximum voltage of 250 V. Any plug with single- or double-pole
fuses may be used with these sockets.- 16 A, 32 A, 63 A and 125 A socket outlets and plugs (BS
4343) are heavy industrial type for single- and three- phase applications. Fuses cannot be fitted in
sockets or plugs. 16 A single- or three-phase socket outlets can be wired only radial circuits with
a protective fuse not exceeding 20 A

Switched socket-outlets are recommendable, but not essential, in

- Switched socket-outlets are recommendable, but not essential, in locations where frequent
removal of plugs that cause wear due to arcing across contacts.- No socket outlet final circuit
shall be allowed in a bath or shower room except at reduced voltage levels using isolating
transformer.- As a general rule one socket outlet, single or twin, is required for a wall in
domestic applications. The following recommendations can be made in installing domestic
interiors: Kitchen area Socket-outlets may be located cm above working surface or floor level
.No socket-outlet should be allowed close to sinks within 2 m.A cooker should be supplied from
a separate final circuit isolated with a 30-A or 45-A double-pole switch. A socket outlet on the
control unit of a cooker may lead to shock risk due to flexible cord of any appliance, therefore its
length should be limited to 50 cm.

Dining and Living rooms

For a separate dining area socket outlets are required for hot tables and for a radio or television.
Therefore, recommendable number of socket outlets is 3 twin for dining hall. For a living area
applicable number of sockets may be 2 single and 4 twins. Bedrooms In bedrooms socket outlets
are required on each side of bed. One additional socket outlet may be installed for other
appliances such as heater or vacuum cleaner. The following table gives recommended number
socket outlets in domestic premises Location Number of socket outlets(S-single, T-twin)

Kitchen 4(T),Living room 6 (2S+4T), Dinning hall 3(T) Double bedroom 4 (1S+3T) ,Single
bedroom 3 (1S+2T) Garage Hall 2(T) Storage/ workshop 1 (T)

SOCKET-OUTLET FINAL CIRCUITS

Socket-outlet FCs provide supply to every appliance at its closest point. For most common

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applications 13-A (BS1363) sockets and plugs wired in the form of radial or ring final circuits
supplied from the main or sub-main distribution board are commonly used.The earth terminal (E)
of socket outlet should be connected to PE conductor of the socket-outlet FC (IEE Reg ). If the
mounting box of a socket outlet is metal, it must also be connected to the earth terminal of the
socket outlet.

I - Radial Socket-outlet Circuit,

In a radial circuit each socket is fed from the previous one. The phase, neutral and protective
conductors are connected to line, neutral and earth terminals at each socket outlet.

Some of the important recommendations for installing socket-outlets are:

The rating of protective device should not exceed 20 A (or max load of 5 kVA) if the area to be
served is about 50 m2, and 30 A if the area to be served is 75 m2The maximum number of
socket outlets (twin is counted as one) that can be fitted to a 4 mm2 radial circuit to serve 50 m2
area is six , and ten if the area is 75 m2.- The rating of protective device depends on the area to
be served. It is 30 A if the area exceeds 20 m2

II - Ring Socket-outlet Circuits

The ring final circuits are formed similar to radial final circuits by wiring; each socket from the
previous one, but connecting the last socket back to the supply point forming a complete ring FC.
Two ends of the phase conductor are connected to the terminal of protective device and two ends
of the neutral conductor and also protective conductors are also brought back to respective
terminals in the DB

In domestic premises, in a ring circuit only 13-A socket outlet wired with 2.5 mm2 and protected
with 30-A fuse or MCB must be used. Although the rating of the cable is in the order of 20 A,
since the circuit is split into two ways round the circuit, the cable will not be overloaded. Also,
the estimated maximum demand on the circuit should not exceed the rating of the overload
protective device.

Some recommendations in installing ring socket outlet circuits.

- The maximum number of sockets that can be fitted to a 2.5 mm2 ring circuit is ten (a double
socket outlet is counted as one).- The rating of protective device should not exceed A (or max
load of 7 kVA).- Kitchen area requires a separate socket-outlet final circuit.- For small domestic
premises at least two ring circuits should be installed.- Fixed appliance are to be distributed
uniformly along a ring circuit- In the same premise if two or more circuits are to be installed, the
socket outlets and permanently connected equipment should be reasonably shared out among the
circuits, so that the total load is balanced.When designing ring or radial circuits in kitchens,
special attention should be given in loading, which may require separate circuits. This is because
the maximum demand of some equipment may exceed the rating of the circuit cable and of
PDs.III-Spurs to a Ring Socket-Outlet Circuit (IEE On-Site Guide)A spur is a branch cable

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connected to a ring final circuit. Depending on the application in a ring circuit a spur branch may
be non-fused or fused.

Non-fused Spurs

The total number of non-fused spurs must not exceed the total number of socket outlets and fixed
appliances connected directly in the ring circuit.A non-fused spur must be connected either at the
terminals of a socket outlet or at a joint box as a part of a ring socket outlet circuit, or at the
origin of the ring circuit in DB. A non-fused spur can only feed one single or twin socket outlet,
or one fixed appliance.- The connecting cable must have a current rating not less than that of the
conductors forming the ring (2.5 mm2).

Fused Spurs

Also, the total number of non-fused spurs must not exceed the total number of socket outlets and
fixed appliances connected directly in the ring circuit.- A fused spur may be connected to a ring
circuit through a fused connection unit, and rating of the fuse must not exceed 13 A.- When a
fused spur serves socket outlets the minimum conductor size of the connecting cable should be
1.5 mm2, but its current rating must not exceed current rating of the spur fuse.

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FINAL CIRCUITS SUPPLYING FIXED LOADS
Some of the fixed loads may be connected either (a) to ring or radial circuits feeding 13 A
socket outlets, or (b) on individual final circuits from the consumer unit.

The group (a) devices include fixed small space heaters, fans, small water heaters, hand dryers,
etc.,and their power rating should not exceed 1.5 kW. These devices should be connected to the
final circuit via 13-A fused plug, and controlled by a single or a double-pole switch.The group
(b) devices consist of floor standing fixed equipment and covers water heaters, cookers, clothes
dryer, water heaters etc. rated at more than 1.5 kW. Each of these items should be wired on a
separate circuit, and be controlled by a double-pole fused or non-fused switch. Switch must be
fixed adjacent or at an excesible position close to equipment.

Double-pole switch may sometimes acts as a terminating element to fix connecting flexible cable
if the equipment is close to the switch. If not, a separate wall-mounted flex outlet plate fitted to
the adjacent equipment should be installed .

There are three methods of providing hot water to houses:

30-A or 45-A double pole switch. (b) Flex outlet plateA. WATER HEATERSThere are three
methods of providing hot water to houses:

1. Instantaneous type

2. Immersion heaters or circulators

3. Self-contained storage heaters

Electrical connection for water heaters

Any water heater having power rating more than 1.5 kW should not be connected to ring or
radial socket-outlet circuits. They should be supplied from the local distribution board with a
separate circuit.

In the installations of water the heater must be permanently connected to the electric supply
through two double-pole switches; one is used for functional switching and the other for
isolation. The heater is directly connected to the isolation (IEE Reg ) with a length of heat-
resistant flexible cable. If the distance between the water heater and the isolation switch is long, a
wall-mounted power flex outlet should be installed close to the heater. Generally:All the metal
parts of the heaters in contact with the water must be solidly and metallically connected to supply
pipe, which is connected to the main earthing terminal (IEE Reg ).

In bathrooms, the installation of water heater should follow the rules of IEE Regulation (IEE Reg
).- No switch or other means of control should be accessible to the person using the shower or a
fixed bath tube.The switch must be fixed an a convenient position outside the bathroom, or to use
a cord operated ceiling switch within the room.Wall-mounted switches should be 20-A double
pole and ceiling mounted switches should be 15-A double pole with a pilot light indicator for 'on'
and 'off' visual indication.The length of the connecting flexible cable must be of the same size as
that of installed cable

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.1. Instantaneous water heaters. These provide instantaneous supply of hot water. These are
suitable in locations where connection to the central water heater system is difficult and
expensive, and often used to provide hot water for hand washing or showers in cloakrooms,
workshops, etc. - They all include a thermostat with a safety cut.

