GENCHEM-MIDTERMS

SCI401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION, LABORATORY SAFETY, AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

1st SEMESTER A.Y. 2023 – 2024
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND GUIDELINES ● Do not put anything into the trash or sink
without thinking
1. DRESS APPROPRIATELY IN THE LABORATORY ● Safely clean up broken glasses and put in a
● Laboratory Gown/Coat container
● Protective Goggles/Glasses ● DO NOT pour ORGANIC solvent in the sink
● Tied back long hair/hairnet ● Solutions poured in the sink must be
● Disposable/heat resistant gloves washed with plenty of water
● Closed shoes ● Separate wastes as:
▪ Organic wastes (flammable)
2. ORGANIZED AND CLEAN WORKING AREAS ▪ Halogenated Hydrocarbon
● Keep personal things away from working ▪ Acids
area ▪ Bases
● Set aside obstacles ▪ Heavy metals
● Clean and dry used equipment ▪ Broken glasses
▪ Broken thermometer
3. KEEP ALL CHEMICAL REAGENTS IN THE
DESIGNATED DISPENSING AREA 8. AVOID DIRECT CONTACT WITH CHEMICALS
● Use test tubes, beakers, weigh boats and ● Wash your hands before and after
other applicable containers to obtain laboratory; immediately anytime you get
chemicals from the dispensing areas. chemicals on them
● Clean all spillage immediately
4. KEEP THE BALANCE AND WEIGHING AREA ● Never pipette by mouth
CLEAN ● Never eat or drink in the laboratory
● Do not point the open end of a test tube at
● Do not directly place chemicals on the someone while heating or mixing.
balance pans ● Waft vapors with your hand toward your
● Use weighing papers or boats or any nose
applicable containers for your samples. ● Use fume hood for volatile and toxic
● Never weigh hot objects. chemicals
5. CHECK THE NAME ON THE CHEMICAL 9. HANDLE GLASSES WITH PRECAUTIONS

REAGENT BOTTLES BEFORE USING THEM
● DO NOT heat graduated cylinders, burets,
● Label containers where chemicals are pipette or bottles with a Bunsen burner
transferred flame.
● DO NOT use thermometer as stirrer
6. AVOID CONTAMINATING CHEMICAL REAGENT ● Never point the mouth of the test tube
towards anyone while heating
● Never return unused chemicals to the ● Protect hands with several layers of towel
reagent bottles. when inserting glass into a stopper and
● Use a clean, dry spatula in getting solids out insert the tubing with a screw-like motion.
of the reagent bottle. ● Fire-polish the ends of freshly cut glass
● To put solids in a test tube, a folded piece of tubing.
paper about 2 inches long and slightly wider
than the diameter of the test tube is used. 10. LEARN LOCATION AND PROPER USE OF
● Do not interchange covers of reagent bottles SAFETY EQUIPMENT
● To weigh solid reagents, use clean, dry
watch glass as container; tear the mass ● Eyewash
● Safety shower
7. DISPOSE WASTE PROPERLY ● Fire extinguisher
● Safety kit
RHODA P. MONTALBO

15. DO NOT ENTER THE LABORATORY ROOM

WITHOUT YOUR INSTRUCTOR.
LABORATORY GLASSWARE AND MATERIALS
Glassware used in all chemistry courses
1. Graduated cylinders
2. Wash bottle
3. Side arm
4. Erlenmeyer flask
5. Beaker
6. Funnels
11. BE AWARE OF MATERIAL SAFETY DATA 7. Test tubes
SHEET (MSDS) 8. Watch glasses
● Document for safely handling or working

Glassware commonly used in organic chemistry
with a particular substance
for conducting reactions and purifications
● Instructions regarding necessary protective
equipment, how to handle spills, first aid
suggestions, storage and disposal, and the
general health effects
● Its main purpose is to safeguard
occupational health
12. NEVER WORK ALONE IN THE LABORATORY

