A Modern Introduction to Fuzzy

Mathematics 1. Edition Apostolos

Syropoulos
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/a-modern-introduction-to-fuzzy-mathematics-1-edition
-apostolos-syropoulos/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

A Modern Introduction to Dynamical Systems Richard

Brown

https://ebookmass.com/product/a-modern-introduction-to-dynamical-
systems-richard-brown/

A Modern Introduction to Classical Electrodynamics 1st

Edition Michele Maggiore

https://ebookmass.com/product/a-modern-introduction-to-classical-
electrodynamics-1st-edition-michele-maggiore/

Undergraduate Introduction to Financial Mathematics, an

(Third Edition ) 3rd

https://ebookmass.com/product/undergraduate-introduction-to-
financial-mathematics-an-third-edition-3rd/

Introduction to Modern Analysis, 2nd Edition

Kantorovitz

https://ebookmass.com/product/introduction-to-modern-
analysis-2nd-edition-kantorovitz/
Introduction to AutoCAD® 2024: A Modern Perspective
Paul Richard

https://ebookmass.com/product/introduction-to-
autocad-2024-a-modern-perspective-paul-richard/

Excursions in Modern Mathematics 10th Edition Peter

Tannenbaum

https://ebookmass.com/product/excursions-in-modern-
mathematics-10th-edition-peter-tannenbaum/

Pearson Edexcel International A Level Mathematics

Further Pure Mathematics 1 Student Book 1st Edition Joe
Skrakowski

https://ebookmass.com/product/pearson-edexcel-international-a-
level-mathematics-further-pure-mathematics-1-student-book-1st-
edition-joe-skrakowski/

Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction 4th Edition,

(Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/linear-algebra-a-modern-
introduction-4th-edition-ebook-pdf/

Fuzzy Graph Theory: Applications to Global Problems

John N. Mordeson

https://ebookmass.com/product/fuzzy-graph-theory-applications-to-
global-problems-john-n-mordeson/
A Modern Introduction to Fuzzy Mathematics
A Modern Introduction to Fuzzy
Mathematics

Apostolos Syropoulos
Theophanes Grammenos
New York 2020
This edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material
from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Apostolos Syropoulos and Theophanes Grammenos to be identified as the authors
of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
Editorial Office
111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley
products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some
content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other
formats.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty
While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make
no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of
this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or
extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this
work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation
and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors
endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or
recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is
not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may
not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate.
Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or
disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor
authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not
limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Syropoulos, Apostolos, author.
Title: A modern introduction to fuzzy mathematics / Apostolos Syropoulos,
Theophanes Grammenos.
Description: First edition. | New York : Wiley, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020004300 (print) | LCCN 2020004301 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119445289 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119445302 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119445296 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Fuzzy mathematics.
Classification: LCC QA248.5 .S97 2020 (print) | LCC QA248.5 (ebook) | DDC
511.3/13—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020004300
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020004301
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: Courtesy of Apostolos Syropoulos
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my son Demetrios-Georgios, To my wife Andromache for her
to Koula and Linda. endurance, tolerance, and care.
Apostolos Syropoulos Theophanes Grammenos
 vii

Contents

Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 What Is Vagueness? 1
1.2 Vagueness, Ambiguity, Uncertainty, etc. 4
1.3 Vagueness and Fuzzy Mathematics 6
Exercises 8

2 Fuzzy Sets and Their Operations 11

2.1 Algebras of Truth Values 11
2.1.1 Posets 12
2.1.2 Lattices 13
2.1.3 Frames 14
2.2 Zadeh’s Fuzzy Sets 14
2.3 𝛼-Cuts of Fuzzy Sets 19
2.4 Interval-valued and Type 2 Fuzzy Sets 21
2.5 Triangular Norms and Conorms 24
2.6 L-fuzzy Sets 26
2.7 “Intuitionistic” Fuzzy Sets and Their Extensions 27
2.8 The Extension Principle 32
2.9* Boolean-Valued Sets 34
2.10* Axiomatic Fuzzy Set Theory 36
Exercises 37

3 Fuzzy Numbers and Their Arithmetic 39

3.1 Fuzzy Numbers 39
3.1.1 Triangular Fuzzy Numbers 40
3.1.2 Trapezoidal Fuzzy Numbers 41
3.1.3 Gaussian Fuzzy Numbers 42
viii Contents

3.1.4 Quadratic Fuzzy Numbers 43

3.1.5 Exponential Fuzzy Numbers 44
3.1.6 L–R Fuzzy Numbers 44
3.1.7 Generalized Fuzzy Numbers 46
3.2 Arithmetic of Fuzzy Numbers 46
3.2.1 Interval Arithmetic 47
3.2.2 Interval Arithmetic and 𝛼-Cuts 47
3.2.3 Fuzzy Arithmetic and the Extension Principle 48
3.2.4 Fuzzy Arithmetic of Triangular Fuzzy Numbers 49
3.2.5 Fuzzy Arithmetic of Generalized Fuzzy Numbers 49
3.2.6 Comparing Fuzzy Numbers 51
3.3 Linguistic Variables 54
3.4 Fuzzy Equations 55
3.4.1 Solving the Fuzzy Equation A ⋅ X + B = C 55
3.4.1.1 The Classical Method 55
3.4.1.2 The Extension Principle Method 56
3.4.1.3 The 𝛼-Cuts Method 58
3.4.2 Solving the Fuzzy Equation A ⋅ X 2 + B ⋅ X + C = D 58
3.4.2.1 The Classical Method 59
3.4.2.2 The Extension Principle Method 59
3.4.2.3 The 𝛼-Cuts Method 60
3.5 Fuzzy Inequalities 60
3.6 Constructing Fuzzy Numbers 60
3.7 Applications of Fuzzy Numbers 63
3.7.1 Simulation of the Human Glucose Metabolism 63
3.7.2 Estimation of an Ongoing Project’s Completion Time 66
3.7.2.1 Model of a Project 67
Exercises 68

4 Fuzzy Relations 71
4.1 Crisp Relations 71
4.1.1 Properties of Relations 72
4.1.2 New Relations from Old Ones 72
4.1.3 Representing Relations Using Matrices 73
4.1.4 Representing Relations Using Directed Graphs 73
4.1.5 Transitive Closure of a Relation 74
4.1.6 Equivalence Relations 75
4.2 Fuzzy Relations 75
4.3 Cartesian Product, Projections, and Cylindrical Extension 77
4.3.1 Cartesian Product 77
4.3.2 Projection of Fuzzy Relations 77
4.3.3 Cylindrical Extension 78
 Contents ix

4.4 New Fuzzy Relations from Old Ones 78

4.5 Fuzzy Binary Relations on a Set 81
4.5.1 Transitive Closure 82
4.5.2 Similarity Relations 83
4.5.3 Proximity Relations 83
4.6 Fuzzy Orders 87
4.7 Elements of Fuzzy Graph Theory 89
4.7.1 Graphs and Hypergraphs 89
4.7.2 Fuzzy Graphs 91
4.7.2.1 Paths and Connectedness 92
4.7.2.2 Bridges and Cut Vertices 93
4.7.2.3 Fuzzy Trees and Fuzzy Forests 93
4.7.3 Fuzzy Hypergraphs 96
4.8* Fuzzy Category Theory 98
4.8.1 Commutative Diagrams 99
4.8.2 Categories of Fuzzy Structures 99
4.8.3 Embedding Fuzzy Categories to Chu Categories 101
4.8.4 Fuzzy Categories 103
4.9* Fuzzy Vectors 105
4.10 Applications 107
Exercises 109

5 Possibility Theory 111

5.1 Fuzzy Restrictions and Possibility Theory 111
5.2 Possibility and Necessity Measures 113
5.3 Possibility Theory 115
5.4 Possibility Theory and Probability Theory 118
5.5 An Unexpected Application of Possibility Theory 122
Exercises 128