They supply 1.5 or 3 liters of hot water per minute for electrical loading of 3 kW or 6 kW. When
used for showers with a load of 4 to 7 kW.- They must have separate final circuit and controlled
by a 30-A or 45-A cord operated ceiling-mounted double pole switch with pilot light.The unit
should be provided with a metallic sheath connected to the local supplementary equipotential
bonding (IEE Reg ).2. Immersion Heaters. These are available in various types and loading and
are installed in metallic cylinder or tank controlled with thermostat (IEE Reg ) . A single element
3-kW heater is the most usual in domestic usage. Double pole switch-fused or non-fused
isrequired for controlling the element, and must be fixed out of reach, and water tank must be
bonded .

Dual heaters are also available in the same housing; one of them short and the other is long.
Since hot water will be available at the top of the housing, the short heater provides a small
amount hot water quickly and economically, the other one is used when it is required to heat all
the water in the tank. This type of water heaters is installed with special dual switches.These
heaters are very efficient. They should be fixed as near as possible to the space of usage.

Immersion water heater

Immersion water heater. (a) Water heater element with thermostat. (b) Wiring arrangement.

Self-contained storage water heaters.

They are used to supply hot water more than one tap. Various types are available; non-pressure,
semi-pressure, pressure cistern and two-in-one. - - The heater elements are rated at 6 kW to 15
kW depending on the thermal capacity, and heater circuit is connected to the consumer DB and
protected by 30 A, 45 A or 60 A MCB or fuse as appropriate.

The control requires special fused or non-fused double-pole switch, which also acts as a
terminating element for wiring.- Wiring to each storage heater from the isolation switch or
remotely from a wall-mounted flex outlet plate must be done by heat resistant flexible cords of
adequate size- If there is more than one storage heater, each heater may have its own separate
functional switching as well as a double-pole switch for isolation

PROTECTION AND EARTHING

An electrical installation is a combination of electrical equipment installed to fulfill a specific

purpose and having coordinated characteristics. In dealing with the electrical installation, it is
necessary to ensure the safety of personnel as well as the protection of equipment from electrical

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faults.The most common types of faults in domestic systems areThe short circuit faults (phase to
neutral faults)- as a result of which large currents will flow and damage may occur to wires,
insulators, switches, etc..insulation failure (fault between the phase conductor and non-current
carrying metallic parts)- as a result of which high voltages may appear on the frames of
equipment and may be dangerous to a person coming in contact with it.

The most popular methods of protection

Use of fuses or circuit breakers (such as the Miniature Circuit Breaker – MCB).Use of earth
leakage and residual current circuit breakers(RCCB).Earthing or grounding of equipment.

The time current characteristic of a fuse

The fuse consists of a short length of thin wire. When the current flow is greater than the fusing
current of the fuse, it will get hot and burn (melt), thus interrupting the fault current before
damage could be caused.The time current characteristic of a fuseFusing time (ms)Current
(A)Rated Current

There are 3 general types of fuses.

Re-wirable (semi-enclosed) fuse

Cartridge fuse
High-rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse – a development of the cartridge fuse

Re-wirable (semi-enclosed) fuse

AdvantagesThe re-wirable fuse is cheap,Semi-enclosed (re-wirable) fuse is a simple device. It
consists of a short length of wire, generally of tinned copper. The current at which the wire melts
depends on the length of the wire and its cross sectional area (R=ρl/A).

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Disadvantages

Deterioration with time due to oxidation - may operate at lower currents than expected due to the
reduction in cross sectional area and hence increase in resistance. easy for an inexperienced
person to replace a blown fuse-element with a wire of incorrect size or type. Calibration of re-
wirable fuse can never be time taken for the fuse to blow may be enough to bring damage to
circuit conductors and the equipment being protected.

Fully enclosed (cartridge) fuse

fuse wire is enclosed in an evacuated glass tube with metal end caps Advantages Non-
deterioration of the fuse element Usually more accurate Disadvantages More expensive to
replace Fully enclosed (cartridge) fuse Developed to overcome the disadvantages of the re-
wirable type of fuse.

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 High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses
The HRC fuse is usually a high-grade ceramic barrel containing the fuse element. The barrel is
usually filled with sand, which helps to quench the resultant arc produced when the element
melts.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Magnetic mechanism The magnetic mechanism uses a solenoid with an iron piece .It is used for
short circuit (fault) protection. Can be operated by hand or automatically .The automatic
operation is done by using magnetic or thermal mechanism.

Thermal mechanism This mechanism uses a heat sensitive bimetal element ..It is used for
overload circuit protection.

Advantages of mcb s over fuses are

Non destructive determination of tripping characteristics Shorter tripping times under moderate
over currents than with fuses Immediate indication of faulty circuit Reclosing can be effected at
once after the fault has been cleared No stock of fuses are required Can be easily used as a circuit
control switch when needed

Circuit Breakers for earth leakage circuit protection

These are used to detect electrical faults to earth in equipment and to clear the fault by tripping.
Classified into two types: Voltage operated protection − Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
(ELCB)Current operated protection − Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCB) or Residual
Current Device (RCD)

Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB):

For the proper operation two earth terminals are required .Frame earth (which all non-conducting
metallic parts of equipment are connected)ELCB reference earth. The ELCB will normally
operate when the voltage across the coil exceeds about 40 V with respect to the reference earth.

Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB):

The operation is based on a fault current Difference between the line current and the neutral
current is used to energize the solenoid, which causes the switch to open.

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Basic Domestic Wiring System(single phase)
Up to the energy meter belongs to the supply authority.The consumer‟s installation starts from
the Main switch.Next followed by usually one (or more) RCCBs.Then followed by a
Distribution board (with different rated MCBs).Final circuits are connected to the distribution
box. ( circuit for Lighting and circuits for socket outlets )

Service Fuse Box The electricity supply into your house is controlled by a service fuse, usually
found before the electricity meter.

Unit of measurements  kWh

Electricity MeterAn electrical meter or energy meter is a device that measure the amount of
electrical energy supplied to or produced by a consumer.Unit of measurements  kWhOne unit is
equal to amount of energy used by a load of 1kW over a period of one hour,1kW × 1h = 1000 Js-
1 × 3600 s = 3,600,000 J

Main Switch Trip Switch

The main switch is use to switch off and on the supply of electricity to the entire house .Both live
and neutral wires are can disconnected.When electrical inspection carried out it is vital to turned
off the main switch.Trip Switch RCCB or ELCB use as trip switch.

Final circuit for lighting:

Loop-in method is use for wiring a final circuit for lighting.Loop-in Method:This method enables
all joints and terminations in a single final circuit to be made at switches or other
accessories.Lamp circuits do not normally need an earth wire.

Type of switches Single pole switches

This is used turn a light, receptacle or device on and off from a single location Two way switches
This is used when it is necessary to operate a lamp from two positions such as at the top and
bottom of a staircase and at the ends of a long corridor.

Final circuits for socket outlets:

Socket outlets (plug points) are wired in two ways Ring circuit connection method .Radial
connection method.

Ring circuit connection method

Looping is done for the live conductor, neutral conductor and the protective conductor in
separate rings.

Radialcircuit connection method

Commences from the distribution board. Through an MCB/fuse of specific rating

(e.g.20A).Loop into each socket outlet but ends at a socket outlet.

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 EARTHING

Earth in an installation is the conductive massof earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken aszero.To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric
appliance or installations to the earth (ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.

Need of Earthing or Grounding. Why Earthing is Important?

