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System Architecture and Complexity
Systems of Systems Complexity Set
coordinated by
Jean-Pierre Briffaut
Volume 2
System Architecture
and Complexity
Contribution of Systems of
Systems to Systems Thinking
Jacques Printz
Foreword written by
Daniel Krob
First published 2020 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:
www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Introduction to Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Foreword
The systems that mankind structures and constructs are at the very heart of the
modern world: in fact, we only need to think of the social and political systems,
complex and industrial systems, monetary and financial systems, energy production
and distribution systems, transport systems, communication systems and, more
generally, the numerous organizational and technological systems that surround us
to realize that “engineered” systems1 are simply everywhere…
All these systems are becoming characterized more and more both by a very high
level of intrinsic complexity and by ever-increasing interdependences. Mastering
these systems has therefore become a real challenge, in a world that is undergoing
profound transformation where they must be able to resist the constant and often
contradictory pressure of citizens and consumers, markets and regulations,
competition and technological innovation, to cite just a few examples of forces that
they are subject to2 in almost all fields of industry and services where complex
systems play a role (aeronautical, automobile, digital, energy, civil engineering, high
tech, naval, railways, mines, spatial, information systems, etc.).
1 Living systems are another story and we will limit the scope of our considerations to engineered
systems, in other words to artificial systems (as opposed to natural systems) architectured by
mankind. This already covers a vast spectrum given that technical systems and organizational
systems are both probably going to be included in this conceptual framework.
2 Not forgetting the intrinsic limits of our planet’s physical and environmental resources that
are impossible not to take into account.
x System Architecture and Complexity
integrated system will effectively always have new properties – known as “emerging”
properties – which cannot easily be obtained or expressed with its basic building
blocks.
In the composition of brick models like these, a wall will simply be a network of
bricks bound by the mechanical action/reaction forces. But a wall like this can
mechanically only have functional behavior consisting of absorbing rays of light.
However, it is clearly not the usual behavior of a wall, since the existing holes in the
walls (for windows) that must allow light to pass through must be taken into account!
We will also observe that it is difficult – and probably in vain – to attempt to express
the shape of a wall (which is one of its typical internal states) as a function of the
length, the width and the height of bricks that make it up. We are therefore obliged to
create a dedicated, more abstract, systemic model, to specifically model a wall when
we want to express its real properties. In systemic terms, this is expressed by observing
that the wall properties such as “allow light to pass through” or wall characteristics
such as its “shape” are properties and emerging characteristics for the wall, meaning
that they can only be observed at the scale of the “wall” system and not at the scale of
its “brick” sub-systems and that they therefore emerge from the integration process of
“brick” sub-systems which lead to the “wall” system. This mechanism of emergence is
in fact a universal characteristic of systems: every system always has emerging
properties in the way that we have just explained.
However, it will not be possible to easily cover the entire perimeter of systemics
because it is too broad a subject. Many other areas could in fact be subjects of other
books: system dynamics, system sizing and optimization, system evolution
trajectories, the design of homogeneous system families, agile and collaborative
approaches for system development, the governance of systems, etc. Readers who
3 This result is due to Richard E. Bellmann in an article on optimal control dating from 1952. He
showed that only the systems that can be optimized by parts are linear systems, a class to which
no complex system belongs in practice.
xii System Architecture and Complexity
wish to know more can, for example, benefit from the series of international
conferences “Complex Systems Design & Management” that the CESAMES
association organizes each year in Paris and every two years in Asia4 and which
allow the vital signs of the systemic approach applied to engineering of complex
systems to be regularly taken. The numerous conferences organized by the
international organization for systems engineering, INCOSE (International Council
on Systems Engineering), are also excellent places for more information about this
field, and meet the international community that is interested in these problems.
The universe of systems is in fact a “continent”5 that creates a true scientific and
technical field for a real science of systems. However, systemics still remains to be
constructed, necessarily in a profound interaction between theory and practice,
despite the awarness of great pionneers such as H. Simon and K.L. von Bertalanffy.