6 Fuzzy Statistics 129

6.1 Random Variables 129
6.2 Fuzzy Random Variables 132
6.3 Point Estimation 136
6.3.1 The Unbiased Estimator 137
6.3.2 The Consistent Estimator 138
6.3.3 The Maximum Likelihood Estimator 139
6.4 Fuzzy Point Estimation 140
6.5 Interval Estimation 141
6.6 Interval Estimation for Fuzzy Data 143
6.7 Hypothesis Testing 144
6.8 Fuzzy Hypothesis Testing 146
x Contents

6.9 Statistical Regression 148

6.10 Fuzzy Regression 151
Exercises 153

7 Fuzzy Logics 155

7.1 Mathematical Logic 155
7.2 Many-Valued Logics 161
7.3 On Fuzzy Logics 166
7.4 Hájek’s Basic Many-Valued Logic 168
7.5 Łukasiewicz Fuzzy Logic 171
7.6 Product Fuzzy Logic 172
7.7 Gödel Fuzzy Logic 174
7.8 First-Order Fuzzy Logics 176
7.9 Fuzzy Quantifiers 178
7.10 Approximate Reasoning 179
7.11 Application: Fuzzy Expert Systems 182
7.11.1 Fuzzification 184
7.11.2 Evaluation of Rules 184
7.11.3 Defuzzification 185
7.12* A Logic of Vagueness 187
Exercises 189

8 Fuzzy Computation 191

8.1 Automata, Grammars, and Machines 191
8.2 Fuzzy Languages and Grammars 196
8.3 Fuzzy Automata 200
8.4 Fuzzy Turing Machines 205
8.5 Other Fuzzy Models of Computation 209

9 Fuzzy Abstract Algebra 215

9.1 Groups, Rings, and Fields 215
9.2 Fuzzy Groups 219
9.3 Abelian Fuzzy Subgroups 224
9.4 Fuzzy Rings and Fuzzy Fields 227
9.5 Fuzzy Vector Spaces 229
9.6 Fuzzy Normed Spaces 230
9.7 Fuzzy Lie Algebras 231
Exercises 233

10 Fuzzy Topology 235

10.1 Metric and Topological Spaces 235
10.2 Fuzzy Metric Spaces 240
 Contents xi

10.3 Fuzzy Topological Spaces 245

10.4 Fuzzy Product Spaces 248
10.5 Fuzzy Separation 250
10.5.1 Separation 256
10.6 Fuzzy Nets 256
10.7 Fuzzy Compactness 257
10.8 Fuzzy Connectedness 258
10.9 Smooth Fuzzy Topological Spaces 258
10.10 Fuzzy Banach and Fuzzy Hilbert Spaces 260
10.11* Fuzzy Topological Systems 263
Exercises 267

11 Fuzzy Geometry 269

11.1 Fuzzy Points and Fuzzy Distance 269
11.2 Fuzzy Lines and Their Properties 272
11.3 Fuzzy Circles 276
11.4 Regular Fuzzy Polygons 280
11.5 Applications in Theoretical Physics 285
Exercises 287

12 Fuzzy Calculus 289

12.1 Fuzzy Functions 289
12.2 Integrals of Fuzzy Functions 294
12.3 Derivatives of Fuzzy Functions 298
12.4 Fuzzy Limits of Sequences and Functions 300
12.4.1 Fuzzy Ordinary Differential Equations 304
12.4.2 Fuzzy Partial Differential Equations 310
Exercises 313

A Fuzzy Approximation 315

A.1 Weierstrass and Stone–Weierstrass Approximation Theorems 315
A.2 Weierstrass and Stone–Weierstrass Fuzzy Analogs 316

B Chaos and Vagueness 319

B.1 Chaos Theory in a Nutshell 319
B.2 Fuzzy Chaos 322
B.3 Fuzzy Fractals 324

Works Cited 327

Subject Index 349
Author Index 361
 xiii

Preface

In mathematics, we investigate the properties of abstract objects (e.g. numbers,

geometric shapes, spaces) and the possible relationships between these objects.
One basic characteristic of mathematics is that all these properties and relation-
ships are absolute. Thus, properties and relationships are either true or false.
Nothing else is meaningful. In other words, in mathematics there is no room for
vagueness, for randomness, and for extremely small quantities. By introducing one
of these qualities into mathematics, one can create alternative mathematics [1].
But how do we introduce vagueness into mathematics? One very simple way to
achieve this is to allow notions like “small,” “large,” and “few.” However, another
way is to modify the most basic object of mathematics, that is, to modify sets. In
this respect, fuzzy mathematics is a form of alternative mathematics since it is
based on a generalization of set membership. Simply put, in fuzzy mathematics,
an element may belong to a degree to a set, while in ordinary mathematics, it
either belongs or does not belong to a set. This simple idea has been applied to
most fields of mathematics and so we can talk about fuzzy mathematics.
Even today, many researchers and thinkers consider fuzzy mathematics as a tool
that can be used instead of probability theory to reason about or to work with a
specific system. This text is based on the idea that vagueness is a basic notion and
thus tries to present fuzzy mathematics as a form of alternative mathematics and
not as an alternative to probability theory. In addition, this text is an introduc-
tion to fuzzy mathematics. This simply means that we have tried to cover as many
fields of fuzzy mathematics as possible. Thus, this text is a compendium but not a
handbook of fuzzy mathematics.
Chapter 1 of this book explains what vagueness means from a philosophical
point of view. Also, it demonstrates the connection between vagueness and fuzzy
mathematics.
In Chapter 2, we introduce the notion of fuzzy set as well as the basic set
operations. In addition, we introduce a number of variants or extensions of fuzzy
xiv Preface

sets. The chapter concludes with a section marked with a star. There are a few
such sections in the book and these are optional readings as they deal with quite
advanced ideas.
Fuzzy number are special kinds of fuzzy sets that, in a way, have been introduced
to generalize the notion of a number. In Chapter 3, we present various forms of
fuzzy numbers and the basic arithmetic operations between them. We introduce
linguistic variables, that is, terms such as “small,” “heavy,” “tall.” Also, we present
fuzzy equations (e.g. simple equations like ax + b = c, where known and unknown
quantities are fuzzy numbers) and how one can solve them. The chapter concludes
with applications of fuzzy numbers. In general, most chapters that follow have
a final section that presents applications of the main material presented in the
specific chapter.
Fuzzy relations are a very important subject that is presented in Chapter 4.
We discuss fuzzy relations, the Cartesian product of fuzzy sets and related notions,
and fuzzy orders. Since graphs can be described by relations, we also discuss
fuzzy graphs. Also, since precategories are also described by graphs, we discuss
fuzzy categories.
Chapter 5 is devoted to possibility theory, that is, generally speaking, the fuzzy
“version” of a probability theory. Also, we compare probability and possibility the-
ories in order to see their differences.
Chapter 6 discusses fuzzy statistics. In this chapter, we discuss fuzzy random
variables (in a way as something that corresponds to vague randomness …) and
all related notions such as fuzzy regression and fuzzy point estimation.
In Chapter 7, we discuss many-valued and fuzzy logics. We do not just present
truth values and the basic logical operations, but we present complete logical sys-
tems. In addition, we discuss approximate reasoning and try to see what is a logic
of vagueness.
Although computability theory is a very basic part of logic, we discuss in a
separate chapter fuzzy computation (Chapter 8). In particular, we discuss fuzzy
automata, fuzzy Turing machines, and other fuzzy models of computation.
In Chapter 9, we give a taste of fuzzy abstract algebra theory. We present fuzzy
groups, fuzzy rings, fuzzy vector spaces, fuzzy normed spaces, and fuzzy Lie
algebras.
Chapter 10 introduces the basic notions and ideas of fuzzy metric spaces and
fuzzy topology. In addition, we briefly discuss fuzzy Banach spaces and fuzzy
Hilbert spaces.
Fuzzy geometry is introduced in Chapter 11. We discuss the notion of fuzzy
points and the distance between them, fuzzy lines, fuzzy circles, and fuzzy poly-
gons.
Chapter 12 introduces the reader to fuzzy calculus. In particular, we discuss
fuzzy functions, integrals and derivatives of fuzzy functions, and fuzzy limits of
 Preface xv

sequences and function. Furthermore, fuzzy (ordinary and partial) differential

equations are presented.
The book includes two appendices: the first briefly presents fuzzy approximation
and the second gives a taste of fuzzy chaos and fuzzy fractals.
Each chapter starts with a section that describes the nonfuzzy concepts whose
fuzzy counterparts are presented in the rest of the chapter. We felt this was neces-
sary since we present many and quite diverse topics and we cannot expect everyone
to be familiar with all these notions and ideas. Also, most chapters have some
exercises at the end. Readers are invited to work on them if they want to deepen
their understanding of the ideas presented in the corresponding chapter. However,
the chapter on fuzzy computation does not include exercises since the subject is
not mature enough.