The primary purpose of earthing is to avoid or minimize the danger of electrocution, fire due to
earth leakage of current through undesired path and to ensure that the potential of a current
carrying conductor does not rise with respect to the earth than its designed insulation.
When the metallic part of electrical appliances (parts that can conduct or allow passage of
electric current) comes in contact with a live wire, maybe due to failure of installations or failure
in cable insulation, the metal become charged and static charge accumulates on it. If a person
touches such a charged metal, the result is a severe shock.
To avoid such instances, the power supply systems and parts of appliances have to be earthed so
as to transfer the charge directly to the earth.
Below are the basic needs of Earthing.
To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and appliances from
leakage current.
To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one phase).
To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.
To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.

Different Terms used in Electrical Earthing

 Earth: The proper connection between electrical installation systems via conductor to the
buried plate in the earth is known as Earth.
 Earthed: When an electrical device, appliance or wiring system connected to the earth
through earth electrode, it is known as earthed device or simple “Earthed”.
 Solidly Earthed: When an electric device, appliance or electrical installation is connected to
the earth electrode without a fuse, circuit breaker or resistance/Impedance, It is called “solidly
earthed”.
 Earth Electrode: When a conductor (or conductive plate) buried in the earth for electrical
earthing system. It is known to be Earth Electrode. Earth electrodes are in different shapes
like, conductive plate, conductive rod, metal water pipe or any other conductor with low
resistance.
 Earthing Lead: The conductor wire or conductive strip connected between Earth electrode
and Electrical installation system and devices in called Earthing lead.
 Earth Continuity Conductor: The conductor wire, which is connected among different
electrical devices and appliances like, distribution board, different plugs and appliances etc. in
other words, the wire between earthing lead and electrical device or appliance is called earth

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 continuity conductor. It may be in the shape of metal pipe (fully or partial), or cable metallic
sheath or flexible wire.
 Sub Main Earthing Conductor: A wire connected between switch board and distribution
board i.e. that conductor is related to sub main circuits.
 Earth Resistance: This is the total resistance between earth electrode and earth in Ω (Ohms).
Earth resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances of earth continuity conductor, earthing
lead, earth electrode and earth.
POINTS TO BE EARTHED
Earthing is not done anyhow. According to IE rules and IEE (Institute of Electrical Engineers)
regulations,
 Earth pin of 3-pin lighting plug sockets and 4-pin power plug should be efficiently and
permanently earthed.
 All metal casing or metallic coverings containing or protecting any electric supply line or
apparatus such as GI pipes and conduits enclosing VIR or PVC cables, iron clad switches, iron
clad distribution fuse boards etc should be earthed (connected to earth).
 The frame of every generator, stationary motors and metallic parts of all transformers used for
controlling energy should be earthed by two separate and yet distinct connections with the
earth.
 In a dc 3-wire system, the middle conductors should be earthed at the generating station.
 Stay wires that are for overhead lines should be connected to earth by connecting at least one
strand to the earth wires.

Components of Earthing System

A complete electrical earthing system consists on the following basic components.
 Earth Continuity Conductor
 Earthing Lead
 Earth Electrode

Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire

That part of the earthing system which interconnects the overall metallic parts of electrical
installation e.g. conduit, ducts, boxes, metallic shells of the switches, distribution
boards, Switches, fuses, Regulating and controlling devices, metallic parts of electrical machines
such as, motors, generators, transformers and the metallic framework where electrical devices
and components are installed is known as earth wire or earth continuity conductor as shown in
the above fig.
The resistance of the earth continuity conductor is very low. According to IEEE rules, resistance
between consumer earth terminal and earth Continuity conductor (at the end) should not be
increased than 1Ω. In simple words, resistance of earth wire should be less than 1Ω.
Size of the Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire depends on the cable size used in
the wiring circuit.
Size of Earth Continuity Conductor
The cross sectional area of the Earth Continuity Conductor should not be less than the half of
the cross sectional area of the thickest wire used in the electrical wiring installation.
Generally, the size of the bare copper wire used as earth continuity conductor is 3SWG. But keep
in mind that, don‟t use less than 14SWG as earth wire. Copper strip is also can be used as earth

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continuity conductor instead of bare copper wire but don‟t go for it until manufacture
recommend it.
Earthing Lead or Earthing Joint
The conductor wire connected between earth continuity conductor and earth electrode or earth
plate is called earthing joint or “Earthing lead”. The point where earth continuity conductor and
earth electrode meet is known as “connecting point” as shown in the above fig.
Earthing lead is the final part of the earthing system which is connected to the earth electrode
(which is underground) through earth connecting point.
There should be minimum joints in earthing lead as well as lower in size and straight in the
direction.
Generally, copper wire can be used as earthing lead but, copper strip is also used for high
installation and it can handle the high fault current because of wider area than the copper wire.
A hard drawn bare copper wire is also used as an earthing lead. In this method, all earth
conductors connected to a common (one or more) connecting points and then, earthing lead is
used to connect earth electrode (earth plat) to the connecting point.
To increase the safety factor of installation, two copper wires are used as earthing lead to connect
the device metallic body to the earth electrode or earth plate. I.e. if we use two earth electrodes
or earth plates, there would be four earthing leads. It should not be considered that the two earth
leads are used as parallel paths to flow the fault currents but both paths should work properly to
carry the fault current because it is important for better safety.
Size of the Earthing Lead
The size or area of earthing lead should not be less than the half of the thickest wire used in the
installation.
The largest size for earthing lead is 3SWG and the minimum size should not be less than 8SWG.
If 37/.083 wire is used or the load current is 200A from the supply voltage, then it is
recommended to use copper strip instead of double earthing lead. The earth lead connection
methods is shown in the above fig.
Note: We will post additional article about Earth Plate size with simple calculations… Stay tune.
Earthing Electrode or Earth Plate
A metallic electrode or plate which is buried in the earth (underground) and it is the last part of
the electrical earthing system. In simple words, the final underground metallic (plate) part of the
earthing system which is connected with earthing lead is called earth plate or earth electrode.
A metallic plate, pipe or rode can be used as an earth electrode which has very low resistance
and carry the fault current safely towards ground (earth).
Size of Earthing Electrode
Both copper and iron can be used as earthing electrode.
The size of earth electrode (In case of copper)
2×2 (two foot wide as well as in length) and 1/8 inch thickness.. I.e. 2‟ x 2‟ x 1/8”.
(600x600x300 mm)
In case of Iron
2‟ x2‟ x ¼” = 600x600x6 mm
It is recommended to bury the earth electrode in the moisture earth. If it is not possible, then put
water in the GI (Galvanized Iron) pipe to make possible the moisture condition.
In the earthing system, put the earth electrode in vertical position (underground)Also, put a 1
foot (about 30cm) layer of powdered charcoal and lime mixture around the earth plate (don‟t
confuse with earth electrode and earth plate as both are the same thing).

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This action makes the possible increase in the size of the earth electrode which leads a better
continuity in the earth (earthing system) and also helps to maintain the moisture condition around
earth plate.

2). Pipe Earthing:

A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed vertically in a
wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of earthing.
The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The dimension
of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for ordinary soil or
greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the length of the pipe to be
buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).

3). Rod Earthing

it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm
(0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above
2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.

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 4). Strip or Wire Earthing:
In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in x
0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-
section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0mm2 if it‟s a galvanized
iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say less than
6.0mm2 if it‟s a galvanized iron or steel. The length of the conductor buried in the ground would
give a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than 15m.

