BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-023-01231-w

Dynamics of Chemically Reactive Magnetized Casson Nanofluid Flow

over a Sensor Surface Under Joule Heating and Viscous Dissipation
Effects
Hussain Basha1

Accepted: 29 October 2023 / Published online: 22 November 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
The main novelty and uniqueness of the present numerical analysis is to explore the salient magneto-thermo characteris-
tic features of viscous incompressible electrically conducting magnetic dissipative Casson nanofluid flow over a sensor
surface engulfed between two parallel plates with Joule heating and chemical reaction effects under an external squeezing
mechanism. A novel Brownian motion and thermophoretic features are included in the thermal and mass diffusion equa-
tions to accurately simulate the magneto-hydrodynamics nano-behavior inside the boundary layer region. By virtue of this
considered flow mechanism, the developed nonlinear two-dimensional unsteady conservation equations are reduced to non-
dimensional and self-similar through suitable similarity transformations. Thus, the emerged nonlinear squeezed coupled
boundary value problem is then solved by employing a numerically efficient and robust Runge-Kutta 4th-order scheme
with a shooting technique (RK-4). The thermo-dynamic characteristic features of the developed various fluid parameters
are discussed through extensive graphical illustrations. The present graphical discussion states that the increasing magnetic
parameter significantly amplifies the Casson nanofluid flow and thermal diffusion process in the channel region. Increasing
plate gap parameter boosts up the nanofluid flow and thermal transmission mechanism. Thermal transport from the sensor
surface is advanced with rising Eckert number through Joule and viscous dissipation effects. Elevating Brownian motion
and thermophoretic numbers increases the thermal and concentration diffusion process. Skin friction coefficient decreased
with rising magnetic and squeezing numbers. Heat transport rate decreased with rising Brownian motion and thermophoresis
parameters. Conclusively, the main aim and objective of the current analysis is the inclusion of the Buongiorno nanofluid
model, Joule heating, viscous dissipation, and chemical reaction effects which generalizes the earlier findings and provides a
more redefined numerical analysis of heat and mass transport characteristics of Casson nanofluid flow past a sensor surface
under external squeezing mechanism.

Keywords Casson nanofluid · Magnetic number · Sensor wall · Ohmic dissipation · Brownian flow · Thermophoresis
Nomenclature Cfx Skin friction coefficient
M Magnetic parameter Nux Nusselt number
b Squeezed flow index Shx Sherwood number
fo Permeable velocity parameter Rex Local Reynolds number
Pr Prandtl number f, f′ Non-dimensional velocity components
Sc Schmidt number qw Wall heat flux (W ­m−2)
Ec Eckert number jw Wall mass flux (Kg ­m−2 s)
Kr Chemical reaction parameter k Thermal conductivity (W ­m−1K−1)
Nb Brownian motion parameter Cp Specific heat capacity (J ­Kg−1K−1)
Nt Thermophoretic parameter Tm Mean thermal field (K)
Bmo Uniform magnetic field ­(Am−1)
* Hussain Basha
u, v Velocity field along x- and y-axes ­(ms−1)
hussainbmaths@gmail.com x, y Dimensional xy-coordinate system (m)
h(t) Time-dependent channel height (m)
1
Department of Mathematics, Government Degree College, Dm Coefficient of Brownian motion ­(ms−2)
Sindhanur, Karnataka 584128, India