Apostolos Syropoulos
Xanthi, Greece, November 2019

Theophanes Grammenos
Volos, Greece, November 2019

Reference

1 Van Bendegen, J.P. (2005). Can there be an alternative mathematics, really?

In: Activity and Sign: Grounding Mathematics Education (ed. M.H. Hoffmann,
J. Lenhard, and F. Seeger), 349–359. Boston, MA: Springer US. [cited on page(s) xiii]
 xvii

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Kathleen Pagliaro who believed in this project and helped
us in every possible way to realize it. Also, we thank Christina E. Linda, our project
editor, for her help and assistance. In addition, we thank Andromache Spanou for
carefully reading drafts of the text and suggesting improvements and corrections.
Also, we thank Athanasios Margaris and Basil K. Papadopoulos for reading parts
of the book and making comments and suggestions.
 1

Introduction

Vagueness is a fundamental property of this world. Vague objects are real objects
and exist in the real world. Fuzzy mathematics is mathematics of vagueness. The
core of fuzzy mathematics is the idea that objects have a property to some degree.

1.1 What Is Vagueness?

When we say that something is vague, we mean that its properties and capacities
are not sharply determined. In different words, a vague concept is one that is char-
acterized by fuzzy boundaries (i.e. there are cases where it is not clear if an object
has or does not have a specific property or capacity). Jiri Benovsky [27] put forth
an objection to this idea by claiming that everybody who thinks that there are ordi-
nary objects must accept that they are vague, whereas everybody must accept the
existence of sharp boundaries to ordinary objects. This does not lead to a contra-
diction since the two claims do not concern the same “everybody”.
The Sorites Paradox (σóϕισμα τõυ σωρϵίτη), which was introduced by Eubulides
’
of Miletus (Eυβoυλ ίδης o’ Mιλήσιoς),1 is a typical example of an argument that
demonstrates what fuzzy boundaries are. The term “σωρϵίτϵς” (sorites) derives
from the Greek word σωρóς (soros), which means “heap.” The paradox is about
the number of grains of wheat that makes a heap. All agree that a single grain of
wheat does not comprise a heap. The same applies for two grains of wheat as they
do not comprise a heap, etc. However, there is a point where the number of grains
becomes large enough to be called a heap, but there is no general agreement as to
where this occurs. Although there is no precise definition of vagueness, still most
people would agree that adjectives such as tall, old, short, and young, express vague
concepts since, for instance, a person who is 6 years old is definitely young but can

1 Ancient Greek philosopher, teacher of Demosthenes and a student of Euclid, famous for his
paradoxes. He lived in the fourth century BC.

A Modern Introduction to Fuzzy Mathematics, First Edition.

Apostolos Syropoulos and Theophanes Grammenos.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 1 Introduction

we say the same for a person who is 30 years old? Moreover, there are objects that
one can classify as vague. For example, a cloud is vague since its boundaries are
not sharp. Also, a dog is a vague object since it loses hair all the time and so it is
difficult to say what belongs to it.
To a number of people, these arguments look like sophisms. Others consider
vagueness as a linguistic phenomenon, that is, something that exists only in the
realm of natural languages and gives us greater expressive power. And there are
others that think that vagueness is a property of the world. In summary, there
are three views regarding the nature of vagueness2 : the ontic view, the semantic
view, and the epistemic view. According to the ontic view the world itself is vague
and, consequently, language is vague so to describe the world. The semantic view
asserts that vagueness exists only in our language and our thoughts. In a way, this
view is similar to the mental constructions of intuitionism, that is, things that exist
in our minds but not in the real world. On the other hand, the epistemic view
asserts that vagueness exists because we do not know where the boundaries exist
for a “vague” concept. So we wrongly assume they are vague. In this book, we
assume that onticism about vagueness is the right view. In different words, we
believe that there are vague objects and that vagueness is a property of the real
world. It seems that semanticism is shared by many people, engineers in particular
who use fuzzy mathematics, while if epistemicism is true, then there is simply no
need for fuzzy mathematics, and this book is useless.
Let us consider countries and lakes. These geographical objects do not have
sharply defined boundaries since natural phenomena (e.g. drought or heavy rain-
falls) may alter the volume of water contained in a lake. Thus, one can think
these are vague objects. Nevertheless, vagueness can emerge from other unex-
pected observations. In 1967, Benoît Mandelbrot [208] argued that the measured
length of the coastline of Great Britain (or any island for that matter) depends on
the scale of measurement. Thus, Great Britain is a vague object since its boundaries
are not sharp. Nevertheless, one may argue that here there is no genuine geo-
graphical vagueness, instead this is just a problem of representation. A response
to this argument was put forth by Michael Morreau [224]. Obviously, if the exis-
tence of vague objects is a matter of representation, then there are obviously no
vague objects including animals. Consider Koula the dog. Koula has hair that she
will lose tonight, so it is a questionable part of her. Because Koula has many such
questionable parts (e.g. nails, whisker), she is a vague dog. Assume that Koula is
not a vague dog. Instead, assume that there are many precise mammals that must
be dogs because they differ from each other around the edges of the hair. Obvi-
ously, all these animals are dogs that differ slightly when compared to Koula. All of

2 See [247] for a general introduction to vagueness and the ideas briefly presented in this
paragraph.
 1.1 What Is Vagueness? 3

these candidates are dogs, and they have very small differences between them. If
vagueness is a matter of representation, then, wherever I own a dog, I own at least
a thousand dogs. Clearly, this is not the case.
Gareth Evans [119] presented an argument that proves that there are no vague
objects. Evans used the modality operator ∇ to express indeterminacy. Thus, ∇𝜙 is
read as it is indeterminate whether 𝜙. The dual of ∇ is the Δ operator and Δ𝜙 is read
as it is determinate that 𝜙. Evans started his argument with the following premise:
∇(a = b). (1.1)
This means that it is true that it is indeterminate whether a and b are iden-
tical. Next, he transformed this expression to an application of some sort of
𝜆-abstraction:
𝜆x.∇(x = a)b. (1.2)
Of course, it is a fact that it is not indeterminate whether a is identical to a:
¬∇(a = a). (1.3)
Using this “trick” to derive formula (1.2), one gets
¬𝜆x.∇(x = a)a. (1.4)
Finally, he used the identity of indiscernibles principle to derive from (1.2) and (1.4):
¬(a = b)
meaning that a and b are not identical. So we started by assuming that it is indeter-
minate whether a and b are identical and concluded that they are not identical. In
different words, indeterminate identities become nonidentities, which makes no
sense, therefore, the assumption makes no sense. The identity of indiscernibles
principle (see [125] for a thorough discussion of this principle) states that if, for
every property F, object x has F if and only if object y has F, then x is identical to
y. This principle was initially formulated by Wilhelm Gottfried Leibniz.
A first response to this argument is that the logic employed to deliver this proof
is not really adequate. Francis Jeffry Pelletier [240] points out that when one
says that an object is vague, then this means that there is a predicate that neither
applies nor does not apply to it. Thus when you have a meaningful predicate Fa, it
makes no sense to make it indeterminate by just prefixing it with the ∇ operator.
Although this logic is not appropriate for vagueness, still this does not refute
Evan’s argument.
Edward Jonathan Lowe [196] put forth an argument that is a response to Evans’
“proof”:

Suppose (to keep matters simple) that in an ionization chamber a free

electron a is captured by a certain atom to form a negative ion which, a
4 1 Introduction

short time later, reverts to a neutral state by releasing an electron b. As

I understand it, according to currently accepted quantum-mechanical
principles there may simply be no objective fact of the matter as to whether
or not a is identical with b.