AREA
13. REPORT ALL ACCIDENTS TO YOUR

INSTRUCTOR NO MATTER HOW SMALL IT MAY
SEEM.
14. DO NOT PERFORM UNAUTHORIZED

EXPERIMENTS. 1. Cork ring
2. Fractionating column
RHODA P. MONTALBO

3. West condenser 1. Evaporating dish

4. Separatory funnel 2. TLC chamber
5. Stopper 3. Buchner funnel
6. Round bottomed flask 4. Hirsch funnel
7. Three-way adapter (distilling head) 5. Rubber sleeves for funnels (filter
8. Claisen adapter adapters)
9. Vacuum adapter 6. Clay tile
10. Thermometer adapter 7. Vials for storage
11. Plastic clip (Keck clip) 8. Stir bars and spin vane
12. Rubber fitting for thermometer adapter 9. Drying tube
Tools used in all chemistry courses Clamps for securing apparatuses
1. Extension clamps (with and without vinyl

sleeves)
1. Crucible tongs 2. Three-fingered clamps (vinyl and
2. Test tube holder fire-resistant sleeves)
3. Striker 3. Ring clamp (iron rings)
4. Forceps 4. Wire mesh
5. Spatulas
6. Scoopula
7. Glass stirring rod Burners and tubing
8. Pasteur pipette
9. Dropper bulb
Various equipment in the OrgChem lab
1. Thick-walled vacuum tubing

2. Bunsen burner
3. Wood blocks
4. Rubber tubing
RHODA P. MONTALBO

MEASUREMENTS FUNDAMENTAL/BASE QUANTITIES - cannot be

defined in any other physical quantity
UNIT
➢ SYSTEM of UNIT: length, mass & time
○ CGS system: based on centimeter,
● measuring quantity is always compared with
gram and second
some reference standard, such standard
○ MKS system: based on meter,
defines a unit of the quantity
kilogram and second
● to make accurate and reliable
○ FPS system: based on foot, pound
measurements, we need units of
and second
measurements that do not change and that
can be duplicated
DERIVED QUANTITIES - depend on one or more
● System : International System, or SI
fundamental/base quantities for their measurement
(Systeme International in French) and British
system or English system
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
● SEVEN BASE UNITS
● Precision - how close they can be to each

SI BASE UNITS other
● Accuracy - how close it is likely to be to the
true value
Base quantity Name Symbol ○ 56.24 ± 0.02 mm - 56.24(02)
○ 1.6454 ± 0.0021 cm - 1.6454(21)
length meter m
UNCERTAINTY OF MEASUREMENT
mass kilogram kg
Uncertainty is also called error.
time second s
Error - Indicates the maximum difference there is
electric current ampere A likely to be between the measured value and the true
value
thermodynamic kelvin K
temperature SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
amount of mole mol the valid digits in a measurement; the more

substance precise an instrument, the more significant digits
can be measured
luminous candela cd
intensity RULES FOR COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
RULES FOR WRITING SI UNITS ● All Non-zero digits are always significant
● Zeros
● Full name of unit starts with small letter even ○ Leading Zeros: not significant
named after a person ▪ 0.0025 = 0.0025 – 2 Sig Fig
● Symbol named after scientist should be in ○ Captive Zeros: significant
uppercase letter; other symbols in lowercase ▪ 1.008 = 1.008 - 4 Sig Fig
letters ○ Trailing Zeros: contains decimal -
● Units have no plural forms significant
▪ 0.00500 K = 0.00500 - 3 Sig Fig
▪ 0.03040 m/s = 0.03040 - 4 Sig Fig
BASIC TYPES OF QUANTITY
● Space holding zeros on numbers less than
one
▪ 0.00500 N = 3 Sig Fig
RHODA P. MONTALBO

● Trailing zeros in a whole number

▪ 200 km = 1 Sig Fig
▪ 25,000 A = 2 Sig Fig
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN MATHEMATICAL

OPERATIONS
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
to assure accuracy and precision, one must

correctly read the measuring instrument
► a common problem is parallax; parallax is the

apparent shift in the position of an object when it is
viewed from different angles
▪ Example: reading volume in a graduated
cylinder varies from point of sight, it must be
read at eye level.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
RHODA P. MONTALBO
CHAPTER 2A: CHARACTERISTICS OF MATTER AND CALCULATIONS IN CHEMISTRY