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Vol.:(0123456789)
242
DT Thermophoretic diffusion coefficient ­(ms−2)
t Time (s)
T Dimensional temperature (K)
Tw Surface temperature (K)
C Dimensional concentration (Kg ­m−3)
Cw Wall concentration (Kg ­m−3)
Greek symbols
α Thermal diffusivity ­(m2s−1)
μ Dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
ν Kinematic viscosity ­(m2s−1)
ρ Fluid density (Kg ­m−3)
σ Electrical conductivity (S ­m−1)
β Casson fluid parameter
η Non-dimensional transverse coordinate
θ Non-dimensional temperature
ϕ Non-dimensional concentration
Subscripts
∞ Free stream conditions
w Wall conditions
1 Introduction
Despite of being simple, the squeezed flow of non-New-
tonian Casson fluid models finds abundant applications in
chemical engineering, cooling of nuclear reactors, petroleum
industries, biophysical, polymer processing, injection mold-
ing, pharmaceutical, heat transport in tissues, thermal gen-
eration, magnetized drug targeting, blood flow in vessels,
and many more. Particularly, the present physical investiga-
tion has a good number of applications in the field of micro-
fluidics like most of the biological and chemical sensors
comprise the stretching surface as their sensor elements. An
example of this stretching element is the micro-cantilever
sensor system, in which the sensor elements precisely detect
the various bio-warfare agents, infections, viruses, hazards,
and diseases. More clearly, one of the micro-cantilever sur-
faces coated with the receptor or a sensor bends over the
required targeted molecule. Further, in many of the micro-
fluidics experiments, the micro-cantilever apparatus is com-
monly positioned inside the thin film fluidic cells, and this
system is subjected to a higher level of external squeezing
mechanism. Accordingly, in this physical problem, the fluid
flow about a micro-cantilever sensor system is considered as
the fluid flow past a stretching sheet. However, this physical
mechanism has a rich set of engineering and biomedical
applications in the case of fluid flow about a micro-cantilever
sensor system initiated by an external squeezing process at
the boundary of fluidic cells. The research investigations
of Lavrik et al. [1], Xu et al. [2], Engmann et al. [3], and
Zhang et al [4] clearly discussed the above physical flow
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BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267
mechanisms in view of industrial point including biosensors
and micro-cantilever advantageous.
Pertaining to these aforementioned physical flow mecha-
nisms in the various fields of engineering and microfluidics,
for the first time, Stefan [5] described the mathematical mode-
ling of the squeezed flow of viscous fluid between two parallel
plates with a higher level of external squeezing mechanism.
The pioneering work of Stefan was continued by a number
of researches including Kuzma [6] who explored the iner-
tial effects on the squeezed viscous fluid flow between two
parallel plates by exhibiting the experimental validation of
the closed-form solutions. Gupta and Gupta [7] discussed the
Newtonian fluid flow through parallel plate regimes by deriv-
ing the time-dependent type of the Navier-Stokes equations
under the external squeeze process. Their analysis witnessed
that the produced similarity results are found to vary with the
square root of the time component. Similar flow mechanism
was discussed by Wang and Watson [8] by taking channel
height as an inverse square root of time via a perturbation
scheme. Their study showed that for the increasing squeezed
flow parameter, the boundary layer exists with smaller vis-
cosity values. Bhattacharyya and Pal [9] explored the elec-
tro-magnetic incompressible time-dependent squeezed flow
between two parallel discs with a rotating lower disc through
the Hermitian finite difference technique. Their analysis
showed that increasing Lorentz force magnifies the torque
over the rotating disc. Time-dependent Newtonian fluid flow
between two elliptic parallel plates was studied by Usha
and Sridharan [10] through the multifold series method. It
is shown that increasing the Reynolds parameter raises fluid
flow adjacent to the wall.
The research work presented in the above-cited literature
is very basic and more fundamental, and this non-progressed
research is updated and more generalized by the pioneering
work of Khaled and Vafai [11] which deals with the analy-
sis of electro-magnetic Newtonian fluid flow over a sensor
sheet under the action of a time-dependent Lorentz force
field engulfed in the micro-cantilever regime with external
squeezing mechanism. Their study witnessed that increasing
the plate gap parameter decreases thermal diffusion. Further,
Khaled and Vafai [12] elaborated their research to detect
the influence of external oscillatory squeezing mechanism
on the two-dimensional magnetic Newtonian fluid flow
between parallel plates. Their study revealed that enlarg-
ing the Reynolds parameter enhances the instabilities inside
the fluid flow region. Mustafa et al. [13] further generalized
the above physical fluid flow studies by including the com-
bined effects of thermal and mass diffusion thermo-dynamic
properties in the parallel plate regime under chemical reac-
tion impacts via homotopy method and showed that enlarg-
ing magnetic number suppressed the velocity field. Hayat
et al. [14] described the effects of the Lorentz force field
on the squeezed flow of two-dimensional electro-magnetic
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267
second-grade fluid motion through suspended disc region,
and it is found that enlarging magnetic number decreases
the flow field. Petrov and Kharlamova [15] discussed the
discretization of governing Navier-Stokes’ equations for the