The idea behind this example is that “identity statements represented by ‘a = b’

are ‘ontically’ indeterminate in the quantum mechanical context” [126] (for a thor-
ough discussion of the problem of identity in physics see [127]). Lowe’s argument
prompted a series of responses, nevertheless, we are not going to describe them
here and the interested reader can read a summary of these responses in [83]. In
a way, these responses culminated to a revised à la Evans proof based on Lowe’s
initial argument:
(i) At t1 , ∇(a has been emitted).
(ii) So at t1 , 𝜆x.∇(x has been emitted)a.
(iii) But at t1 , ¬∇(b has been emitted).
(iv) So at t1 , 𝜆x.¬∇(x has been emitted)b.
(v) Therefore, a ≠ b.
It is possible to provide a reinterpretation of quantum mechanics that does not
use probabilities but possibilities instead [277]. This reinterpretation assumes that
vagueness is a fundamental property of the world. Although the ideas involved are
very simple, still they require a good background in quantum mechanics and in
ideas that we are going to present in this book.

1.2 Vagueness, Ambiguity, Uncertainty, etc.

We explained that a vague concept is one that is characterized by fuzzy boundaries,
still this is not a precise definition as the Sorites Paradox has demonstrated. Of
course, one could say that it is an oxymoron to expect a precise definition which
by its very nature is not precise. Not so surprisingly, at least to these authors, is the
definition that is provided by Otávio Bueno and Mark Colyvan [51]:

Definition 1.2.1 A predicate is vague just in case it can be employed to generate

a sorites argument.

To be fair, even the authors admit that this is not a new idea, but they were the
first to systematically defend this idea. This definition of vague predicates is very
useful in order to distinguish vagueness from ambiguity and uncertainty.
The term ambiguity refers to something that has more than one possible
meaning, which may cause confusion. Of course, we encounter ambiguity only
 1.2 Vagueness, Ambiguity, Uncertainty, etc. 5

in language, but if vagueness is omnipresent, then it is definitely present in

language. And this is the reason why it is confused with ambiguity. Examples of
ambiguous sentences include Sarah gave a bath to her dog wearing a pink T-shirt
and Mary ate the biscuits on the couch. The first sentence is ambiguous because
it is not clear who was wearing the pink T-shirt: Sarah or the dog? The second
sentence is ambiguous because it is not clear if the biscuits were on the couch
or if Mary brought them and ate them on the couch. Of course, one can come
up with many more examples of ambiguous sentences, but none of them can be
employed to generate a sorites paradox.
Imprecision is a notion that is closer to vagueness than ambiguity. Typically, we
employ this term when talking about things whose boundaries are not precise.
Of course, not precise does not mean fuzzy. It would be sufficient to say that we
encounter imprecision when our tools are not precise enough to perform a given
task (e.g. measuring the length of a tiny object).
Generality is yet another word that is close to vagueness. General terms are
words like “chair.” There are many and different kinds of chairs, nevertheless, all
the chairs that one may imagine are still chairs. Thus, in generality we focus on a
few common characteristics and use them to make up classes of objects.
It is not widely accepted that chance plays an important role in nature. There
are people who believe that our universe is completely deterministic, but there are
others who assume that the universe is nondeterministic. In such a universe, ran-
domness has a central role to play. In a way, randomness is a guarantee that we
have no way to say what will happen next. Naive probability theory [i.e. not the
one formulated by Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov [179] (Ан рей Нико аевич
Ко могоров)] is an attempt to make predictions about future events. Naturally,
these predictions depend on the assumptions we make. But then the real problem
is to what extent these assumptions are meaningful. Certainly, we will not discuss
what meaningful actually means…
One more term that is remotely related to vagueness is uncertainty. This notion
is related to a situation where the consequences, the extent of circumstances, the
conditions, or the events are unpredictable. In quantum mechanics, the uncer-
tainty principle is, roughly, about our inability to accurately measure at the same
time the location and the momentum of a subatomic particle (e.g. an electron).
Figure 1.1 shows how an electron looks like at any given moment. Strictly speak-
ing, an electron is a wave and not a “solid” particle, but for the sake of the argu-
ment, we can assume that it is a sphere that vibrates extremely fast. So an electron
would be a vague object if it would be in all these positions at the same time, but
the uncertainty springs from the fact that it moves so fast that we cannot spot
its place. In reality, an electron as a wave is in all places at the same time. More-
over, one can say that an electron is actually a cloud, so an electron is actually a
6 1 Introduction

Figure 1.1 A drawing depicting an electron.

vague object. Interestingly, there is a deep connection between uncertainty and

vagueness through possibility theory.
When Lotfi Aliasker Zadeh, the founder of fuzzy mathematics, introduced fuzzy
sets [305], he justified his work by using examples of vague concepts like “the class
of beautiful women,” and “the class of tall men.” Later on, people working on
fuzzy mathematics were divided into two groups: those who believe that fuzzy
mathematics are mathematics of vagueness, and those who believe that fuzziness
and vagueness are two different things. Members of the second group argue that
there is some sort of misunderstanding between the two communities:

One of the reasons for the misunderstanding between fuzzy sets and the
philosophy of vagueness may lie in the fact that Zadeh was trained in engi-
neering mathematics, not in the area of philosophy.
Dubois (2012) [108]

We find this argument completely silly as there is no engineering mathematics, but

just mathematics. Also, one cannot compare (presumably applied) mathematics
with philosophy as one cannot compare apples with flowers. On the other hand,
we are in favor of an idea that is closer to what the first group is advocating.

1.3 Vagueness and Fuzzy Mathematics

Conferences and workshops are usually very interesting events. Typically, one has
the chance to meet people and discuss new ideas. Some years ago, the first author
was invited to talk about fuzzy computing in a workshop. After the talk, he had a
chat with someone who really liked the idea of vagueness in computing. She noted
that even our hardware is vague since we assume that it operates within a specific
range, but in fact this is just an approximation that makes our life easier. Of course,
hardware is not vague for this reason, but it gives an idea of why vagueness actually
matters.
If we accept the ontic view of vagueness, then we must explore its use in
science. This simply means to recognize that objects are vague and therefore their
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 183-84; le C. greche disciolte, II, 138; V. Atene; Sparta; Tebe;
Siracusa.
Conone, 34, 156.
Coo, II, 108.
Copto, II, 94.
Corcira, 5; guerra corcirese-corinzia, II, 2, 36; II, 63, 123.
Corinto, 5, 157, 178; Dieta di C. (338 a. C.), 177, 178, 181, 182,
183, 184, 185; guerre, 2, 3, 65; distruzione, II, 4; guerre civili, II,
62; primo emporio commerciale dell’Egeo, II, 66; decadenza, II,
68; nel periodo ellenistico e romano, II, 108; distrutta, II, 120.
Corinzia, 77, 149; II, 137.
Corinzii, 150; II, 55.
Cornelio (P. Scipione Emiliano), II, 120.
Coronea, 161.
Corporazioni, industriali, II, 116, n. 29.
Cratete, 25.
Cremona, II, 102.
Cremonide, 183, 194; V. Guerra di Cremonide.
Creta, 77, 194; II, 19, 169-70; città, II, 94, 170, 186; Italici, II, 145.
Cristianesimo, II, 188.
Crotone, II, 2, 17, 188.
Ctesibio, II, 98.
Cuma, II, 67, 187.

