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Edexcel International GCSE Chemistry Student Book Second Edition Graham Hill full chapter instant download
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Contents
Getting the most from this book vi
Acknowledgments viii
Principles of chemistry 2
1.13 Using relative atomic masses 50
1.14 Writing formulae 54
1.15 Particles in reaction – equations 58
1.16 Formulae and equations 61
1.17 Chemical bonding 67
1.18 Electricity in everyday life 72
1.19 Which substances conduct electricity? 75
1.20 Giant ionic structures 78
1.21 The structure of substances 81
1.22 Simple molecular substances 84
1.23 Diamond, graphite and fullerenes 88
1.24 The properties of metals 92
1.25 Investigating electrolysis 95
Summary 100
Sample answers and expert’s comments 102
Exam-style questions 104
Extend and challenge 106
iii
iv
Index 275
PRACTICAL
emistry
Organic ch
Section 4
is
e of water
A molecul ensation
a polyester. e of a cond
e is called an exampl
e of po lymer mad d so it is os t addi tion
The typ linkage, an ugher than
m
lymers.
each ester is much to addition po
released at of polymer own than
This type er to breakd
polymer. ev en ha rd
and are
polymers, + H
O H
ESTIO NS
er STUDY QU
O them togeth
H + H ... joining
O O
molecule
of water
C—O—H
taken out
from betw
een
s ... n H—O—C—
r molecule
two large
t.
gram forma
in block dia
ion reaction molecul es
A condensat edioc acid
Figure 10.3 l and ethan
1
.
red s of ethanedio rep res en ted by this ethanediol
nd be
on of the hu fibre of polyester can
The reacti gle 2
ylic acids.
Expla
make a sin of di-carbox
needed to .
equation: cannot exist po lye ster c
ho w a
H H 3 Describe (HOO
O O + 2 n H 2O edioc acid
from ethan
C—C—O
H H C—C—O—
O C—O—H H H n
O
+ n H—O—C—
C—O—H H H
n H—O—C—
RESEARCH • CALCULATE ost chemica
ls. They
lyesters istant to m bottles
Uses of po bly stron g and are res
e us ed to m ake plastic
are incredi rics, and ar drinks and
beers.
Polyesters th es and fab ft
Try the activity before you start, and make hard
wear ing clo
including
bottled wa
ter s, so
ty of uses
for a varie
then have a look at it again once you
have completed the Section to see
if your responses are different before
MATHS TIP
and after learning more about that n is us
ed where
Remember unknown
the topics. nt to indicate an
we wa a number
at can have
number th th e case of
values. In
of possible very large
tion n is a
polymerisa
number.
MATHS TIP
vi
EXAM TIP
Exam tips throughout the book will
guide you in your learning process. Summary Sample answers and expert’s
✓ I can describe how the mixture of hydrocarbons in
●
●
●
saturated
unsaturated
general formula
comments
1 Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon. The table below shows some information
crude oil is separated using fractional distillation, and ● displayed formula
about methane molecules.
can name the main fractions and state the number of ● isomerism
carbon atoms in each fraction ● functional group. Methane Ethane
molecular formula CH4
✓ I can describe the trend in boiling points and viscosity ✓ I know that alkanes are made from only carbon and displayed formula H
of the main fractions of crude oil hydrogen
● Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2.
H C H
● As the number of carbon atoms increases, the
● They have only single bonds. H
boiling point increases.
● They are fairly unreactive.
● As the number of carbon atoms increases, the dot and cross diagram of bonding H
viscosity increases.
✓ I know that alkenes are made from only carbon and H C H
● They have at least one double carbon=carbon state at room temperature gas
as gasoline
● The process of cracking makes long-chain
bond.
● They are very reactive. a) Copy and complete the table to show the same information for ethane
hydrocarbons into alkenes and useful
as is shown for methane. (4)
shorter-chain hydrocarbons.