Unfortunately, there have not been many who have followed in their footsteps. Let
us hope therefore that the systemic challenges that the modern world has begun to
tackle are at last going to allow this to emerge.
Daniel KROB
Chairman
CESAMES (Centre d’excellence sur l’architecture, le management et l’économie
des systèmes – French Center of Excellence for Architecture, Management and
Economics of Systems, http://cesam.community/en/)
Paris
and
Professor
École Polytechnique
Paris
and
INCOSE Fellow
4 The conference “Complex Systems Design & Management Asia” was organized from 2014
to 2018 in Singapore. The 2020 edition of this conference is being organized in Beijing with
the support of the Chinese division of INCOSE and of the Chinese Aeronautical Federation.
5 Using an expression that Marcel Paul Schützenberger would probably not have denied.
Preface
In the 1990s, there was a major event whose overwhelming effect on our system
of thinking has perhaps never been measured completely: IT definitively ceases to
be included as a centralized system around a “large” mainframe controller, to
become a distributed system, an assembly of “clients” and “servers” that provide
mutual services to each other and that must, however, be integrated. There is no
“center” in the vulgar meaning of the term, or rather, the center is everywhere;
everything interacts. Machines that will soon be hand-held are infiltrating and
infusing into society as a whole, in all fields. The challenge is expressed in two
words: parallelism and integration, notwithstanding a quality of service connected to
the diffusion of technology and the risk associated with use.
in association with the École Polytechnique and via the chair of Complex Systems
Engineering directed by Daniel Krob, with useful contributions from the CNAM.
A process of the same nature was developed at the Ministry of Defense via the DGA
(Direction générale de l’armement – French Directorate General of Armaments).
An original training program was created from this intense activity, indissociably
combining an essential conceptual contribution and an immediate implementation of
newly acquired concepts, all of which led to the training in systems architecture that
is currently provided by CESAMES Academy, a course with the RNCP2 label.
This book is the result of this past history and countless discussions, reports,
presentations, conferences, tests/errors, etc. that have accompanied it. Since the
observation drawn from the available literature in French, either the available works
were obsolete – dating from before the distribution revolution – or incomplete
and/or ill-suited because they were too qualitative and not integrated into a project
framework that would allow coordinated action between all the parties involved and
the engineering teams, which are themselves distributed.
To create systems that respond to the present and future requirements of the
users, we first need to “think” about complexity in a context that is precisely that
proposed in this book, hence its title and subtitle.
Jacques PRINTZ
February 2020
In this first part, we will focus on the most fundamental notions of systemic
analysis. They are threefold, summarized in a compendium in the conclusion to this
book. These three principles need to be considered as indissociable and distinct, but
I repeat, indissociable. Over and above the usual definitions that have been they are
encountered here and elsewhere, ever since systems became a talking point,
definitions are not strictly such because they no longer are purely descriptive.
Because of this, we are going to focus on a closely examine of what it means when
we say that a set of interacting entities can be described as a “system” – in other
words, how a system is constructed from its primitive elements and what
differentiates it from a simple group with no clearly defined objective.
Once it is “integrated”, this new unit can in turn be input into the construction of
new units at a higher level, in a hierarchy of abstractions that are recursively
interwoven with each other. This is what is commonly known as a “system of
systems” which is coupled together more loosely than the constituent systems. This
type of system appeared in parallel with the miniaturization of computers, thanks to
technologies for integration of components that was perfected in the 1980s. From
that point it was then possible to distribute the calculation power to process the
information where required, and on demand, as they say.
This turning point took place in the 1990s, initially in defense and security
systems, and was then rapidly generalized in the decade 2000–2010 with the
ubiquity of the Internet and of the World Wide Web. This revolution – since it is
much more than a simple evolution – explicitly generated a central architectural
motif that constitutes the heart of systemics, because for the integration operator to
play their role, it was still necessary for the elements to be integrable and for them to
have something in common: the information that makes them exist. This
“something” is an “exchange model” that we will detail in Chapters 8 and 9.