Danaro, l’invasione del d. a Sparta e suoi effetti, 99-100.

Decadenza, concetto di decadenza, XI sgg.
Decelea, 6, 131, 136.
Decima, 82; «decima di Bisanzio», 132-33; II, 39; romana, II, 124;
in Sicilia, II, 180, 151, 153, 156, 156-167, 159.
Decumani, municipi, II, 150; appaltatori della decima, II, 152, 154,
155.
Delfo, 168; II, 123, 185.
Delion (battaglia, 424 a. C.), 34; II, 55.
Delo, 124; lavori pubblici, 36; cleruchia ateniese, 143, 145;
prosperità e decadenza, II, 68; nel periodo romano, II, 108; i
conti del tempio, II, 110; statue, II, 142; Italici, II, 145.
Demetrio, II, 183, 191.
Demetrio Falereo, II, 107, 194.
Demetrio Poliorcete, 182, 193, 194.
Democare, II, 49.
Democrazia (La), in Grecia, 47 sgg.
Demostene, 7, 30, 35, 38, 185; II, 48, 73, 194.
Diadochi, 177.
Didymeion, 8.
Difilo, 34.
Dinomenidi, 169.
Dione Crisostomo, II, 188.
Dionigi (il grande), 169, 171; II, 3, 58.
Dodona, II, 185.
Dolopia, 185, 193.
Droysen (J. G.), XIX, 184; II, 94.
Ducezio, 170.
Durazzo, II, 143, 144.

Ectemori, obblighi, 79, 107, 14.

Efeso, II, 62.
Egina, 5, 143; II, 66, 108.
Egitto, centro di esportazioni, II, 17, 18, 95, 99; prodotti, II, 95-96;
organizzazione economica, II, 96 sgg.; e Roma, II, 99, 100-101;
e Alessandria, II, 95; commercio, II, 93, 95, 111-12; V.
Alessandria.
Egospotamὸs (battaglia di), 152, 156; II, 30.
Eisphorà, II, 37 sgg.; proeisphorà, II, 42.
Elatea, II, 188.
Elei, 157; V. Elide.
Eleon, 173.
Eleusinion, 8.
Elide, 149, 157, 173, 182, 183, 184, 186, 194.
Emigrazione, 44 sgg.; in Oriente, II, 92.
Enna, 169; II, 156, 161.
Epaminonda, 163, 164, 166.
Epicrate, 34.
Epidauro, 36, 193; II, 123, 131.
Epidemie, nel mondo antico, 12.
Epigoni, 177.
Epimeleta (macedone), 184.
Epiro, 175, 180; II, 112, 123, 136, 184-85.
Epistate (macedone), 184.
Eraclea Pontica, 77, 79.
Eraclea Trachinia, 77.
Erechteion, 8, 128.
Eretria, II, 2.
Erice, II, 187.
Eritre, 173.
Esercito, ateniese, II, 26 sgg.; spesa, II, 27.
Esuli, in Grecia, II, 62-64.
Etiopia, II, 95, 103.
Etna, II, 153, 165.
Etolia, 180, 182, 184, 192, 193; II, 185; V. Confederazione.
Etruria, II, 19.
Etruschi. II, 2, 3.
Eubea (in Sicilia), II, 187.
Eubea, 5, 143, 178, 182, 185, 186, 193; II, 3, 66, 109, 137, 186,
188-89.
Eubulo, II, 89.
Europa, occidentale, produzioni, II, 100-101, 102 sgg.; e Roma, II,
102 sgg.; mercati, II, 112; centrale, II, 112.
Eutreso, 173.

Famiglia (La), e la schiavitù, 53-54.

Fara, 173.
Faraoni, II, 94.
Farnabazo, 156.
Fenicia, II, 17, 19, 94.
Fenippo, 103.
Fialei, 194.
Filea di Calcedonia, 51.
Filemone, 195-96.
Filemonide, 34.
Filiade, 187.
Filippi, II, 123.
Filippo, 34.
Filippo II, e la Grecia, 177-78, 185-86; regioni occupate in Grecia,
178; II, 3, 4.
Filippo V, e la Grecia, 184 sgg.; 190.
Fimbria, II, 5.
Fitto, 78, sgg.
Fliasia, II, 55, 62.
Fliunte, 157.
Focide, 7, 77, 168, 175, 182, 185, 186, 193; II, 67, 123, 185, 188.
Focione, 192.
Fonti storiche, XVIII sgg.
Forum Julii (Fréjus), II, 102, 131.
Francia, servi della gleba, 89, 90, 91; riduzione della mezzadria,
110. n. 22.
Fréjus. V. Forum Julii.
Frigia, 212; II, 19.
Frumentum, emptum, II, 151, 157; imperatum, II, 151, 157; in
cellam, II, 150, 158.
Ftiotide, 185.

Gabinio (P. Capitone), II, 142.

Galli, II, 55, 127.
Gallie, strade, II, 112; Cisalpina, in sulla fine della Repubblica
romana, II, 102; prodotti, II, 102-103; città, II, 102; corporazioni
industriali, II, 116, n. 29; Transalpina, in sui primi dell’èra
volgare, II, 102; città, II, 102, 131; Narbonese, II, 102.
Gela, 170; II, 62, 187.
Geomoroi, 96.
Germania, antica, II, 104; Confederazione innanzi il 1870, 184.
Giaro, II, 186.
Giudea, II, 128.
Giulio (C. Cesare), II, 5, 127, 173.
Giunio (M. Bruto), II, 135, 148, 173.
Giuochi Istmici, del 196 a. C., 185, 196-97.
Gracco, V. Sempronio.
Grecia, disegno della storia politica, VII sgg.; diffusione della
grecità, XI; la schiavitù in G., 4 sgg.; il latifondo, 28-29;
concentrazione della ricchezza, 26 sgg., 31 sgg.; ricchezza e
povertà, 37 sgg.; servitù della gleba, 77-78; imperialismo, 115
sgg.; reazione antispartana, 156 sgg.; municipalismo e
imperialismo, 172 sgg.; grandi e piccole federazioni, 173;
durante le guerre del periodo ellenistico, 176, 181 sgg.;
Consiglio federale ellenico, 177, 178-79; e Filippo II, 177-78; e
Alessandro Magno, 178-80; nel 311 a. C., 181-82; nel 272 a.
C., 182-83; sotto Demetrio II e Antigono Dosone, 183-84; sotto
Filippo V, 185; reazione antimacedone, 185 sgg.; 192 sgg.;
guerre, II, 1 sgg., 54 sgg.; Stati municipali, II, 6-7;
depopolazione, II, 60; lotte civili, 46 sgg.; II, 60 sgg.; esuli, II,
62-64; guerre e decadenza, II, 66 sgg.; conquistata dalla
Macedonia, II, 4; da Roma, II, 4; alla metà del IV sec. a. C., II,
89 sgg.; nel periodo ellenistico e romano, II, 92, 106 sgg., 188;
insorge contro Roma, II, 120; durante le guerre civili romane, II,
123-24; provincia romana, II, 136 sgg.; e i Romani, II, 141 sgg.;
II, 143-144; e i negotiatores romani, II, 145 sgg.; provincia
imperiale, II, 149; nell’età di Augusto, II, 184 sgg.; il
Cristianesimo in Grecia, II, 188; nell’età di Dione Crisostomo, II,
189, 199-90; decadenza economica, II, 107 sgg.; decadenza
morale, II, 189 sgg.; decadenza intellettuale, II, 196 sgg.; Italici,
II, 145; V. Acaia.
Grote (G.), 174.
Guerra, nella Grecia antica, II, 1 sgg.; 54 sgg.; causa
fondamentale, II, 5-8; sforzo demografico, II, 9-10; 54-55; e la
pastorizia e l’agricoltura, II, 10 sgg.; e il commercio, II, 16 sgg.;
e le finanze degli antichi Stati, II, 26 sgg.; 29 sgg.; 45-46, 55
sgg.; e la decadenza della Grecia, II, 60 sgg., 66 sgg.
Guerra degli alleati o sociale (a. 357-55 a. C.), 125, 134, 145; II,
3, 69.
Guerra corinzio-beotica, II, 2; II, 39.
Guerra di Cremonide (266-63 a. C.), 183, 194-196.
Guerra deceleica. V. Guerra del Peloponneso.
Guerra decennale. V. Guerra del Peloponneso.
Guerra lamiaca (a. 323-22 a. C.), 180; II, 4.
Guerra del Peloponneso (431-404 a. C.), II, 2-3, 36; conseguenze
sociali per Sparta, 98; per Atene, 116; e il primo Impero
ateniese, 125; e l’imperialismo spartano, 152; costo, II, 29-30,
30, 32, 56.
Guerra di Sicilia (415-13 a. C.), II, 38.
Guerra sociale, II, 30.
Guerra tarantina, II, 67.
Guerre mitridatiche, II, 6.
Guerre puniche, II, 120.
Guerre sacre, II, 4, 55, 67.