MATTER • (l) - liquid

• (s) – solid
● anything that occupies space and • (aq) for aqueous
has mass
● substances, mixtures, elements and LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
compounds, atoms and molecules
states that in chemical reaction atoms are
SUBSTANCE neither created nor destroyed
elements/compounds = solid, liquid gas BALANCING CHEMICAL REACTION
MIXTURE a) Write the correct formulas of the reactants, if

necessary.
homogeneous/heterogeneous b) Decide what type of reaction it is and thus
what the products are.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES c) Write the correct formula for the product.
d) Balance the equation.
● can be measured and observed
without changing the composition or
identity
● Color, melting point, and boiling point
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
● chemical composition is changed TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION

● reactivity with other chemicals, Toxicity,
Flammability, Enthalpy of formation, COMBINATION (SYNTHESIS)
Heat of combustion, Oxidation states ● 2 or more substance combine to form
one product
EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
● A + B -> AB
● Depends on the amount matter DECOMPOSITION

● Mass, length and volume ● compound decomposed to form 2 or
more substances
INTENSIVE PROPERTIES
● AB -> A + B
● Does not depend on amount of
DISPLACEMENT
matter
● more active metal can displace a less
● Color, odor, taste, density, boiling point,
active metal, while a less active one
melting point
can’t displace the more active
● AY + B -> BY + A
CHANGES OF MATTER
METATHESIS (DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT)

● Reactants -> Products
● positive ions exchange partners with the
● physical states of the reactants and
negative ions to form two new
products use :
compounds
• (g) - gas
● AX + BY -> AY + BX
RHODA P. MONTALBO
CHAPTER 2A: CHARACTERISTICS OF MATTER AND CALCULATIONS IN CHEMISTRY

○ NEUTRALIZATION - reaction
of an acid and a base that
results in an ionic compound
and possibly water
COMBUSTION
● reaction of elements and compounds
(typically hydrocarbon) with oxygen
● CxHy + (x+y/4)O2 -> xCO2 + (y/2)H2O
STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
MOLAR MASS
● Summation of the atomic masses of all
the elements appearing in a chemical
formula
STEPS IN SOLVING
• Write balanced chemical reaction
• Convert given amount of reactant to moles
• Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation

to calculate the number of moles of product
formed
• Convert the moles of product to grams of

product
ALWAYS REMEMBER TO BALANCE &

FAMILiARIZE ATOMIC MASS OF ELEMENTS
RHODA P. MONTALBO
CHAPTER 2B: ENERGY CHANGES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

TWO FUNDAMENTAL LAWS EXOTHERMIC PROCESS
All chemical reactions exhibits the two any process that gives off heat
fundamental laws:
● Combustion
● law of conservation of mass ● Combination
● law of conservation of energy
○ Energy can neither be created ENDOTHERMIC PROCESS
nor destroyed
○ the total quantity of energy in heat has to be supplied to the system
the universe is assumed by the surroundings; absorb heat
constant
● Decomposition
ENERGY CALORIMETRY
● capacity to do work measurement of heat changes

● all types of matter are capable of doing
work ● specific heat, s, is the amount of heat
● chemists define it as directed energy required to raise the temperature of
change resulting from a process one gram of the substance by one
degree Celsius; J/g°C; intensive
HEAT property
● transfer of thermal energy between ● heat capacity, C, is the amount of heat

two bodies that are at different required to raise the temperature of a
temperatures given quantity of the substance by
● “heat absorbed” or “heat released” one degree Celsius; J/°C; extensive
property
THERMOCHEMISTRY
study of heat change in chemical reactions
● System - specific part of the universe

that is of interest to us
○ Open system - can exchange
mass and energy, usually in the
form of heat with its
surroundings
○ Closed system - allows the
transfer of energy (heat) but not
mass
○ Isolated system - does not
allow the transfer of either mass
or energy
● Surroundings - the rest of the universe
outside the system
RHODA P. MONTALBO