General method of Earthing / Proper Grounding Installation (Step by Step)

The usual method of earthing of electric equipments, devices and appliances are as follow:
1. First of all, dig a 5x5ft (1.5×1.5m) pit about 20-30ft (6-9 meters) in the ground. (Note that,
depth and width depends on the nature and structure of the ground)
2. Bury an appropriate (usually 2‟ x 2‟ x 1/8” (600x600x300 mm) copper plate in that pit in
vertical position.
3. Tight earth lead through nut bolts from two different places on earth plate.
4. Use two earth leads with each earth plate (in case of two earth plates) and tight them.
5. To protect the joints from corrosion, put grease around it.
6. Collect all the wires in a metallic pipe from the earth electrode(s). Make sure the pipe is 1ft
(30cm) above the surface of the ground.

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7. To maintain the moisture condition around the earth plate, put a 1ft (30cm) layer of powdered
charcoal (powdered wood coal) and lime mixture around the earth plate of around the earth
plate.
8. Use thimble and nut bolts to connect tightly wires to the bed plates of machines. Each
machine should be earthed from two different places. The minimum distance between two
earth electrodes should be 10 ft (3m).
9. Earth continuity conductor which is connected to the body and metallic parts of all installation
should be tightly connected to earth lead.
10. At last (but not least), test the overall earthing system through earth tester. If everything is
going about the planning, then fill the pit with soil. The maximum allowable resistance for
earthing is 1Ω. If it is more than 1 ohm, then increase the size (not length) of earth lead and
earth continuity conductors. Keep the external ends of the pipes open and put the water time to
time to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode which is important for the
better earthing system.
SI specification for Earthing
Various specifications in respect to earthing as recommended by Indian Standards are given
below. Here are few;
 An earthing electrode should not be situated (installed) close to the building whose installation
system is being earthed at least more than 1.5m away.
 The earth resistance should be low enough to cause the flow of current sufficient to operate
the protective relays or blow fuses. It‟s value is not constant as it varies with weather because
it depends on moisture (but should not be less than 1 Ohm).
 The earth wire and earth electrode will be the same material.
 The earthing electrode should always be placed in a vertical position inside the earth or pit so
that it may be in contact with all the different earth layers.
Dangers Of Not Earthing A Supply System
As emphasized on earlier, earthing is provided in order
 To avoid electric shock
 To avoid risk of fire as a result of earth leakage current through unwanted path and
 To ensure that no current carrying conductor rises to a potential with respect to general mass
of earth than its designed insulation.
However, if excessive current is not earthed, appliances will be damaged without the help of fuse
in place. You should note that excessive current are earthed at their generating stations which is
why earth wires carries very little or no current at all. It therefore implies that it is not necessary
to earth any of the wires (live, earth and neutral wires) contained in a PVC. Earthing the live wire
is catastrophic.
I have seen a person killed simply because a live wire got cut from overhead pole and fell to the
ground while the ground was wet. Excessive current is earthed at generating stations and if at all
the earthing is not efficient due to fault, earth fault interrupters will be there to help. Fuse help
only when the power transmitted is above the rating of our appliances, it blocks the current from
reaching our appliances by blowing off and protecting our appliances in the process.
In our electrical appliances, if excessive currents are not earthed, we would experience severe
shock. Earthing takes place in electrical appliances only when there is a problem and it is to save
us from danger. If in an electronic installation, a metallic part of an electrical appliance comes in
direct contact with a live wire that results from maybe failure of installation or otherwise, the
metal will be charged and static charge will accumulate on it.

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If you happen to touch the metallic part at that moment you will be zapped. But if the metallic
part of the appliance is earthed, the charge will be transferred to earth instead of accumulating on
the metallic part of the appliance. Current don‟t flow through earth wires in electrical appliances,
it does so only when there is problem and only to direct the unwanted current to earth in order to
protect us from severe shock.
In addition, if a live wire touches accidentally (in a faulty system) to the metallic part of a
machine. Now, if a man touches that metallic part of the machine, then the current will flow
through their body to the ground, hence, he will get shocked (electrocuted) which may lead to
serious injuries even to death. That‟s why earthing is so important?

ELCB

An ECLB is one kind of safety device used for installing an electrical device with high earth
impedance to avoid shock. These devices identify small stray voltages of the electrical device on
the metal enclosures and intrude the circuit if a dangerous voltage is identified. The main
purpose of Earth leakage circuit breaker (ECLB) is to stop damage to humans & animals due to
electric shock.

An ELCB is a specific type of latching relay that has a structure‟s incoming mains power
associated through its switching contacts so that the circuit breaker detaches the power in an
unsafe condition.The ELCB notices fault currents of human or animal to the earth wire in the
connection it guards. If ample voltage seems across the ELCB‟s sense coil, it will turn off the
power, and remain off until manually rearrange. A voltage sensing ELCB doesn‟t detect fault
currents from human or animal to the earth.

The ELCB notices fault currents of human or animal to the earth wire in the connection it guards.
If ample voltage seems across the ELCB‟s sense coil, it will turn off the power, and remain off
until manually rearrange. A voltage sensing ELCB doesn‟t detect fault currents from human or
animal to the earth .

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How to Connect Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
The earth circuit is adapted when an ELCB is used; the connection to the earth rod is accepted
through the earth leakage circuit breaker by linking to its two earth terminals. One goes to the
fitting earth circuit protective conductor (CPC), and the other to the earth rod or another kind of
earth connection. Thus the earth circuit permits through the ELCB‟s sense coil.

Types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

There are two types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

 Voltage Operated ELCB

 Current Operated ELCB
Voltage Operated ELCB
Voltage-operated ELCB device is used to detect a voltage to choose the Earth leakage. A single-
phase voltage ELCB includes 6-terminals namely line in, line out, neutral in, neutral out, Earth
and fault. The metal body of the load is associated with the fault terminal of the Earth Leakage
Circuit Breaker (ELCB) & Earth terminal is associated with the ground. For usual working, the
voltage across the trip coil is „0‟, as the Load‟s body is isolated from the supply line. When an
Earth fault happens on the load due to the interaction of line wire to the metal body, a current
will run through fault to the ground. The flow of current will set up a voltage across the trip coil,
which is associated between E & F. The energized trip coil will tour the circuit to guard the load
device & the user.

A voltage-operated ELCB detects a growth in potential between the threatened consistent

metalwork and a distant isolated Earth reference electrode. They work as a sensed potential of
around 50V to open the main breaker & separate the supply from the threatened premises.A
voltage-operated ELCB includes a second terminal for linking to the remote reference Earth
connection.The Earth circuit is improved when an ELCB is utilized; the link to the Earth rod is
delivered through the ELCB by linking to its two Earth terminals. One terminal energy to the
installation Earth circuit protective conductor, aka Earth wire (CPC), and the other to the Earth
rod or some type of earth connection.

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Advantages of Voltage Operated ELCB
 ELCBs are less sensitive to fault conditions and have few nuisance trips.
 While current and voltage on the ground line generally fault current from a live wire, this is
not continuously the case, therefore there are conditions in which an ELCB can annoyance
trip.
 When an installation of the electrical instrument has two contacts to earth, a near high current
lightning attack will root a voltage gradient in the earth, offering the ELCB sense coil with
sufficient voltage to source it to a trip.
 If either of the soil wires become detached from the ELCB, it will no longer install will
frequently no longer be correctly earthed.
 These ELCBs are the necessity for a second connection and the opportunity that any extra
connection to ground on the threatened system can inactivate the detector.
Disadvantages of Voltage Operated ELCB
 They do not sense errors that don‟t permit current through the CPC to the ground rod.
 They do not permit an only building system to be simply divided into many sections with
independent error protection because earthing systems are typically used mutual earth, Rod.
 They may be skipped by outside voltages from something associated with the earthing system
like as metal pipes, a TN-C-S or a TN-S earth mutual neutral and earth.
 As electrical leaky utilizations like washing machines, some water heaters and cookers might
source the ELCB to trip.