Halaesa, II, 162.

Harma, 173.
Herbita, II, 153, 164.
Hibla, II, 153.
Hiria, 173.
Hume (David), II, 62.

Iberi, 144.
Ietto, 173.
Iloti, 76-77; obblighi, 79; piccolezza del possesso, condizioni
morali e giuridiche, 84 sgg., 86 sgg.; economiche, 87, 88 sgg.,
209 sgg.
Imbro, 23, 143, 145.
Imera, II, 187.
Imperialismo (L’), nella Grecia antica, 115 sgg.; nel mondo
moderno, 118; concetto greco, 119 sgg.; ateniese, 124 sgg.; e
la decadenza di Atene, 145 sgg.; spartano, 149 sgg.: tebano,
160 sgg.; siracusano, 169 sgg.; macedone, 176 sgg.; nell’Italia
romana, II, 122 sgg.; romano, II, 122 sgg.
Impero romano, colonato e servitù della gleba, 80, 85.
India, II, 92, 93, 95, 100, 101, 106, 111.
Industria, e schiavitù, 11; macchinario e lavori industriali nel
mondo antico, 25 sgg.; II, 98; carattere voluttuario dell’i. antica,
26; fabbriche in Grecia, 36; II, 108-09; costosità, 9 sgg.; 46;
nell’Oriente ellenistico, II, 98; nell’Europa occidentale, II, 102-
104; nella Grecia ellenistica, II, 108-09, 112-13; corporazioni
industriali, II, 116, n. 29; etrusca, II, 122.
Ionia, II, 32, 168, 186.
Ipponico, 34.
Ipponio, II, 187.
Irlanda, mezzadria, 85.
Iseo, 30.
Isocrate, 46, 154, 166, 167; II, 64, 66, 69 sgg.
Italia, produzione dei cereali, 17, 23-24; il latifondo nell’I. antica,
28; I. meridionale, mezzadria, 85; e l’impero siracusano, 169;
crisi sociale dei secc. II-I a. C., II, 121 sgg.; e il commercio
greco, II, 111.
Italici, e Greci, II, 2; nelle province romane, II, 130; nel mondo
greco, II, 145-46; in Asia minore, II, 166; massacrati, II, 166.

Laconia, servitù della gleba, 76; la proprietà, 85; concentrazione

della proprietà, 102 sgg.; nella Lega achea, 174; industria, II,
108; città distrutte, II, 186.
Lambesa, II, 104.
Lamia (battaglia), 190.
Laodicea (in Siria), II, 93.
Laos, II, 67.
Latifondo, origini, 17, 28; in Grecia, 28-29; in Tessaglia, 101.
Laurium (Miniere del), 8, 34, 35; II, 109.
Lavori pubblici, 8; in Atene, 35; a Delo, a Trezene, a Epidauro
eco., 36-37.
Lega. V. Confederazione.
Legati, II, 128.
Legatio libera, II, 146.
Lemno, 23, 143, 145.
Leontini, II, 164, 165, 186.
Lepreon, 184.
Lesbo, 127, 143, 173.
Letteratura, in Grecia, II, 197 sgg.
Leucopetra (battaglia), II, 120.
Leuttra (battaglia, a. 371 a. C.), 157, 159, 162; città, 173.
Lex Gabinia, II, 172.
Lex Hadriana, 211; Manciana, 212.
Liberi (I), in Grecia a seconda delle varie regioni, 5; mortalità, 12;
e la concorrenza servile, 40 sgg.; salarii, 41-43; nel IV sec., II,
90; nell’Oriente ellenistico, II, 98; nella Grecia ellenistica, II, 110.
Libia, II, 94, 95, 112.
Licinio (L. Grasso), II, 129.
Licurgo, ateniese (338-26 a. C.), II, 89-90.
Licurgo, 102, 103.
Lione, II, 102.
Lipari, II, 156.
Lisandro, 152, 153.
Lisia, 7, 38.
Livio (T.), II, 130.
Locri, 170.
Locride, 7, 77, 185; L. Opunzia, 182.
Lucani, II, 67.
Lucania, II, 187.
Luciano, II, 190-91, 198.
Lusso, in Grecia, 37 sgg.; a Sparta, 98.

Macedonia, 176; e Grecia, 178 sgg.; disputata fra Cassandro e

Polisperconte, 182; sotto Antigono Gonata, 182: nel 272 a. C.
182-83; il latifondo in M. 29; e Atene, II, 4: e Persia, II, 4;
esporta grano, II, 17; in rapporti commerciali con Atene, II, 19;
con Rodi, II, 67; insorge contro Roma, II, 120: provincia
romana, II, 136, 142; devastata da Pisone, II, 143; città
ellenistiche, II, 91; Italici, II, 145; V. Confederazione.
Magna Grecia, il latifondo, 28-29; guerre, II, 2; esportazione, II,
19.
Magnesia, 185.
Mantinea, 157, 173, 174, 194; II, 38, 55, 186, 200, n. 11.
Mar Mediterraneo, II, 94-95.
Mar Nero. V. Ponto.
Mar Rosso, II, 94, 95.
Maratona (battaglia, a. 490 a. C.), II, 9.
Mariandini, 77; obblighi, 79.
Maronea, 35.
Marsiglia, II, 67, 101-02, 131.
Mauretania, II, 103.
Megalopoli, 157; II, 55, 186.
Megara, 187; II, 60, 62, 67; Iblea, II, 186.
Megaresi, 168.
Megaride, 5; II, 123.
Melo, 143; II, 38.
Menalo, II, 186.
Menandro, 37.
Mercati, II, 112.
Mercenari (eserciti), II, 53-54.
Mesopotamia, II, 92, 93, 95.
Messene, 157, 158, 187.
Messenia, estensione, 149; conquistata da Sparta, 149, 158;
servitù della gleba, 76-77, 209, 216-17; la proprietà, 85;
concentrazione della proprietà, 103 sgg.; nella Lega achea,
174, 182; insorge contro la Macedonia, 193; decadenza, II, 185;
V. Messene.
Messina, 170.
Metaponto, II, 187, 188.
Meteci, II, 30.
Metidria, II, 186.
Metone, 185.
Mezzadria, 78 sgg.; nell’Italia antica, 215; nell’Italia meridionale e
in Irlanda, 85; regresso in Francia e in America, 110, n. 22.
Micalesso, 173.
Mileto, 8; II, 63, 186.
Milziade, 34, 37.
Miniere, 7, 25-36; del Laurio, 8, 34-35; II, 109; di Taso, 142; di
pietra in Egitto, II, 96; in Spagna, II, 102-03; in Britannia, II, 104.
Misia, II, 195.
Mitilene, 173; II, 37.
Mitridate, II, 166.
Mnasone di Elatea, 7.
Modena, II, 102.
Mutyca, II, 164.