EXAMPLE: A 466-g sample of water is heated

from 8.50° to 74.60°C. Calculate the amount
of heat (in kilojoules) absorbed by the water.
EXAMPLES
A quantity of 1.435 g of naphthalene (C10H8),
OTHER EXAMPLES
was burned in a constant-volume bomb
calorimeter. Consequently, the temperature
of the water rose from 20.28°C to 25.95°C. If
the heat capacity of the bomb plus water
was 10.17 kJ/°C, calculate the heat of
combustion of naphthalene on a molar basis;
that is, find the molar heat of combustion.
CONSTANT-VOLUME CALORIMETER
● also known as the bomb calorimeter

● Closed system filled with oxygen at
about 30 atm of pressure A quantity of 1.922 g of methanol (CH3 OH)
● immersed in a known amount of water was burned in a constant-volume bomb
and the sample is ignited electrically calorimeter. Consequently, the temperature
● heat produced by the combustion of the water rose by 4.20°C. If the heat
reaction can be calculated accurately by capacity of the bomb plus water was 10.4
recording the rise in temperature of the kJ/°C, calculate the molar heat of
water combustion of methanol.
RHODA P. MONTALBO

CONSTANT-PRESSURE CALORIMETER
● also known as the coffee-cup

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
calorimeter
● used to determine the heat changes for
states that energy can be converted from one
non-combustion reactions
form to another, but it cannot be created or
● used it in measuring the heat effects of
destroyed.
a variety of reactions such as acid-base
neutralization, Heat of solution and
ENTHALPY, ΔH
dilution
ΔH, change in Enthalpy; Change in energy for
a chemical reaction
● Energy stored in bonds of product

minus the energy stored in the bonds of
reactant
EXAMPLES
1. A lead (Pb) pellet having a mass of 26.47 g

at 89.98°C was placed in a constant-pressure
calorimeter of negligible heat capacity ● REACTANTS → PRODUCTS : (-) ΔH;
containing 100.0 mL of water. The water Exothermic
temperature rose from 22.50°C to 23.17°C. ● REACTANTS → PRODUCTS: (+) ΔH;
What is the specific heat of the lead pellet? Endothermic
ΔH = H (products) - H (reactants)
RHODA P. MONTALBO

EXAMPLES SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
defined as the entropy of the universe increases

in a spontaneous process and remains
unchanged in an equilibrium process
FOR STANDARD ENTROPY CHANGES
EXAMPLE
SPONTANEITY
A reaction that occurs under the given set of

conditions is called spontaneous reaction. If See S value in appendix 3, pp. 1127- 1131 of
a reaction does not occur under specified Raymond Chang ebook
conditions, it is said to be nonspontaneous.
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
ENTROPY, S
states that entropy of a perfect crystalline
measure of how spread out or dispersed the substance is zero at the absolute zero of
energy of a system is among the different temperature
possible ways that system can contain
energy GIBBS FREE ENERGY, G
thermodynamic function that express the

spontaneity of a reaction; simply free energy
G = H + TS
The change in free energy (ΔG) of a system

for a constant-temperature process is:
● ∆S<0 if gas to liquid, liquid to solid (or ΔG = ΔH + TΔS

when molecules are not spread out
● ∆S>0 if solid to liquid, liquid to gas (or
when molecules are spread out)
RHODA P. MONTALBO

STANDARD FREE-ENERGY CHANGES
(same process as standard entropy changes,

just use G instead of S in the Chang ebook)
RHODA P. MONTALBO
CHAPTER 2C: ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY

ELECTROCHEMISTRY 2. For monoatomic ions : ON = charge

on the ions
branch of chemistry that deals with the Examples: Li+ : +1; Ba2+ : +2; Fe3+:
interconversion of electrical energy and +3
chemical energy
3. All alkali metals (Group IA) : ON = +1
ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESSES
4. All alkaline earth metals (Group IIA):
REDOX REACTIONS ON = +2
1. The energy released by a spontaneous 5. Hydrogen, H: ON = +1; when