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 ELCBs present an extra resistance & an extra point of failure in the earthing system.
Current Operated ELCB

RCCB is the generally used ELCB and it comprises of a three winding transformer, that has two
primary windings and also one secondary winding. Neutral & line wires work as the two main
windings. A wire wound coil is the minor winding. The flow of current through the minor
winding is “0” in the stable condition. In this condition, the flux owed to the current over the
phase wire will be deactivated by the current through the neutral wire, meanwhile the current,
that flows from the phase will be refunded to the neutral.
When an error occurs, a slight current will run into the ground also. This creates a confuse
between line and neutral current and that makes an unstable magnetic field. This encourages a
current flow through the minor winding, which is associated with the sensing circuit. This will
detect the outflow and direct signal to tripping system.

Earthing systems
Contact with metalwork made live by a fault is called indirect contact. One popular method of

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providing some measure of protection against such contact is by earthed equipotential bonding
and automatic disconnection of supply. This entails the bonding together and connection to earth
of:
1 All metalwork associated with electrical apparatus and systems, termed exposed conductive
parts. Examples include conduit, trunking and the metal cases of apparatus.
2 All metalwork liable to introduce a potential including earth potential, termed extraneous
conductive parts. Examples are gas, oil and water pipes, structural steelwork, radiators, sinks and
baths.
The conductors used in such connections are called protective conductors, and they can be
further subdivided into:
1 Circuit protective conductors, for connecting exposed conductive parts to the main earthing
terminal.
2 Main equipotential bonding conductors, for bonding together main incoming services,
structural steelwork, etc.
3 Supplementary bonding conductors, for bonding together sinks, baths, taps, radiators, etc., and
exposed conductive parts in bathrooms and swimming pools.
The effect of all this bonding is to create a zone in which all metalwork of different services and
systems will, even under fault conditions, be at a substantially equal potential. If, added to this,
there is a low-resistance earth
return path, the protection should operate fast enough to prevent danger.
The resistance of such an earth return path will depend upon the system. These systems have
been designated in the IEE Regulations using the letters T, N, C and S. These letters stand for:
T terre (French for earth) and meaning a direct connection to earth.
N neutral
C combined
S separate
When these letters are grouped they form the classification of a type of system. The first letter in
such a classification denotes how the supply source is earthed. The second denotes how the
metalwork of an installation is earthed.
The third and fourth indicate the functions of neutral and protective conductors. Hence:
1 A TT system has a direct connection of the supply source to earth and a direct connection of
the installation metalwork to earth. An example is anoverhead line supply with earth electrodes,
and the mass of earth as a return
path

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A TN–S system has the supply source directly connected to earth, the installation metalwork
connected to the earthed neutral of the supply source via the metal sheath of the supply cable,
and the neutral and protective
conductors throughout the whole system performing separate functions

3 A TN–C–S system is as the TN–S system but the supply cable sheath is also the neutral, i.e. it
forms a combined earth/neutral conductor known as a PEN (Protective Earthed Neutral)
conductor (Fig. 16.9). The installation
earth and neutral are separate conductors. This system is also known as
PME (Protective Multiple Earthing). Note that only single-phase systems have been shown, for
simplicity.
With this system (PME system), it is important to ensure that the neutral is kept at earth potential
by earthing it at many points along its length (hence „multiple‟ earthing). If this is not done, a
fault to neutral in one installation
could cause a shock risk in all the other installations connected to that system.

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<GRAD ENG> WANJALA
Cables
A great number of types of cable are available, ranging from the very smallest single-core wire
used in electronic circuits, to the huge oil- and gas-filled cables used in high-voltage
transmission systems. In this book we areconcerned only with cables used in low-voltage
systems (50–1000 V). A cable comprises two parts: the conductor or conductors and the
sheathing and insulation.

Conductors
A conductor may be defined as the conducting portion of a cable, which consists of a single wire
or group of wires in contact with each other.The ability of a material to be a good or bad
conductor of electricity depends on the composition of that material, i.e. its resistivity

Silver is clearly the best conductor in the list shown, but its cost prohibits its use as a conductor
material on any large scale.

Gold also is a material too expensive for use in the construction of conductors.
It can be seen that copper, quite a plentiful mineral, has a low enough resistivity to make it
suitable as a conductor material, and, in fact, its use in the manufacture of cable is widespread.
Aluminium, although cheap and with a relatively low resistivity, is not as suitable as copper. It
has to have a large cross-sectional area to pass the same current and is mechanically inferior to
copper.
Tungsten, because of its high resistivity, is used mainly in heating elements and light-bulb
filaments.

Conductor construction
Conductors may be divided into two groups:
1 solid conductors; and
2 stranded conductors.
Solid conductors are either circular or rectangular in cross-section and are used for fixed wiring.
Circular conductors are restricted mainly to cable cores up to 2.5 mm2, although cross-sectional
areas of up to 25 mm2 are sometimes used in trunking, from the ground floor to the top floor of a
block of flats, to provide a supply point for each floor. These conductors are called

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 risers.Rectangular conductors (usually called bus-bars) are used in distribution boards or
specially constructed bus-bar chambers designed to allow many different circuits to be „tapped‟
off.

Stranded conductors are used in both fixed wiring cable and flexible cords, the latter being
flexible cables not exceeding 4 mm2 in cross-sectional area(c.s.a.).Conductors for fixed wiring
up to 25 mm2 have seven strands; for example, a 6 mm2 conductor has seven strands each of
1.04 mm diameter (7/1.04).Conductors of c.s.a. above 25 mm2 have more strands depending on
size.Flexible cords have conductors comprising a great many fine strands. Thistype of
construction gives the conductor its flexible quality

Reasons for stranding

Stranded conductor offer much surface area for flow of current that results in reduced diameter
of conductor for same current carrying capacity.

As Stranded conductor offer much surface area so overall resistance of the conductor is lesser
than the same size solid conductor.

Stranded Conductor offer much flexibility hence have longer life than solid conductor in a case
when conductor needs repeated stretch.

Eddy current losses are very much lesser than the solid conductor.

Stranded conductor are very suitable to external environment and reduce the risk of
looseconnection.

Sheathing and insulation

With the exception of bare conductors, i.e. bus-bars and bare risers, allconductors have some sort
of insulation and/or sheathing.

Methods of Electrical Wiring Systems w.r.t Taking Connection

Wiring (a process of connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from
supplier‟s meter board to home appliances such as lamps, fans and other domestic appliances is
known as Electrical Wiring) can be done using two methods which are

 Joint box system or Tee system

 Loop – in system
Joint Box or Tee or Jointing System

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In this method of wiring, connections to appliances are made through joints. These joints are made
in joint boxes by means of suitable connectors or joints cutouts. This method of wiring doesn‟t
consume too much cables size.You might think because this method of wiring doesn‟t require too
much cable it is therefore cheaper. It is of course but the money you saved from buying cables will
be used in buying joint boxes, thus equation is balanced. This method is suitable for temporary
installations and it is cheap.

Loop-in or Looping System

This method of wiring is universally used in wiring. Lamps and other appliances are connected
in parallel so that each of the appliances can be controlled individually. When a connection is
required at a light or switch, the feed conductor is looped in by bringing it directly to the terminal
and then carrying it forward again to the next point to be fed.

The switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops from one point to
another until the last on the circuit is reached. The phase or line conductors are looped either in
switchboard or box and neutrals are looped either in switchboard or from light or fan. Line or
phase should never be looped from light or fan.

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 Advantages of Loop-In Method of Wiring
 It doesn‟t require joint boxes and so money is saved
 In loop – in systems, no joint is concealed beneath floors or in roof spaces.
 Fault location is made easy as the points are made only at outlets so that they are accessible.

Disadvantages of Loop-In Method of Wiring

 Length of wire or cables required is more and voltage drop and copper losses are
therefore more
 Looping – in switches and lamp holders is usually difficult.

Conduit Wiring

There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation

Surface Conduit Wiring

Concealed Conduit Wiring

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 Surface Conduit Wiring:If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit
wiring. in this wiring method, they make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and
conduit is installed then with the help of rawal plugs.