In this chapter, we propose to revisit the key event system sciences, or systemics
originated, in which the mathematician N. Wiener, professor at MIT, has been an
emblematic actor1. The summary that we propose does not claim to provide a
chronological history of the facts as far as it could be restituted2, which would in any
case not be of great interest. It attempts, on the other hand, to recreate the dramatic
climate of the era in which all available researchers find themselves caught up in the
efforts of the Anglo-American war to fight against totalitarian regimes. Some do so
with conviction and without scruples, such as J. von Neumann, others due to a moral
duty, such as N. Wiener who was a pacifist and felt disgusted by violence. This is a
period of intense interactions and exchanges between exceptional scientific
personalities, often of European origin, where urgent action against totalitarian
regimes is the common good. To make sense of this situation, it is necessary to
1 But not the only actor! J. von Neumann played a major role, if not more important, on the
practical and theoretical plans. For a complete overview, refer to G. Dyson, Turing’s
Cathedral – The Origins of the Digital Universe, Penguin, 2012; W. Aspray, John von Neumann
and the Origins of Modern Computing, MIT Press, 1990, in particular Chapter 8, “A theory of
information processing”.
2 One of the essential works that best describes this very particular atmosphere is the work by
S.J. Heims, John von Neumann and Norbert Wiener, From Mathematics to the Technologies of
Life and Death, MIT Press, 1980; and more recently, P. Kennedy, Le grand tournant: pourquoi
les alliés ont gagné la guerre, 1943–45, Perrin, 2012.
imagine trying to put ourselves in the situation in order to judge the potential
importance of the contributions made by each one, and to do this, it is essential to
have a thorough understanding of the problem.
The problem presented to N. Wiener4 and his group at the MIT5 was to study
methods to increase the number of shots hitting the target and improve
anti-aircraft defense, whose effectiveness could be measured by the ratio of the
number of shots fired per downed airplane. Its overall objective was to improve the
management of “shell” resources, inflict the greatest damage to the enemy (airplane
pilots are a rare resource) and above all to save human lives.
Gunners had perfect knowledge of ballistics and used firing charts to make
adjustments to land-based cannons, for straight shots and for parabolic shots, over
distances up to 20–30 km (correction required for the Coriolis force that is caused by
the rotation of the Earth). The final targeting was carried out by observers close to
the points of impact, who gave correction orders by telephone in 1914 and then by
radio in 1939–1940. Shots were fired by the DCA (air defence) in a completely new
environment onto moving targets – airplanes with speeds of up to 600 km/h, in other
words, approximately 170 m/sec, at altitudes of 5–6,000 m. With shells of high
initial speed, 800–1,000 m/sec, 5–6 seconds passed before the explosion capable of
destroying the target was triggered, without taking into account the deceleration that
slows down the initial speed.
Combined with the speed of the airplane and with the initiatives taken by the
pilot who can change course, we can easily understand that the “shot hitting the
target” is something highly improbable. It is also the reason why it is necessary to
“spray” a very wide area, with many cannons and a great quantity of munitions, to
have a hope of making an impact; it is best to forget about efficiency.
The first radar (radio detection and ranging) equipment made their first
appearance in England where they played an essential role and allowed the RAF to
contain the attacks by the Luftwaffe. The radar allowed regrouping bomber
formations to be “seen” far in advance, something that no observer would be able to
detect simply by visual means, given the distances, with in situ information an
impossibility. Thanks to radar, the command center for aerial operations understands
what is probably going to happen and can therefore position its retaliation in
advance with maximum efficiency for “attack” airplanes. In other words, radar
provides all information about the trajectory followed by the target: position, speed
and possible acceleration, and integrates all that to calculate the probable trajectories
of bombers.
MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) had, at the time, one of the very
first electronics laboratories for the study of servomechanisms – the Lincoln
Laboratory. It later proved its worth in the construction of the SAGE system6, the
first anti-aircraft defense system that can be described as modern. Servomechanisms
are becoming essential devices for automatic adjustment of mobile mechanical parts
in such a way as to control their movements as minutely as possible and absorb the
shocks that generate destructive vibrations. This is fundamental to move the chassis
of anti-aircraft guns and follow the trajectory of target airplanes. Servo-control of
the movement requires precise measurements, in particular of the mass to be moved,
in order to activate effectors with the right adjustment data and make cyclic
corrections.
These developing automatisms led to all studies concerned with the transfer
functions that have the fundamental properties of reincorporating as inputs some of
the results that they produce as outputs. Knowledge of the function of transfer,
obtained either empirically by experimentation; theoretically by calculation, or by
combination of both of these, is therefore fundamental data for correct control of the
mechanisms in question.
6 Semi Automatic Ground Environment; refer to the book by K.C. Redmond, From Whirlwind
to MITRE: The R&D Story of The SAGE Air Defense Computer, MIT Press.
8 System Architecture and Complexity
Rather than making long and fastidious calculations by hand, consulting tables
and charts that are familiar to engineers, it was becoming simpler to carry out
calculations directly with “programmed” functions in analogical form. And since in
addition, we knew how to “clean” the signal that carried information about the
background noise, it was possible to calculate the adjustment parameters required
for the various appliances, on demand.
In a certain way, we can say that the machine has, in the memory of its electronic
circuits, a “model” of the behavior of objects on which it is supposed to act, to be
precise the airplane/pilot couple. The dedicated term to designate this type of
7 Refer to John von Neumann: Selected letters, History of mathematics, vol. 27, London
Mathematical Society, American Mathematical Society, Miklos Rédei.
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la sociedad generalmente el interés, que á todos domina más ó
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advierten en el teatro, pocas veces son tan bruscas, que puedan, sin
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de mala educación: doña Rufina, mujer sumamente ordinaria, no
puede ocultar sus sentimientos: esta ordinariez, mirada de esta
manera, no sólo es muy disculpable, sino que viene á ser un mérito.
El nudo es ingenioso: no necesita don Blas fingir su ruina, supuesto
que es verdadera la noticia de su robo, y que es muy verosímil que
ignorase la familia que estaban sus bienes asegurados. Éste es el
mérito principal de la comedia, pues produce un desenlace natural;
igualmente ingenioso es haber hecho al amante de la hija víctima
del reintegro del Indiano. El carácter del usurero está bien pintado;
pero, siendo episódico, ni merece tanta importancia como se le da,
ni habría inconveniente para la comedia en reducir la escena
larguísima en que hace el principal papel. Alguna languidez hemos
creído notar en toda la comedia que pudiera descargarse
ventajosísimamente. No es natural que la niña, que tan
generosamente se portó con su tío, sea menos generosa con su
madre, y la vea salir de la casa del modo que la arroja su hermano,
sin interceder por ella eficazmente. El argumento tiene el
inconveniente de preverse su fin desde el principio; pero esto es
más culpa del asunto que del autor. Para dar fin á nuestras
observaciones, quisiéramos que el poeta eliminase algunas frases
demasiado mal sonantes en el teatro, aun suponiéndolas naturales
en boca de doña Rufina; y hubiéramos deseado que, aun
dominados por el interés, sus interlocutores fuesen menos
despreciables. Las debilidades humanas interesan; pero seres
fríamente malos, corrompidos y sin ninguna especie de sentimiento
ni moralidad, sólo pueden producir tedio ú horror.
El lenguaje es castizo y puro: la versificación generalmente buena, y
aun tiene trozos de mucho mérito: hay gracias en el diálogo, que es
bastante animado; y pinceladas verdaderamente cómicas en
diversas ocasiones: citaremos en este género con placer el
contraste que presenta la llegada del Indiano, solo, y mal vestido,
con los halagos de su hambrienta familia.
CARTA DE FÍGARO
Á UN BACHILLER SU
CORRESPONSAL