reaction is converted to electricity combined with nonmetals
2. Electrical energy is used to cause a Examples: CH4, NH3, H2O, and HCl
nonspontaneous reaction to occur.
ON = -1; when it is combined with a
electrons are transferred from one metal
substance to another Examples: LiH, NaH, CaH2, and
LiAlH4
• Loss Electron: Oxidation, Reducing Agent
(LEORA) 6. Fluorine, F : ON = -1 in all compounds
• Gain Electron: Reduction, Oxidizing Agent
(GEROA) 7. Oxygen (O) in most compounds: ON =
-2
OXIDATION NUMBER ON = -1 in Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
● the charge that atom would have if 8. The sum of the oxidation numbers in
the compound was composed of ions a neutral compound is zero.
● used to keep track of how many Example: H2O: 2(+1) + (-2) = 0
electrons an atom has
9. The sum of the oxidation numbers in
a polyatomic ion is equal to the
charge on the ion.
Example: SO42-: (+6) + 4(-2) = -2
EXAMPLES
RULES
1. 1. In free elements (uncombined or

pure state): ON = 0 (ZERO)
Examples: H2, Br2, Na, Be, K, O2;
RHODA P. MONTALBO

BALANCING REDOX REACTION
ACIDIC MEDIUM
Step 1 : Write the unbalanced equation for

the reaction in ionic form. Step 5 : Verify that the equation contains the
same type and numbers of atoms and the
same charges on both sides of the equation.
Step 2 : Separate the equation into two

half-reaction and determine the oxidation BASIC MEDIUM
number for each element
For reactions in a basic medium, we proceed
through step 4 as if the reaction were carried
out in an acidic medium. Then, for every H+
ion we add an equal number of OH- ions to
both sides of the equation. Where H+ and
OH- ions appear on the same side of the
equation, we combine the ions to give H2O.
Step 3 : Balance each half-reaction for the

number and type of atoms and charges. For
reactions in an acidic medium, add H2O to
balance the O atoms and H+ to balance the
H atoms.
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
GALVANIC CELLS OR VOLTAIC CELLS
● Named after the Italian scientists Luigi

Galvani and Alessandro Volta, who
constructed early versions of the device
Step 4 : Add the two half-equations together ● experimental apparatus for generating
and balance the final equation by inspection. electricity through the use of a
The electrons on both sides must cancel. If spontaneous reaction
the oxidation and reduction half-reactions
contain different numbers of electrons, we ❖ Anode : electrode at which oxidation
need to multiply one or both half-reactions to occurs; Oxidation at Anode (An Ox)
equalize the number of electrons. ❖ Cathode: electrode at which reduction
occur; Reduction at Cathode (Red Cat)
RHODA P. MONTALBO

CELL DIAGRAM OR CELL NOTATION
● Shorthand abbreviation of the

chemical reactions in a
galvanic/voltaic cell
● The electrode written to the left of the
salt bridge is always taken to be the
anode, and the associated
half-equation is always written as an
oxidation.
● The right-hand electrode is therefore CELL POTENTIAL
always the cathode, and the
half-equation is always written as a • The difference in electrical potential between
reduction. the anode and cathode is measured by a
voltmeter
RULES
• Cell voltage : or cell potential is the voltage
1. The anode half-cell is described first; the across the electrodes of a galvanic cell;
cathode half-cell follows. Within a given Electromotive force or emf (E): another common
half-cell, the reactants are specified first and the term for cell voltage
products last. The description of the oxidation
reaction is first, and the reduction reaction is • When the concentrations of the Cu2+ and
last; when you read it, your eyes move in the Zn2+ ions are both 1.0 M, we find that the
direction of electron flow. Spectator ions are not voltage or emf of the Daniell cell is 1.10 V at
included. 25°C
2. A single vertical line ( | ) is drawn between • Overall cell reaction can be thought of as the
two chemical species that are in different sum of two half-cell reactions, the measured
phases but in physical contact with each emf of the cell can be treated as the sum of the
other (e.g., solid electrode | liquid with electrical potentials at the Zn and Cu
electrolyte). A double vertical line ( || ) electrodes.
represents a salt bridge or porous membrane
separating the individual half-cells.
STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIAL
3. The phase of each chemical (s, l, g, aq) is
shown in parentheses. If the electrolytes in the The voltage associated with redox reaction
cells are not at standard conditions, at an electrode at standard condition:
concentrations and/or pressure, they are solutes are all 1M, all gases are at 1atm,
included in parentheses with the phase 25°C (page 846, Raymond Chang ebook)
notation. If no concentration or pressure is
noted, the electrolytes in the cells are assumed
to be at standard conditions (1.00 M or 1.00 atm
and 298 K).
RHODA P. MONTALBO

1. The E° values apply to the half-cell

reactions as read in the forward (left to right)
direction.
2. The more positive E° is, the greater the

tendency for the substance to be reduced.
3. The half-cell reactions are reversible.