✓ I can draw displayed formulae for straight-chain b) What is a hydrocarbon? (1)
✓ I understand the complete and incomplete alkanes with up to six carbon atoms and name them
● These are named according to the longest straight c) Methane and ethane are part of a homologous series. What is a
combustion of carbon-based fuels
chain of carbon atoms, methane,(1C), ethane (2C), homologous series? (1)
● Incomplete combustion produces carbon
propane (3C), butane (4C), pentane (5C), and
STUDY QUESTIONS
monoxide. d) Methane burns to produce water vapour. Name the other three possible
● Inhalation of carbon monoxide is dangerous as it
hexane (6C). products of the combustion of methane, and state the conditions
prevents absorption of oxygen in the body. necessary for each product to be made. (3)
✓ I can draw displayed formulae for the alkenes ethene
and propene (Total for question = 9 marks)
✓ I know that nitrogen in the air at high
temperatures inside car engines can be
converted to nitrogen oxides ✓ I can describe the UV light-initiated substitution reac Student response Total 7/9 Expert comments and tips for success
tion of methane with bromine
homework. Answers are available ● the fermentation of sugars such as glucose by yeast. H H
✓ I can explain the terms state at room temperature gas ✔
● homologous series ✓ I can describe how ethanol may be oxidised by:
air in combustion
online.
● hydrocarbon ●
b) A compound containing only carbon and hydrogen ✔ Correctly explains the elements present in a hydrocarbon.
● microbial oxidation
● potassium dichromate(VI).
H H
O O
STIONS
H H C— O— C—C—O—
+ 2 n H 2O EXTEND AND CHALLENGE
C—
O C—O—H H H n
O
+ n H—O—C—
—C—C—
O—H H H
CH CH 2OH
iol(HOCH 2 2
). When you have completed all the
propaned g
d for makin
4
against an
ordinary po
ide
lyester threa
a person’s
body. Exam-style questions for the Section, try
tches ins
ediol.
in why me
thaned ioc acid
surgical sti
the extension activity.
acids. Expla
carboxylic
ot exist. n be made
polyester ca
ribe how a CCOOH) an
d
acid (HOO
ethanedioc
ANSWERS
vii
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viii
■■ Dissolving is evidence
Look at the photos in Figure 1.1 and try to answer the questions above. In
order to answer these questions, you will need to use the idea that:
We can explain how the sugar dissolves and disappears using the idea of
particles. Both sugar and water are made up of very small particles. These
particles are much too small to see, even under a microscope. When sugar
dissolves, tiny particles break off each solid granule. These tiny invisible
sugar particles mix with the water particles in the liquid. The solution tastes
sweet even though you cannot see the sugar.
200
MATHS TIP 180
Solubility in g per 100 g of water
The solubility of each of these substances can be found from the graph at
any temperature between 0 °C and 100 °C. If you need to know the mass of
sodium nitrate needed to make a saturated solution at 80°C you should:
n find the temperature you want on the horizontal x-axis, 80 °C
n look up the line at 80 °C until you find the curve for sodium nitrate
n look across at the y-axis to read off the mass needed to make a saturated
solution in 100 g of water. 3
remove
100 cm3 add to once-diluted
add to
solution
1g potassium
manganate(VII) 1000 cm3
900 cm3
water water
Figure 1.5 Estimating the size of particles in potassium manganate(VII). If you try this experiment,
wear eye protection.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 Krisnan and Christine were talking about dissolving 4 Use Figure 1.4 to help you answer these questions.
sugar in tea. Krisnan thought that the sugar would a) In what unit is solubility measured?
weigh less when it had dissolved because it would be b) Which substance’s solubility has a linear
floating in the tea. relationship?
a) What do you think happens to the mass of a c) Name a substance with a non-linear solubility graph.
substance when it dissolves? d) Calculate the solubility of sodium nitrate at 80 °C
b) Plan an experiment to test your suggestions in 5 Look back at Figure 1.5 and the experiment involved.
part (a). Suppose that 1 g of potassium manganate(VII) has
c) If possible, carry out your suggested experiment. a volume of cm3 and that there is one particle of
Explain your results. potassium manganate(VII) in every drop of the final
2 Get into groups of two or three. Use the idea of particles 1 000 000 000 cm3 of faint pink solution.
to discuss and explain what happens when: a) Estimate the number of drops in 1 cm3 of the faint
a) water in a kettle boils to produce steam pink solution.
b) you add water to a clay flower pot and the outside b) How many particles of potassium manganate(VII)
of the pot becomes wet are there in 1 000 000 000 cm3 of the faint pink
c) puddles disappear on a fine day solution?
d) tightly
STUDY tied balloons go down after some time.