Concealed Conduit wiring:If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of
plastering, it is called concealed conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system
inside wall, roof or floor with the help of plastic or metallic piping is called concealed conduit
wiring. obliviously, It is the most popular, beautiful, stronger and common electrical wiring
system nowadays.

In conduit wiring, steel tubes known as conduits are installed on the surface of walls by means of
pipe hooks (surface conduit wiring) or buried in walls under plaster and VIR or PVC cables are
afterwards drawn by means of a GI wire of size if about 18SWG.In Conduit wiring system, The
conduits should be electrically continuous and connected to earth at some suitable points in case
of steel conduit. Conduit wiring is a professional way of wiring a building. Mostly PVC conduits
are used in domestic wiring.

The conduit protects the cables from being damaged by rodents (when rodents bites the cables it
will cause short circuit) that is why circuit breakers are in place though but hey! Prevention is
better than cure. Lead conduits are used in factories or when the building is prone to fire
accident. Trunking is more of like surface conduit wiring. It‟s gaining popularity too.It is done
by screwing a PVC trunking pipe to a wall then passing the cables through the pipe. The cables
in conduit should not be too tight. Space factor have to be put into consideration.

Types of Conduit

Following conduits are used in the conduit wiring systems (both concealed and surface conduit
wiring) which are shown in the above image.

 Metallic Conduit
 Non-metallic conduit

Metallic Conduit:
Metallic conduits are made of steel which are very strong but costly as well.

There are two types of metallic conduits.

 Class A Conduit: Low gauge conduit (Thin layer steel sheet conduit)
 Class B Conduit: High gauge conduit (Thick sheet of steel conduit)

Non-metallic Conduit:
A solid PVC conduit is used as non-metallic conduit now a days, which is flexible and easy to
bend.

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 Size of Conduit:
The common conduit pipes are available in different sizes genially, 13, 16.2, 18.75, 20, 25, 37,
50, and 63 mm (diameter) or 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 1.25, 1.5, and 2 inch in diameter.

Advantage of Conduit Wiring Systems

 It is the safest wiring system (Concealed conduit wring)
 Appearance is very beautiful (in case of concealed conduit wiring)
 No risk of mechanical wear & tear and fire in case of metallic pipes.
 Customization can be easily done according to the future needs.
 Repairing and maintenance is easy.
 There is no risk of damage the cables insulation.
 it is safe from corrosion (in case of PVC conduit) and risk of fire.
 It can be used even in humidity , chemical effect and smoky areas.
 No risk of electric shock (In case of proper earthing and grounding of metallic pipes).
 It is reliable and popular wiring system.
 sustainable and long-lasting wiring system.

Disadvantages of Conduit Wiring Systems

 It is expensive wiring system (Due to PVC and Metallic pipes, Additional earthing for
metallic pipes Tee(s) and elbows etc.
 Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
 installation is not easy and simple.
 Risk of Electric shock (In case of metallic pipes without proper earthing system)
 Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.

Trunking
Trunking may be thought of as simply a larger and more accessible conduitsystem. It is available
in two ranges, ordinary wiring trunking and bus-bartrunking. The ordinary system is further
available in either metal or PVC.
PVC trunking
The main areas in which PVC trunking is used are domestic and officepremises. It is perhaps
better described as „channelling‟ rather than „trunking‟.All necessary fitting are available to
complete any shape of run with little
difficulty. Joins in PVC trunking are usually made with adhesive

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Trunking wiring System

Advantages

Cheap and easy installation method.

The cables are enclosed in trunking there is no risk of cable insulation to be damaged.
Cables are safe against dust and humidity.
Alternations are possible
Trunking system has a long life

Disadvantage

Expensive compared to other wiring systems.

Care and good workmanship are needed to ensure a successful installation.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

DC MACHINES

Each DC machine can act as a generator or a motor. Hence, this classification is valid for both:
DC generators and DC motors. DC machines are usually classified on the basis of their field
excitation method. This makes two broad categories of dc machines; (i) Separately excited and
(ii) Self-excited.

Separately excited DC machines: In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is supplied
from a separate power source. That means the field winding is electrically separated from the
armature circuit. Separately excited DC generators are not commonly used because they are
relatively expensive due to the requirement of an additional power source or circuitry. They are
used in laboratories for research work, for accurate speed control of DC motors with Ward-
Leonard system and in few other applications where self-excited DC generators are
unsatisfactory. In this type, the stator field flux may also be provided with the help of permanent
magnets (such as in permanent magnet DC motors). PMDC (permanant magnet DC) motors are
popularly used in small toys, e.g. a toy car.

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Self-excited DC machines: In this type, field winding and armature winding are interconnected
in various ways to achieve a wide range of performance characteristics (for example, field
winding in series or parallel with the armature winding).

In a self-excited type of DC generator, the field winding is energized by the current produced by
themselves. A small amount of flux is always present in the poles due to the residual magnetism.
So, initially, current induces in the armature conductors of a dc generator only due to the residual
magnetism. The field flux gradually increases as the induced current starts flowing through the
field winding.

Self-excited machines can be further classified as –

Series wound dc machines – In this type, field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding. Therefore, the field winding carries whole of the load current (armature current). That
is why series winding is designed with few turns of thick wire and the resistance is kept very low
(about 0.5 Ohm).

Shunt wound dc machines – Here, field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding. Hence, the full voltage is applied across the field winding. Shunt winding is made with
a large number of turns and the resistance is kept very high (about 100 Ohm). It takes only small
current which is less than 5% of the rated armature current.

Compound wound dc machines – In this type, there are two sets of field winding. One is
connected in series and the other is connected in parallel with the armature winding. Compound
wound machines are further divided as -

Short shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with only the armature winding

Long shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with the combination of series field winding
and armature winding

All dc machines have five principal components

Magnetic frame or Yoke

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

Pole Coils or Field Coils

Armature core

Armature winding

Commutator

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Brushes and Bearings

The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose :

1. It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine
2. It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.

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In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main consideration, yokes are
made of cast iron.

But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed.

The modern process of forming the yoke consists of rolling a steel slab round a cylindrical
mandrel and then welding it at the bottom.

The feet and the terminal box etc. are welded to the frame afterwards. Such yokes possess
sufficient mechanical strength and have high permeability.
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes:

1. they spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross-section, reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path
2. they support the exciting coils (or field coils)

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There are two main types of pole construction.

 The pole core itself may be a solid piece made out of either cast iron or cast steel but the
pole shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means of counter sunk screws
 In modern design, the complete pole cores and pole shoes are built of thin laminations of
annealed steel which are rivetted together under hydraulic pressure. The thickness of
laminations varies from 1 mm to 0.25 mm.
field system

The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the armature
rotates.

Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the dc exciting current. The field coils are
connected in such a way that adjacent poles have opposite polarity.

The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes through the pole
pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame.

Practical d.c. machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 m
Armature core and Laminations
Since armature and field systems are composed of materials that have high permeability, most of
the m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up flux in the air gap.

By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (i.e. number of turns).
The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles.

It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked
to form a cylindrical core as shown in figure

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The laminations are individually coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in
electrical contact with each other. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy
current loss. Thinner the lamination, greater is the resistance offered to the induced e.m.f.,
smaller the current and hence lesser the I²R loss in the core.The laminations are slotted to
accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to give shorter air
gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.

Armature winding
The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable manner.
This is known as armature winding. This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is induced.
The armature conductors are connected in series-parallel; the conductors being connected in
series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the current.

The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the conductors being
connected in a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed loops.Depending
upon the manner in which the armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments,
there are two types of armature winding in a d.c. machine viz.,
(a) lap winding
(b) wave winding.

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Commutator

A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated in the
armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes.

The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and
mounted on the shaft of the machine . The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator
segments in a suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding. Depending upon the manner
in which the armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are two types
of armature winding in a d.c. machine viz.,
(a) lap winding
(b) wave winding.

Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to
bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The sparks may bum the brushes and overheat and
carbonise the commutator.

Brushes

DC motors are of two types : one is brushed dc motor and the other one is brushless dc motor.
Brushless dc motors are mainly used in high speed applications such as multicopters (eg:-
quadcopters). The purpose of brushes in a dc generator is to ensure electrical connections
between the rotating commutator and stationary external load circuit. The brushes are made of
carbon and rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable
springs.

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If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the
brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may
produce sparking. Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a
4-pole machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have
positive and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected together so that
we have two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal

Shunt

The shunt wound DC motor falls under the category of self excited DC motors, where the field
windings are shunted to, or are connected in parallel to the armature winding of the motor, as its
name is suggestive of. And for this reason both the armature winding and the field winding are
exposed to the same supply voltage, though there are separate branches for the flow of armature
current and the field current as shown in the figure of DC shunt motor below.

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Voltage and Current Equation of a Shunt Wound DC Motor
Let us now consider the voltage and current being supplied from the electrical terminal to the
motor be given by E and Itotal respectively. This supply current in case of the shunt wound DC
motor is split up into 2 parts. Ia, flowing through the armature winding of resistance Ra and Ish
flowing through the field winding of resistance Rsh. The voltage across both windings remains

the same. From there we can write Thus we

put this value of armature current Ia to get general voltage equation of a DC shunt motor. Now
in general practice, when the motor is in its running condition, and supply voltage is constant the

shunt field current given by, But we know Ish ∝ Φ i.e. field
flux Φ is proportional to filed current Ish Thus the field flux remains more or less constant and for
this reason a shunt wound DC motor is called a constant flux motor.
Construction of a Shunt Wound DC Motor

The construction of a dc shunt motor is pretty similar to other types of DC motor, as shown in
the figure below.

Just that there is one distinguishable feature in its designing which can be explained by taking
into consideration, the torque generated by the motor. To produce a high torque,

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 1. The armature winding must be exposed to an amount of current that‟s much higher than the
field windings current, as the torque is proportional to the armature current.
2. The field winding must be wound with many turns to increase the flux linkage, as flux
linkage between the field and armature winding is also proportional to the torque. Keeping
these two above mentioned criterion in mind a DC shunt motor has been designed in a way,
that the field winding possess much higher number of turns to increase net flux linkage and
are lesser in diameter of conductor to increase resistance (reduce current flow) compared to
the armature winding of the DC motor. And this is how a shunt wound DC motor is visibly
distinguishable in static condition from the DC series motor (having thicker field coils) of
the self excited type motor‟s category.
Series Wound DC Motor or DC Series Motor
A series wound DC motor like in the case of shunt wound DC motor or compound wound DC
motor falls under the category of self-excited DC motors, and it gets its name from the fact that
the field winding in this case is connected internally in series to the armature winding. Thus the
field winding are exposed to the entire armature current unlike in the case of a shunt motor.
Construction of Series DC Motor

Construction wise a this motor is similar to any other types of DC motors in almost all aspects. It
consists of all the fundamental components like the stator housing the field winding or the rotor
carrying the armature conductors, and the other vital parts like the commutator or the brush
segments all attached in the proper sequence as in
the case of a generic DC motor.

The wire is heavier, as the diameter is considerable increased to provide minimum electrical
resistance to the flow of full armature current.
In spite of the above mentioned differences, about having fewer coil turns the running of this DC
motor remains unaffected, as the current through the field is reasonably high to produce a field
strong enough for generating the required amount of torque. To understand that better lets look
into the voltage and current equation of DC series motor.
Voltage and Current Equation of Series DC Motor

The electrical layout of a typical series wound DC motor is shown in the diagram below.

Let the supply voltage and current given to the electrical port of the motor be given by E and Itotal
respectively. Since the entire supply current flows through both the armature and field conductor.
Where, Ise is the series current in the field coil and Ia is the

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armature current. Now form the basic voltage equation of the DC motor.
Where, Eb is the back emf. Rse is the series coil resistance and
Ra is the armature resistance. Since Ise = Ia, we can write,
This is the basic voltage equation of a series wound DC motor. Another interesting fact about the
DC series motor worth noting is that, the field flux like in the case of any other DC motor is
proportional to field current. But since here i.e.
the field flux is proportional to the entire armature current or the total supply current. And for
this reason, the flux produced in this motor is strong enough to produce sufficient torque, even
with the bare minimum number of turns it has in the field coil.
Compound Wound DC Motor or DC Compound Motor
A compound wound DC motor or rather a DC compound motor falls under the category of self
excited motors, and is made up of both series the field coils S1 S2 and shunt field coils F1 F2
connected to the armature winding as shown in the figure below.
Both the field coils provide for the required amount of magnetic flux, that links with the
armature coil and brings about the torque necessary to facilitate rotation at desired speed.
As we can understand, a compound wound DC motor is basically formed by the amalgamation
of a shunt wound DC motor and series wound DC motor to achieve the better off properties of
both these types. Like a shunt wound DC motor is bestowed with an extremely efficient speed
regulation characteristic, whereas the DC series motor has high starting torque.

So the compound wound DC motor reaches a

compromise in terms of both this features and has a good combination of proper speed regulation
and high starting toque. Though its staring torque is not as high as in case of DC motor, nor is its
speed regulation as good as a shunt DC motor. Overall characteristics of DC shunt motor falls
somewhere in between these 2 extreme limits.

Universal Motor
A universal motor is a special type of motor which is designed to run on either DC or single
phase AC supply. These motors are generally series wound (armature and field winding are in
series), and hence produce high starting torque (See characteristics of DC motors here). That is
why, universal motors generally comes built into the device they are meant to drive. Most of the

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universal motors are designed to operate at higher speeds, exceeding 3500 RPM. They run at
lower speed on AC supply than they run on DC supply of same voltage, due to the reactance
voltage drop which is present in AC and not in DC.
There are two basic types of universal motor : (i)compensated type and (ii) uncompensated
type

Construction Of Universal Motor

Construction of a universal motor is very similar to the construction of a DC machine. It consists

of a stator on which field poles are mounted. Field coils are wound on the field poles.
However, the whole magnetic path (stator field circuit and also armature) is laminated.
Lamination is necessary to minimize the eddy currents which induce while operating on AC.
The rotary armature is of wound type having straight or skewed slots and commutator with
brushes resting on it. The commutation on AC is poorer than that for DC. because of the current
induced in the armature coils. For that reason brushes used are having high resistance.
Working Of Universal Motor

A universal motor works on either DC or single phase AC supply. When the universal motor is
fed with a DC supply, it works as a DC series motor. (see working of a DC series motor here).
When current flows in the field winding, it produces an electromagnetic field. The same current
also flows from the armature conductors. When a current carrying conductor is placed in an
electromagnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. Due to this mechanical force, or torque,
the rotor starts to rotate. The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left hand rule

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.

When fed with AC supply, it still produces unidirectional torque. Because, armature winding and
field winding are connected in series, they are in same phase. Hence, as polarity of AC changes
periodically, the direction of current in armature and field winding reverses at the same time.
Thus, direction of magnetic field and the direction of armature current reverses in such a way
that the direction of force experienced by armature conductors remains same. Thus, regardless of
AC or DC supply, universal motor works on the same principle that DC series motor works.

AC MOTORS

SINGLE PHASE

Like any other electrical motor asynchronous motor also have two main parts namely rotor and
stator.

Stator:

As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A single phase AC supply is
given to the stator of single phase induction motor.

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Rotor:

The rotor is a rotating part of an induction motor. The rotor connects the mechanical load
through the shaft. The rotor in single phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type.

The construction of single phase induction motor is almost similar to the squirrel cage three-
phase induction motor. But in case of a single phase induction motor, the stator has two windings
instead of one three-phase winding in three phase induction motor.