Depending on the conditions, any electrode
can act either as an anode or as a cathode.
4. Diagonal rule
ELECTROLYTIC CELL
an apparatus for carrying out electrolysis
ELECTROLYSIS
5. Changing the stoichiometric coefficients
Process in which electrical energy is used to
of a half-cell reaction does not affect the
cause a nonspontaneous chemical reaction
value of E° because electrode potentials are
to occur
intensive properties.
ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN SODIUM
6. Like ∆H, ∆ G, and ∆ S, the sign of E°
CHLORIDE
changes but its magnitude remains the same
when we reverse a reaction.
EXAMPLES
ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
• Apparatus for small-scale electrolysis of

water
• The volume of hydrogen gas generated at
the cathode is twice that of oxygen gas
generated at the anode
A galvanic cell consists of a Mg electrode in

a 1.0 M Mg(NO3)2 solution and an Ag
electrode in a 1.0 M AgNO3 solution.
Calculate the standard emf of this cell at
25°C.
RHODA P. MONTALBO
CHAPTER 2D: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

ATOMIC MASS VS MASS NUMBER
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
● Study of reactions involving changes

in atomic nuclei
ISOTOPES ● Branch of chemistry that began with the
discovery of natural radioactivity by
● Atoms that have the same atomic Antoine Becquerel and grew as a result
number, but different mass numbers of subsequent investigations by Pierre
● There are naturally occurring isotopes and Marie Curie
and isotopes that are artificially
produced APPLICATIONS
● Isotopes are separated through mass ● medicine
spectrometry ● atomic, hydrogen, neutron bombs
● nuclear energy
NATURE
● With the exception of Hydrogen, all
nuclei contain two kinds of fundamental
particles: Protons and neutrons
● Some nuclei are unstable, they emit
particles and/or electromagnetic
radiation spontaneously – radioactivity
RADIOACTIVITY
EXAMPLES A. H. Becquerel, 1896
● Natural Radioactivity
Self-disintegrating, spontaneous activity
in the form of emission of radiations by
some unstable nuclei with atomic
number greater than 83
RHODA P. MONTALBO

RADIATION: IONIZING RADIATION NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION
● radiation consisting of particles, ● results from the bombardment of nuclei

X-rays, or gamma rays with enough by neutrons, protons or other nuclei
energy to cause ionization in the ● leads to the formation and synthesis
medium through which it passes, of new elements
caused by unstable atoms
● Alpha, beta, neutron particles,
gamma and X-rays
NUCLEAR REACTION: NUCLEAR EQUATION
DOSIMETER - device that measures dose

uptake of external ionizing radiation
Radiation is measured by Sievert, although

most doses are in millisieverts (mSv) – one-
thousandth of a Sievert
We each receive about 2 mSv per year.

Anything less than about 100 mSv is
harmless. But radiation is everywhere!
RHODA P. MONTALBO

• The total number of nuclear charges in the

products and in the reactants must be the
same: conservation of atomic number
EXAMPLES
NUCLEAR STABILITY
Nuclei that contain 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, or 126

protons or neutrons are generally more stable
than nuclei that do not possess these numbers.
For example, there are 10 stable isotopes of

Tin (Sn) with the atomic number 50 and only
2 stable isotopes of Antimony (Sb) with the
atomic number 51. The numbers 2, 8, 20, 50,
82, and 126 are called magic numbers. The
significance of these numbers for nuclear
stability is similar to the numbers of
RULES IN BALANCING electrons associated with the very stable
noble gases (that is, 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86
• Total number of protons plus neutrons in the electrons).
products and in the reactants must be the
same: conservation of mass number
RHODA P. MONTALBO