QUESTIONS c) Calculate the volume of one particle of potassium
3 Explain the following terms: manganate(VII) in the crystal.
a) solute
b) solvent
c) solution
d) saturated
e) solubility
f) y = mx + c
■■ Diffusion
The way that smells travel from their source suggests that particles, whether
from fish and chips or from perfume, move through the air. This movement
of particles is called diffusion.
Gases consist of tiny particles moving at high speeds. The particles collide
with each other and with the walls of their container. Sooner or later, gases
like those from the fish and chips will diffuse into all the space they can
find.
Diffusion also occurs in liquids, but it takes place much more slowly than in
gases (Figure 2.3). This means that liquid particles move around more slowly
than gas particles. Diffusion does not happen in solids.
two drops of
Figure 2.2 Why is it possible to smell the blackcurrant juice
perfume that someone is wearing from
several metres away?
bo
state to another. A summary of the different changes of state is shown in
ilin
ing
g
co
ing
or
nd
blim
ev
ub
en
ap
es
su
ora
e rs
tin
rev
g
When a solid is heated, its particles gain energy. The particles vibrate faster and
freezing faster until eventually they break away from their fixed positions. The particles
SOLID LIQUID begin to move around each other and the solid has melted to form a liquid.
melting
Figure 2.7 Changes of state. The temperature at which the solid melts is called the melting point.
The temperature at which a solid melts tells us how strongly its particles
are held together. Substances with high melting points have strong forces
of attraction between their particles. Substances with low melting points
have weak forces of attraction between their particles. Metals and alloys, like
iron and steel, have high melting points. This suggests that there are strong
forces of attraction between their particles. This is why metals can be used as
girders and supports.
Boiling points tell us how strongly the particles are held together in liquids.
Volatile liquids, like petrol, evaporate easily and boil at low temperatures.
They have weak forces of attraction between their particles.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 What do you understand by the following terms: ii) you can smell hot, sizzling onion several metres
diffusion, kinetic theory, states of matter, melting point, away, but you have to be near cold onion to smell it;
boiling point? iii) liquids have a fixed size but not a fixed shape;
2 What happens to the particles of a liquid: iv) solid blocks of air freshener disappear without
i) as it cools down; leaving any solid;
ii) as it freezes? v) you can smell some cheeses even when they are
3 Use the kinetic theory to explain why: wrapped in clingfilm.
i) gases exert a pressure on the walls of their
container;
■■ What is an atom?
An atom is the smallest particle of an element. The word ‘atom’ comes from
a Greek word meaning ‘indivisible’ or ‘unsplittable’. At one time, scientists
thought that atoms could not be split. We now know that atoms can be
split. But, if an atom of one element is split, it becomes a different element.
Figure 3.1 This photo of a gold crystal was Copper contains only copper atoms and carbon contains only carbon atoms.
taken through an electron microscope. What
do you think the yellow blobs are? So far we have learnt that all substances and all materials are made of
particles. There are only three different particles in all substances – atoms,
molecules (see the next page) and ions. Ions are atoms or molecules that
are electrically charged. There is more about ions in Chapters 1.8, 1.14
and 1.17.
Electron microscopes can magnify objects more than a million times. In
1958, scientists in Russia identified individual atoms for the first time using
an electron microscope. The atoms they identified were those of barium and
oxygen. Figure 3.1 shows an electron microscope photo of a gold crystal. The
magnification is 40 000 000 times. Each yellow blob is an individual
gold atom.
■■ What is a molecule?
H O C A molecule is the smallest particle that can have a separate, independent
existence.
When atoms of the same element join together the result is a molecule of
O O C O an element. When atoms of different elements join together the result is a
H H
molecule of a compound.
Figure 3.4 Atoms of hydrogen, oxygen
and carbon above molecules of water and
For example, a molecule of water contains two atoms of hydrogen combined
carbon dioxide. with one atom of oxygen. A molecule of carbon dioxide contains one atom
of carbon combined with two atoms of oxygen (Figure 3.4).
10