flow of viscous fluid under the impact of an external squeeze
mechanism between parallel plates.
The time-dependent Lorentz force–influenced squeezed
viscous fluid flow through parallel plate region is discussed
by Khan et al. [16]. Their analysis witnessed that an enlarged
magnetic number suppressed the fluid flow in the channel
region. The time-dependent magnetic Carreau fluid flow
over a sensor sheet under the out-side squeeze mechanism
is discussed by Khan et al. [17] through a robust RK-4
scheme, and their discussion showed that increasing the
Carreau fluid parameter suppressed the fluid flow inside the
channel region. Salahuddin et al. [18] explored the thermo-
fluidic behavior of a two-dimensional electro-magnetic
Carreau-Yasuda fluid flow about a sensor wall under an
out-side squeeze mechanism via the Runge-Kutta Fehlberg
technique. Kumar et al. [19] studied the characteristics of
tangent hyperbolic fluid flow over a sensor surface sus-
pended between two parallel plates under electro-magnetic
viscous incompressible conditions via the RK-F scheme,
and their analysis showed that enlarging plate gap param-
eter suppresses the fluid flow. Usha and Naduvinamani [20]
explored the effects of the Cattaneo-Christov flux models on
the thermo-dynamic squeeze behavior of a time-dependent
Casson fluid flow between two parallel plates under the
influence of Fourier and Fick’s laws. Naduvinamani and
Usha [21] discussed the influence of radiation number on
the squeeze flow of Casson fluid inside the parallel plate
region through the RK-4 numerical scheme. Their discus-
sion showed that enlarging the radiation number retarded
the thermal diffusion field. Naduvinamani and Usha [22]
expressed the thermo-fluidic time-dependent flow features
of Casson fluid inside the channel region under the action
of Soret and Dufour impacts, and their study showed that an
increased Hartmann number boosted the thermal diffusion
field. Usha and Naduvinamani [23] discussed the Prandtl-
Eyring fluid flow about a sensor wall suspended between two
parallel plates. Usha et al. [24] elaborated their investigation
to demonstrate the effects of variable thermal conductivity
on the Williamson fluid flow past a sensor sheet under the
influence of an external squeezing mechanism.
Nazir et al. [25] studied the thermo-dynamic behavior
of magnetic hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching surface
with buoyancy-driven Soret and Dufour impacts with Joule
dissipation and thermal radiation influences. Sajid et al. [26]
discussed the effects of magnetic field and thermal radia-
tion on the Buongiorno nanofluid flow model under chemi-
cal reaction impacts. Further, their investigation includes
the Brownian motion and thermophoretic process. Parvin
et al. [27] described the flow of Maxwell nanofluid motion
243
over a shrinking sheet under the action of Soret and Dufour
effects with heat and mass transport conditions. Hussain
et al. [28] explored the impact of a magnetic field on the
rotating hybrid nanofluid motion over stretchable sheets via
2nd-order convergent scheme. Hussain et al. [29] demon-
strated the action of nanoparticle shape factor on the flow
and thermal feature of Sutterby hybrid nanoliquid about a
stretching sheet under radiation mechanism. Ai et al. [30]
explored the impacts of magnetic dipole and molecular inter-
actions on the flow and heat transport features of fully devel-
oped nanoliquid motion through normal ducts via the finite
volume method. Hussain et al. [31] described the practical
application and investigation of copper–zirconium dioxide/
ethylene glycol hybrid nanofluid motion through solar col-
lectors under thermal radiation influences. Hussain et al.
[32] demonstrated the action of entropy generation effect on
the flow and thermal transport features of Williamson hybrid
nanofluid motion through the parabolic solar collector in the
case of solar aircraft application. Further, Hussain et al. [33]
studied the thermal radiation influence on the Williamson
hybrid nanoliquid motion over a stretchable surface under
the presence of an entropy generation mechanism numeri-
cally. Hussain et al. [34] explored the effects of slip condi-
tions on the flow and thermal transport feature of hybrid
nanofluid (ethylene glycol–based graphene and molybdenum
disulfide) flow past a stretchable sheet numerically. Hafeez
et al. [35] studied the buoyancy-driven magnetized Prandtl
hybrid nanoliquid flow over a heated plate under the action
of Soret and Dufour effects with a porous material.
Due to the abundant applications of nanofluids in various
branches of medical and bioengineering, researchers paid
their valuable interest to enhance the heat transport features
of traditional fluids in various physical mechanisms, and to
this end, the concept of a nanoparticle is devised. Pertaining
to this, Haq et al. [36] discussed the streamline analysis of
squeezed nanofluid flow past a sensor wall under the influ-
ence of an external squeeze mechanism with a transverse
magnetic field. Their study revealed that the heat transport
rate was significantly amplified with intensifying nanofluid
volume fraction. Effects of the Lorentz force on the flow
of nanofluid through parallel plate regime are described by
Hayat et al. [37]. The influence of heat source/sink effects
on the flow of radiative nanofluid through the parallel plate
regime is studied by Dogonchi and Ganji [38]. The chemical
reaction effects on the flow couple stress nanofluid through
parallel plate regime in a two-dimensional plane are dis-
cussed by Hayat et al. [39]. Their analysis witnessed that
increasing the Lorentz force field produces dual character
for the flow field. Dogonchi and Ganji [40] deployed the
Duan-Rach technique to demonstrate the time-dependent
nanofluid flow through a parallel plate regime, and it is noted