Narbona, II, 102.

Nasso (in Sicilia), 170; II, 186; (una delle Cicladi), 143;
insurrezione, II, 2.
Naupacio, 77.
Nausicle, 34.
Neapoli, II, 187, 131.
Negotiatores (I), II, 145 sgg.
Nemea, (battaglia, a. 394 a. C.), II, 55.
Nerone, II, 196.
Nicia, 34; pace di N. (421 a. C.), 152; II, 38.
Nîmes, II, 102.
Norbano (C.), II, 164.
Numanzia, II, 120.
Numidia, II, 103.

Oceano indiano, II, 94.

Oicheis, 77.
Olimpia, II, 123.
Olimpo, II, 185.
Olinto, 173, 185, 190.
Olmone, 173.
Omero, 25.
Operai. V. Liberi.
Orange, II, 131.
Orcomeno, 161, 164, 165, 173, 194; II, 186.
Oriente, L’O. ellenistico, II, 89 sgg.; organizzazione economica, II,
96 sgg.; scienze, II, 98; esportazioni, II, 100; Roma e l’Oriente,
 II, 100; città, II, 91-92; mercati, II, 112.
Oropo, 164.
Ottaviano, II, 5, 123.

Padova, II, 102.

Paflagonia, II, 19.
Palestina, II, 94.
Panteneto, 34.
Parma, II, 102.
Partenone, 128.
Pastone, 30, 34, 35.
Pastorizia, 25; e la guerra, II, 11 sgg.; nella Grecia ellenistica e
romana, II, 109; nell’Eubea, II, 188-98.
Pausania, 151, 188.
Pedio (Bleso), II, 171.
Peloponneso, e Filippo II, 190; e Antipatro, 180-81; popolazione,
II, 55; e la guerra, II, 55, 67; esporta ad Atene, II, 18; V. Sparta,
Confederazione achea.
Penesti (I), in Tessaglia, 77, 87.
Pergamo, II, 98.
Pericle, 45, 120, 134-35; II, 36-37.
Perrebia, 185, 192.
Persia, e Grecia, II, 2, 3, 48, 56, 57; e Macedonia, II, 4; e Sparta,
II, 4; e Roma, II, 111.
Peso, II, 186.
Petelia, II, 187.
Piacenza, II, 102.
Pirateria, II, 112.
Pireo, II, 185.
Pirra, II, 186.
Pirro, 182.
Pisistrato, 29.
Pisone. V. Calpurnio.
Platea, 162, 163, 165, 173; (battaglia), 126; II, 9.
Plateesi, 151, 164, 168.
Platone, 14.
Plinio (il vecchio), 15; II, 103, 170.
Plinio (il giovane), 215.
Plistonatte, 97.
Polibio, IX; XIX-XX; 190; II, 55, 74, 187, 193.
Polisperconte, 182.
Pompeo (C.), II, 5, 123.
Pompeo (Sesto), II, 5.
Pomponio (T. Attico), II, 146.
Ponto (Mar Nero), (città greche del), 177; II, 2; (regione),
esportazione di cereali, II, 16, 18, 19; scalo dell’Oriente, II, 93;
provincia romana, II, 169.
Popolazione, relativa in Grecia, 45; regresso e sue cause, 43-44;
di Atene, II, 51 sgg.; del Peloponneso, II, 55.
Porcio (M. Catone), II, 172.
Portico di Filone, 8.
Posidonia, II, 67.
Potidea, 143; II, 2, 32, 36.
Povertà, in Grecia, 38 sgg.; II, 47 sgg.
Pozzuoli, II, 131.
Prezzi, II, 13, 110-11 e n. 52.
Progresso, concetto di progresso, XI sgg.; nel mondo antico, XII;
presso gli Epicurei, XIII; nel mondo moderno, XIII.
Propilei, 128.
Proprietà, concentrazione, 26 seguenti; inalienabilità e
indivisibilità, 91-92; i proprietari nei paesi a servitù della gleba,
92 sgg.; latifondo, 101 sgg.; V. Fitto, Mezzadria.
Province, romane; organizzazione, II, 124-25; metodi di governo,
II, 125 sgg.; 131 sgg.; V. Europa occidentale.
Pubblicani, II, 128, 129, 134.
Pyxus, II, 67.

Quinzio (T. Flaminino), 185; II, 64-65; 120, 195.

Ravenna, II, 102.

Redemptio tributorum, II, 156.
Reggio, 170; II, 187.
Ricchezza (mobiliare), e sua concentrazione in Grecia, 31 sgg.,
37 sgg., 68, n. 129.
Rodi, 125, 145, 179; II, 67, 108, II, 145, 199.
Roma, colonie, 143; ricchezza dei Romani, II, 47, e nn. 145, 146;
combatte in Grecia, II, 4, 5; conquista la Grecia, II, 4, 119; e il
rivolgimento economico del mondo antico, II, 98 sgg., 101 sgg.;
commerci, II, 111-12; crisi politica e sociale nel II sec. a. C., II,
119 sgg.; politica commerciale, II, 130-31; e le province
romane, II, 124 sgg., 131 sgg., 135; imperialismo, II, 122 sgg.
Romani, in Grecia, II, 141 sgg.
Russia, servi della gleba, 88, 90, 91.

Salamina, 23, 182; cipria, II, 172-173.