Nuclei with even numbers of both protons

and neutrons are generally more stable than
those with odd numbers of these particles.
NUCLEAR FISSION
● Process in which a heavy nucleus

EXAMPLES (mass number > 200) divides to form
smaller nuclei of intermediate mass
and one or more neutrons; because
the heavy nucleus is less stable than its
products, this process releases a large
amount of energy
● The first nuclear fission reaction was
Uranium-235 bombardment with slow
neutrons
● Complex reaction: more than 30
different elements have been found
among fission products
● Uranium-235 fission is made possible
with a nuclear chain reaction, which is a
self-sustaining sequence of nuclear
fission reactions
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
● Spontaneous emission by unstable

nuclei of particles or electromagnetic
ADDITIONAL INFO radiation or both
● Main types: alpha particles; beta
● All isotopes of the elements with atomic particles; positron emission and
numbers higher than 83 are radioactive. electron capture
● All isotopes of Technetium (Tc, Z = 43) ● Radioactive decay series – sequence
and Promethium (Pm, Z = 61) are of nuclear reactions that ultimately
radioactive. result in the formation of a stable
isotope
RHODA P. MONTALBO

HALF-LIFE
• Rate of disintegration of radioactive isotope;

the time it takes for half of the given amount
to disintegrate
• Gives the probability of decay and this is
always the same for a given set of nucleus no
matter how it was formed
KINETICS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
NUCLEAR FUSION
● Combining of small nuclei into larger

ones
● Fusion reactions take place only at a
very high temperature and often
called thermonuclear reactions
● Occurs constantly in the Sun
EXAMPLES
RHODA P. MONTALBO

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SCI401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION, LABORATORY SAFETY, AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

5. CHECK THE NAME ON THE CHEMICAL 9. HANDLE GLASSES WITH PRECAUTIONS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

15. DO NOT ENTER THE LABORATORY ROOM

LABORATORY GLASSWARE AND MATERIALS

Glassware used in all chemistry courses

● Document for safely handling or working

12. NEVER WORK ALONE IN THE LABORATORY

13. REPORT ALL ACCIDENTS TO YOUR

14. DO NOT PERFORM UNAUTHORIZED

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

3. West condenser 1. Evaporating dish

Tools used in all chemistry courses Clamps for securing apparatuses

1. Extension clamps (with and without vinyl

Various equipment in the OrgChem lab

1. Thick-walled vacuum tubing

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

MEASUREMENTS FUNDAMENTAL/BASE QUANTITIES - cannot be

● Precision - how close they can be to each

amount of mole mol the valid digits in a measurement; the more

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

● Trailing zeros in a whole number

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN MATHEMATICAL

to assure accuracy and precision, one must

► a common problem is parallax; parallax is the

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

MATTER • (l) - liquid

elements/compounds = solid, liquid gas BALANCING CHEMICAL REACTION

MIXTURE a) Write the correct formulas of the reactants, if

● chemical composition is changed TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION

● Depends on the amount matter DECOMPOSITION

METATHESIS (DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT)

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

• Write balanced chemical reaction

• Convert given amount of reactant to moles

• Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation

• Convert the moles of product to grams of

ALWAYS REMEMBER TO BALANCE &

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

TWO FUNDAMENTAL LAWS EXOTHERMIC PROCESS

● capacity to do work measurement of heat changes

● transfer of thermal energy between ● heat capacity, C, is the amount of heat

study of heat change in chemical reactions

● System - specific part of the universe

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

EXAMPLE: A 466-g sample of water is heated

● also known as the bomb calorimeter

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

● also known as the coffee-cup

● Energy stored in bonds of product

1. A lead (Pb) pellet having a mass of 26.47 g

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

EXAMPLES SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

defined as the entropy of the universe increases

FOR STANDARD ENTROPY CHANGES

A reaction that occurs under the given set of

thermodynamic function that express the

The change in free energy (ΔG) of a system

● ∆S<0 if gas to liquid, liquid to solid (or ΔG = ΔH + TΔS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

STANDARD FREE-ENERGY CHANGES

(same process as standard entropy changes,