that the heat transport rate increased for the upsurging heat
source parameter. The effects of entropy and magnetic field
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244
on the flow of nanofluid through parallel plate regime are
discussed by Akmal et al. [41], and it is noted that entropy
production booted with rising radiation number. Usha and
Naduvinamani [42] studied the action of the magnetic field,
Brownian, and thermophoretic effects on the time-dependent
squeezed nanofluid flow through a parallel plate regime with
chemically reactive Ohmic dissipation. Usha et al. [43] dis-
cussed the influences of the Cattaneo-Christov flux model
effects on the squeezed flow of Casson nanofluid under the
presence of magnetic Joule dissipation and chemical reac-
tion impacts. Their illustration explored that amplifying
thermophoretic number retards the mass diffusion field and
magnifying Brownian number increases the concentration
field. The radiation-influenced Newtonian fluid flow between
two parallel discs was studied by Basha [44] with suction/
injection effects via the RK-4 technique.
Recently, Hussain et al. [45] studied the effects of thermal
radiation and heat source/sink on the magnetized squeezed
hydromagnetic pseudoplastic Williamson fluid flow about
a sensor surface under the Cattaneo-Christov heat flux
model. Zeid and Ouaf [46] explored the influences of Hall
current and porous medium on the squeezed motion of Cas-
son nanoliquid between two parallel plates. Umavathi et al.
[47] discussed the Robin boundary conditions on the time-
dependent squeezed motion of magnetic nanoliquid (lubri-
cant) through parallel discs. Sagheer et al. [48] described
the impacts of radiation and temperature-dependent thermal
conductivity on the squeezed motion of hyperbolic tangent
liquid about a sensor surface under the action magnetic force.
Babu et al. [49] illustrated the influence of the magnetic field
on the squeezed motion of water-based polyethylene glycol
hybrid nanofluid past a sensor wall through statistical tech-
nique. Salahuddin et al. [50] discussed the time-dependent
two-dimensional viscous incompressible magnetic squeez-
ing flow of a Maxwell fluid through an infinite parallel plate
regime under a porous medium. Gireesha et al. [51] analyzed
the importance of magnetic Carreau liquid motion about a
sensor wall under the action of Ohmic dissipation, thermal
source/sink, and radiation effects numerically. Rafeek et al.
[52] generalized these previous studies by including the vis-
cous dissipation effect in the thermal diffusion equation in
the case of Carreau fluid flow about a sensor surface sus-
pended in a parallel plate regime.
Dasari et al. [53] explored the effects of entropy genera-
tion on the squeezed magnetic couple stress nanofluid flow
between two parallel plates under the action of viscous
dissipation with an external squeeze mechanism. Basha
et al. [54] numerically described the influence of mag-
netic field and viscous dissipation on the time-dependent
two-dimensional viscous incompressible non-Newtonian
second-grade fluid flow about a sensor wall with an out-
side squeezing process. Their study significantly discussed
the heat and mass transport feature of second-grade fluid
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BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267
in the sensor system. It is recorded from their analysis that
an enhanced Schmidt number decreases the mass transport
rate. Shamshuddin et al. [55] demonstrated the influence
of temperature and concentration stratification on the mag-
netic squeezed nanofluid motion over a stretching sensor
plate under the action of chemical reaction and radiation
effects numerically.
Conclusively, the aforementioned cited research work
in this article described that the effects of Brownian
motion and thermophoretic force combined with time-
dependent Lorentz force, Joule dissipation, and chemical
reaction on the flow of magnetic unsteady two-dimen-
sional Casson nanofluid about a micro-cantilever sensor
wall engulfed in a parallel plate regime with mass trans-
port process under external squeezing mechanism are not
yet attempted. In addition to this, the main aim and objec-
tive of this current numerical research work are to gener-
alize the earlier investigations in the literature and provide
a more appropriate multi-physical flow study related to
the biosensor designs for hazardous pathogen detection.
Further, the present MATLAB-based numerical research
work is significantly encouraged by featuring more accu-
rately the effects of Brownian and thermophoretic forces
combined with Joule heating, viscous dissipation, and
chemical reaction under mass diffusion mechanism in
bioengineering of magnetic sensor machines. Here, in this
article, the produced unsteady two-dimensional partial
differential equations representing the magnetic Casson
nanofluid flow about a sensor surface engulfed in a paral-
lel plate regime under an external squeezing mechanism
are rendered to non-dimensional form through appropri-
ate scaling transformations and consequently solved by
deploying a numerically stable robust RK-4 technique.
Finally, the comparison with the former research endorses
the accuracy and guarantee of the produced self-similar
MATLAB-based solutions.
2 Rheology of Casson Fluid Model
For an incompressible isotropic Casson fluid flow over the
sensor surface, the rheology equation of state is governed
by the relation [20–24]:
⎧ � Py
�
2 𝜇 + √ eij , 𝜋 > 𝜋c
⎪ B
𝜏ij = ⎨ � 2𝜋 �
Py (1)
⎪ 2 𝜇B + √2𝜋 eij , 𝜋 < 𝜋c
⎩ c
Pertaining to Eq. (1), further, for the Casson fluid flow,
authors have chosen the critical condition based on the
existing literature as π > πc and have the following relation:
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267 245