Salarii, in Grecia, 10, 41-43, 69, n. 135-136; riduzione nel periodo
ellenistico, II, 110.
Sallustio (C.), II, 126.
Samo, 127, 131; II, 2, 29, 32, 36, 168.
Saserna, 18.
Scafe, 173.
Scarfea (battaglia), II, 120.
Schiavitù (La), origine, 2-3; importanza storica, 3-4; in Grecia, 4
sgg.; nelle varie regioni della Grecia, 5; in Beozia, 6-7; in
Locride e Focide, 7; nelle officine, 7; nelle miniere, 8, 25-26; nei
lavori pubblici, 8; nel commercio, 8-9; improduttività e costosità
del lavoro degli schiavi, 9 sgg., 14 sgg., 21, 59, n. 32;
mantenimento, strumenti da lavoro, 11; mortalità, 12;
assicurazione, 13; e la produzione, 14 sgg.; lo schiavo
sovrintendente, 16; nelle colonie americane, 16-17; lavori
agricoli, 18; macchinario, 19 sgg., 25 sgg.; e la concentrazione
della proprietà mobiliare e immobiliare, 26 sgg.; concorrenza ai
liberi, 40 sgg.; e la popolazione, 43-44; e l’emigrazione, 45-46;
ripercussioni, politiche, 46 sgg.; e i consumatori, 46-47; e le
lotte di classe, 47; e la corruzione morale, 52 sgg.; e la famiglia,
53-54; reazione contro la s., 54-57; e la guerra, 31, 66, n. 91:
nel IV sec. a. C., II, 84, n. 166; nell’Oriente ellenistico, II, 97-98;
nella Grecia ellenistica, II, 110; V. Servitù.
Scipione. V. Cornelio.
Scipioni, II, 120.
Sciro, 23, 143, 145.
Scolo, 173.
Scopadi, 101.
Scriptura, II, 180, n. 129.
Seleucia, II, 91, 93, 95.
Seleucidi, impero del S., II, 92 sgg.
Selinunte, II, 187.
Sempronio (C. Gracco), II, 129.
Senofonte, 6, 21, 157, 158; e il trattamento degli schiavi, 14; A. de
Le entrate di Atene?, II, 19, 70.
Serica (Cina settentrionale), II, 93, 100.
Servitù (della gleba), origini, 75-76; in Grecia, 77-78, 101; in
Messenia e Laconia, 76-77; nell’Impero romano e nel
Medioevo, 80; obblighi, 79; condizioni morali e giuridiche, 84
sgg., 88 sgg.; e il servizio militare, 86; in Russia, 87-88; nella
Francia medievale, 88; improduttività del lavoro, 90; decadenza
dell’agricoltura, 91; e la espansione coloniale, 96; servi
arricchiti, 103-04, 111, n. 41; ripercussioni politiche, 104 sgg.
Sibari, II, 2, 62, 67, 187.
Sicilia, produzione del suolo, 22; il latifondo, 28; e Atene, 129,
143, 144, 147; II, 38; impero di Siracusa, 169; principali città
greche, 170; guerre in S., II, 2, 4; esporta in Atene, II, 18;
provincia romana, II, 149 sgg.; città greche, II, 67, 149, 153;
organizzazione provinciale, II, 149 sgg.; e l’amministrazione di
Verre, II, 152 sgg., 160 sgg.; decima, II, 150 sgg.; altre imposte,
II, 160; gli Italici in S., II, 163-164; decadenza, II, 164-65; e il
commercio greco, II, 111; V. ai nomi delle singole città.
Sicione, 182, 183, 193; II, 108, 142, 147.
Sicionia, 77, 149.
Sifa, 173.
Simmorie, II, 40.
Simonide, 50.
Simpolitia, 119.
Sinecismo, 119.
Sintelia, 119.
Siracusa, 29, 77, 89, 143; imperialismo, 169 sgg.; impero, 169-72;
colonie, 170; costo dell’assedio del 415-13 a. C., II, 29; della
difesa del 415-13, II, 56; imposte, II, 58; guerra, II, 2, 3; lotte
civili, II, 62; decadenza, II, 67; saccheggio del 212 a. C., 160;
spopolata, II, 186.
Siria, II, 17, 19, 92, 94, 95, 111, 112.
Smirne, II, 186.
Smith (A.), 82.
Società commerciali, II, 146.
Socrate, 50, 102.
Solone, 29.
Solunte, 170.
Spagna, esporta, II, 19; prodotti, II, 102 sgg.; insurrezione contro
Roma, II, 120; e il commercio greco, II, 111; strade, II, 112.
Sparta, pasti in comune, 92-93; crisi sociale, 97 sgg.; divieto del
commercio e dell’industria, e conseguenze, 99; confederazione,
VIII; tenta unificare la Grecia, VIII; imperialismo, 149 sgg.; prime
conquiste, 149; estensione del dominio peloponnesiaco, 149;
obblighi degli alleati, 150; programma liberale, 150-51; e la
guerra del Peloponneso, 152 sgg.; e Atene, 153-55; e Tebe,
158-59; reazione antispartana, 156; decadenza e cause, 95
sgg., 159; nella Lega greco-macedone, 180; nel 311 a. C., 182;
e Filippo II, 190; governata da un epistate macedone, 184;
insorge contro la Macedonia, 192, 194; alleanza con Atene
(266 a. C.), 194-95; xenofobia, II, 22; guerre, II, 2, 3; pace di
Nicia (421 a. C.), 38; mutamento d’indirizzo politico nel IV sec.
a. C., II, 89.
Sparta (Pace di) (a. 371), 162-63.
Spartani, numero, 103, 104, 113, n. 73; il possesso degli Spartani,
209; ricchezze, II, 97 sgg.
Stipendium, II, 124.
Strabone, II, 184.
Strade, del mondo antico, II, 104 sgg., 112.
Stratego (macedone), 183.
Strumenti da lavoro, e gli schiavi, 11; strumenti agricoli, 19 sgg.
Sulla, II, 5, 123, 166-167, 169.
Sulpicio (S. Rufo), II, 148.
Sylphium, II, 179.
Tanagra, 173; (battaglia, 457 a. C.), II, 9, 185.
Taormina, 170.
Taranto, II, 67, 131, 187, 188.
Taso, 142; II, 2.
Tebe, suddita di Orcomeno?, 165; confederazione tebana, 160
sgg.; organizzazione, 160-61; imperialismo e metodi, 161 sgg.,
167-68; e Sparta, 158-59, 168; e Atene, 168; decadenza, 167-
69; II, 185; città soggette, 173; e Filippo II, 178; ribellione e
distruzione (a. 335 a. C.), 192, 164, 179; II, 4; ricostruzione,
181-82; guerre, II, 3, 4; assalita da Agesilao (378 a. C.), II, 55;
mutamento d’indirizzo politico nel IV sec. a. C., II 89; nel II sec.
di C., II, 188; V. Beozia.
Tegea, 36, 194; II, 63.
Temesa, II, 187.
Temistocle, 37.
Templi greci, 8, 128; II, 123, 142.
Tenedo, 189.
Teno, II, 144.
Tera, 145.
Terma, 170, II, 156, 187.
Teseion, 128.
Tespia, 164, 173, II, 185.
Tessaglia, servitù della gleba, 77; distribuzione della proprietà,
101; superficie, 101; agitazioni per debiti, 101; minacciata da
Tebe, 168: Lega tessalica, 175; conquistata e governata dalla
Macedonia, 178, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 186, 190; II, 4;
insorge contro la Macedonia, 192, 193; guerre, II, 3; esporta
grano, II, 17; agricoltura e pastorizia, II, 109; e Pompeo, II, 123;
e Pisone, II, 143; decadenza, II, 188.
Thierry (Amedeo), II, 174.
Timarco, 7.
Timoleone, 169.
Tindaride (Nuova), 170.
Tiranni, in Sicilia, 169, 172; in Grecia, 179; nel Peloponneso, 183;
in Elide, ad Argo, Sicione, Megalopoli ecc., 183; a Messene,
187.
Tirteo, 210, 217.
Tisbe, 161; II, 137.
Tolomei, monarchi dell’Egitto ellenistico, II, 94; politica, II, 94, 95.
Tolomeo I, 182.
Tolosa, II, 102.
Tracia, 124, 143, 177, 178, 185, 190-91, 169; II, 2, 17, 19, 32, 36,
38; V. Chersoneso.
Trasibulo, II, 3.
Trenta (I), 153; II, 63.
Trezene, 36, 182.
Trierarchia, II, 42 sgg.; syntrierarchia, II, 46.
Trifilia, 173, 184.
Tucidide, 34, 136, 170; II, 19, 191-93.
Tullio (M. Cicerone), II, 125, 126, 129, 132, 133, 135, 143, 145,
147-48, 151, 154, 157, 158, 160, 161, 164, 167, 173, 188, 190,
193.
Tullio (Q. Cicerone), II, 168.
Turii, II, 67, 187.

Valenza, II, 131.

Varrone, 14, 17 e n. 40.
Venuleio, II, 156.
Verre (C.), II, 126, 142; pretore in Sicilia (73-71 a. C.), 152 sgg.,
162.
Vespasiano, II, 196.
Vienne, II, 131.
Vini, prezzi, II, 13, 111.
Virgilio, II, 190.
SOMMARIO DEL VOLUME SECONDO.

Capitolo I. — La guerra Pag. 1

Le guerre nella Grecia antica; Lo sforzo
demografico; La guerra, la pastorizia,
l’agricoltura; La guerra e il commercio;
Ancora de la guerra e il commercio; La
guerra e le finanze ateniesi; Tributi e
imposizioni straordinarie; Il disagio dei
privati; Spopolamento e
sovrapopolazione; La guerra e la
decadenza della Grecia; Il pensiero dei
contemporanei.

Capitolo II. — Il rivolgimento

economico del mondo antico Pag. 89
Il nuovo Oriente; L’organizzazione della
produzione nel mondo ellenistico; Roma
e il nuovo Oriente; Roma e il nuovo
Occidente romano; La nuova situazione
della Grecia nel mondo.

Capitolo III. — La conquista romana Pag. 119

La conquista; I divoratori delle province; La
consorteria dei dominatori;
L’organizzazione dei Paesi greci; I
romani in Grecia; La Sicilia greca; Le
altre città greche.

Capitolo IV. — Finis graeciae Pag. 183

Il mondo greco in sui primi dell’êra volgare;
 La decadenza morale; La decadenza
intellettuale.

Indice analitico-alfabetico Pag. 205