Stator of Single Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the single phase induction motor has laminated stamping to reduce eddy current
losses on its periphery. The slots are provided on its stamping to carry stator or main winding.
Stampings are made up of silicon steel to reduce the hysteresis losses. When we apply a single
phase AC supply to the stator winding, the magnetic field gets produced, and the motor rotates at
speed slightly less than the synchronous speed Ns. Synchronous speed Ns is given by

Where,

f = supply voltage frequency,

P = No. of poles of the motor.

The construction of the stator of single-phase induction motor is similar to that of three phase
induction motor except there are two dissimilarities in the winding part of the single phase
induction motor.

Firstly, the single-phase induction motors are mostly provided with concentric coils. We can
easily adjust the number of turns per coil can with the help of concentric coils. The mmf
distribution is almost sinusoidal.

Except for shaded pole motor, the asynchronous motor has two stator windings namely the main
winding and the auxiliary winding. These two windings are placed in space quadrature to each
other.

Rotor of Single Phase Induction Motor

The construction of the rotor of the single-phase induction motor is similar to the squirrel cage
three-phase induction motor. The rotor is cylindrical and has slots all over its periphery. The
slots are not made parallel to each other but are a little bit skewed as the skewing prevents

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magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of induction motor more
smooth and quieter, i.e. less noise. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminium, brass or copper
bars. These aluminium or copper bars are called rotor conductors and placed in the slots on the
periphery of the rotor. The copper or aluminium rings permanently short the rotor conductors
called the end rings. To provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductors are braced to the end
ring and hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and hence got its name as
squirrel cage induction motor. As end rings permanently short the bars, the rotor electrical
resistance is very small and it is not possible to add external resistance as the bars get
permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction of single phase
induction motor very simple and robust.

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Split Phase Induction Motor

In addition to the main winding or running winding, the stator of single phase induction motor
carries another winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding. A centrifugal switch is
connected in series with auxiliary winding. The purpose of this switch is to disconnect the
auxiliary winding from the main circuit when the motor attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the
synchronous speed. We know that the running winding is inductive in nature. Our aim is to
create the phase difference between the two winding and this is possible if the starting winding
carries high resistance. Let us say Irun is the current flowing through the main or running
winding, Istart is the current flowing in starting winding, and VT is the supply voltage.

We know that for highly resistive winding the current is almost in phase with the voltage and for
highly inductive winding the current lag behind the voltage by large angle. The starting winding
is highly resistive so, the current flowing in the starting winding lags behind the applied voltage
by very small angle and the running winding is highly inductive in nature so, the current flowing
in running winding lags behind applied voltage by large angle. The resultant of these two current
is IT. The resultant of these two current produce rotating magnetic field which rotates in one
direction. In split phase induction motor the starting and main current get splitted from each
other by some angle so this motor got its name as split phase induction motor.
Applications of Split Phase Induction Motor
Split phase induction motors have low starting current and moderate starting torque. So these
motors are used in fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, washing machine, grinder, lathes, air
conditioning fans, etc. These motors are available in the size ranging from 1 / 20 to 1 / 2 KW.

Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start Capacitor Run IM

The working principle and construction of Capacitor start inductor motors and capacitor start
capacitor run induction motors are almost the same. We already know that single phase induction

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motor is not self starting because the magnetic field produced is not rotating type. In order to
produce rotating magnetic field there must be some phase difference. In case of split phase
induction motor we use resistance for creating phase difference but here we use capacitor for this
purpose. We are familiar with this fact that the current flowing through the capacitor leads the
voltage. So, in capacitor start inductor motor and capacitor start capacitor run induction
motor we are using two winding, the main winding and the starting winding. With starting
winding we connect a capacitor so the current flowing in the capacitor i.e Ist leads the applied
voltage by some angle, φst.

The running winding is inductive in nature so, the current flowing in running winding lags
behind applied voltage by an angle, φm. Now there occur large phase angle differences between
these two currents which produce an resultant current, I and this will produce a rotating magnetic
field. Since the torque produced by these motors depends upon the phase angle difference, which
is almost 90o. So, these motors produce very high starting torque. In case of capacitor start
induction motor, the centrifugal switch is provided so as to disconnect the starting winding
when the motor attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed but in case of
capacitor start capacitors run induction motor there is no centrifugal switch so, the
>capacitor remains in the circuit and helps to improve the power factor and the running
conditions of single phase induction motor.
Application of Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start Capacitor Run IM
These motors have high starting torque hence they are used in conveyors, grinder, air
conditioners, compressor, etc. They are available up to 6 KW.

Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Motor

It has a cage rotor and stator. Stator has two windings – main and auxiliary winding. It has only
one capacitor in series with starting winding. It has no starting switch. Advantages and
Applications No centrifugal switch is needed. It has higher efficiency and pull out torque. It
finds applications in fans and blowers in heaters and air conditioners. It is also used to drive
office machinery.

Shaded Pole Single Phase Induction Motors

The stator of the shaded pole single phase induction motor has salient or projected poles.
These poles are shaded by copper band or ring which is inductive in nature. The poles are
divided into two unequal halves. The smaller portion carries the copper band and is called as
shaded portion of the pole.

ACTION: When a single phase supply is given to the stator of shaded pole induction motor an
alternating flux is produced. This change of flux induces emf in the shaded coil. Since this
shaded portion is short circuited, the current is produced in it in such a direction to oppose the
main flux. The flux in shaded pole lags behind the flux in the unshaded pole. The phase
difference between these two fluxes produces resultant rotating flux. We know that the stator
winding current is alternating in nature and so is the flux produced by the stator current. In order
to clearly understand the working of shaded pole induction motor consider three regions-
When the flux changes its value from zero to nearly maximum positive value.
When the flux remains almost constant at its maximum value.

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 When the flux decreases from maximum positive value to zero.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Shaded Pole Motor

The advantages of shaded pole induction motor are

1. Very economical and reliable.

2. Construction is simple and robust because there is no centrifugal switch.
The disadvantages of shaded pole induction motor are

1. Low power factor.

2. The starting torque is very poor.
3. The efficiency is very low as, the copper losses are high due to presence of copper band.
4. The speed reversal is also difficult and expensive as it requires another set of copper rings.
Applications of Shaded Pole Motor

Applications of Shaded pole motors induction motor are- Due to their low starting torques and
reasonable cost these motors are mostly employed in small instruments, hair dryers, toys, record
players, small fans, electric clocks etc. These motors are usually available in a range of 1/300 to
1/20 KW.

Capacitor start and run Motor

The starter winding has a capacitor incorporated which makes the single-phase motor a self-
starting.The single-phase induction motor can be made to be self-starting in numerous ways. One
often-used method is the Split Phase motors. Another method is the Capacitor Start Induction
Run Motors.

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 When a capacitor is so introduced, the voltage lags the current by
some phase angle. In these motors, the necessary phase difference between the Is and
Im is obtained by introducing a capacitor in series with the starter winding. The
capacitor used in these motors are of electrolytic type and usually visible as it is
mounted outside the motor as a separate unit.

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

A Capacitor Start Motors are a single phase Induction Motor that employs a capacitor in the
auxiliary winding circuit to produce a greater phase difference between the current in the main
and the auxiliary windings. The name capacitor starts itself shows that the motor uses a capacitor
for the purpose of the starting. The figure below shows the connection diagram of a Capacitor
Start Motor.

The capacitor start motor has a cage rotor and has two windings on the stator. They are known as
the main winding and the auxiliary or the starting winding. The two windings are placed 90
degrees apart. A capacitor CS is connected in series with the starting winding. A centrifugal
switch SC is also connected in the circuit.

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The motor acts as a balanced two-phase motor. As the motor approaches its rated speed, the
auxiliary winding and the starting capacitor is disconnected automatically by the centrifugal
switch provided on the shaft of the motor.

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