� � • Time-dependent magnetic field of strength Bm is deployed

Py
𝜏ij = 2 𝜇B + √ eij (2) along the vertical direction (y-axis) of the parallel plate
2𝜋c regime, and it is assumed that the induced magnetic Reyn-
olds parameter is significantly small; hence, it is neglected.
where, in Eq. (2), the value of eij is obtained as follows:
Further, the Casson nanofluid is assumed to be a working
( )
1 𝜕ui 𝜕uj fluid whose electrical conductivity is σm.
eij = + (3) • Finally, the Casson nanofluid flow is driven by the ambient
2 𝜕xj 𝜕xi
fluid stream U(x, t) combined with the external squeezing
Pertaining to the above Eqs. (1)–(3), let τij be the shear disturbances in the presence of an applied magnetic field.
stress tensor components, eij denotes the (i, j)th deformation
rate component, μB is the Casson fluid dynamic viscosity, In addition to these assumptions, it is evident from the
π = eij. eij is deformation rate product with itself, and πc is the literature of Khaled and Vafai [11] that the present physical
critical value. Further, Py is the yield stress and below which flow mechanism is thoroughly treated under the influence of
no flow occurs, and ui describes the velocity components. boundary layer theory assumptions. However, this particu-
Thus, based on the existing literature, it is noted that if Py > τ lar problem finds its abundant engineering applications in a
then the Casson fluid acts as a solid material, and if Py < τ, micro-cantilever sensor prompted by an external squeezing
then Casson fluid begins to move. at the boundaries of the fluidic cells. Accordingly, under the
above assumptions with boundary layer theory predictions
along with Sect. 2, the governing partial differential equa-
3 Mathematical Formulation tions representing the heat and mass transport mechanism
in two-dimensional, time-dependent viscous incompressible
In this numerical analysis, author has considered and dis- magnetic Casson nanofluid flow over a horizontal sensor sur-
cussed the dynamics of the two-dimensional unsteady face engulfed in a parallel plate regime under chemical reac-
viscous incompressible magnetized squeezed flow of elec- tion effect are summarized below by generalizing the former
trically conducting Casson nanofluid flow about a micro- research [11, 12, 18, 19, 23, 24, 36, 45, 48, 50, 52, 54].
cantilever horizontal sensor surface engulfed in a parallel Equation of continuity:
plate regime with boundary layer assumptions. Joule heating
𝜕u 𝜕v
and viscous dissipation effects are included in the energy + =0 (4)
𝜕x 𝜕y
equation to explore the thermal transport feature of Casson
fluid under the presence of a chemically reactive mass trans- Momentum equation:
port process over the sensor surface. The robust microscopic ( )
( ) ( )
flow features of Casson nanofluid are discussed by inculcat- 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u 1 𝜕p 1 𝜕2u 𝜎m B2m
+u +v =− +𝜈 1+ − u
ing novel Brownian motion and thermophoresis mechanisms 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜌 𝜕x 𝛽 𝜕y2 𝜌
in energy and mass diffusion equations. Additionally, the (5)
present squeezed Casson nanofluid flow over a sensor sur-
Free stream equation:
face suspended between two parallel plates is governed by
the following appropriate assumptions [11, 12, 18, 19, 23, ( ) ( )
𝜕U 𝜕U 1 𝜕p 𝜎m B2m
24, 36, 45, 48, 50, 52, 54]: +U =− − U (6)
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜌 𝜕x 𝜌
• A closed parallel plate regime of time-dependent height
Energy equation:
h(t) varying from 0 to h is considered in which a micro-
cantilever sensor surface of length L is suspended. � � � �� �2 � 2 �
u2 + ⎫
𝜕2 T 𝜎m Bm
𝜕T
+ u 𝜕T + v 𝜕T = k
1 + 𝛽1 𝜕u
+ 𝜇
+ 𝜌C ⎪
• The suspended parallel plate regime consists of a fixed 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y �𝜌Cp
�
𝜕y2
� � �� �2
𝜕y �
𝜌Cp p
(𝜌cp )p ⎬
lower surface and a squeezing upper surface. Further, the D 𝜕C 𝜕T
+ T
DT 𝜕T
⎪
(𝜌cp )f m 𝜕y 𝜕y 𝜕y ⎭
h(t) is significantly larger when compared to the bound-
m

ary layer thickness. (7)

• The squeezing disturbances in the ambient fluid region Concentration equation:
are assumed to be beginning from the tip of the sensor ( )( )
𝜕C 𝜕C 𝜕C 𝜕2C ( ) DT 𝜕2T
surface which is clearly explored in Fig. 1. +u +v = Dm 2 − k1 C − C∞ +
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕y Tm 𝜕y2
• The xy-coordinate system is deployed to demonstrate the
(8)
present Casson nanofluid flow over a sensor surface prob-
lem in which x-axis is chosen along the flow direction Pertaining to Eqs. (4)–(8), u and v represent the velocity
and y-axis is aligned normally to x-coordinate. components in x- and y-directions; U is the ambient velocity;

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246 BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

Fig. 1  Physical configuration of the present problem

T, and C be the fluid temperature and concentrations; time
is indicated with t; ρ, ν, and k signify the fluid density,
√ kin-
Vafai [11]. Finally, by(deploying
) the forgoing predictions and
the elimination of − 𝜌 𝜕x term from Eqs. (5) and (6), results
1 𝜕p

ematic viscosity, and thermal conductivity; 𝛽 = P is the

𝜇B 2𝜋
y
from the unsteady magnetized momentum equation is as
dimensionless Casson fluid parameter; the time-dependent shown below [11, 12, 18, 19, 23, 24, 36, 45, 48, 50, 52, 54]:
(𝜌c)
magnetic field is denoted with Bm; 𝜆 = (𝜌c)p is the ratio of the 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕u 𝜕U 𝜕U
f
+u +v = +U
thermal capacity of nanofluid to the base fluid; the coeffi- 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕t 𝜕x
cient of Brownian diffusion is indicted with Dm; coefficient ( ) 2 ( )
2
𝜎m Bm (9)
1 𝜕 u
of thermophoretic diffusion is expressed with DT; mean +𝜈 1 + + (U − u)
𝛽 𝜕y2 𝜌
working fluid temperature is denoted with Tm; and coeffi-
cient of chemical reaction is denoted with k1.
The time-dependent, two-dimensional nonlinear, coupled,
Pertaining to the RHS of Eq. (7), the viscous dissipation
magnetized heat and mass transport Eqs. (5)–(9) in Casson
and Joule heating terms are placed at the 2nd and 3rd posi-
nanofluid flow over a sensor sheet are governed by the fol-
tions, and the working nanofluid term is placed at the 4th posi-
lowing hydro-dynamic boundary conditions [11, 12, 18, 19,
tion. Similarly, on RHS of Eq. (8), the 2nd describes the
23, 24, 36, 45, 48, 50, 52, 54]:
chemical reaction, and the 3rd term indicates the nanofluid
term. The governing Eqs. (4)–(8) obey the required conditions � ⎫
of the boundary layer theory inside the parallel plate channel. u(x, 0, t) = 0, v(x, 0, t) = vo ( t), ⎪
at y = 0
Additionally, Eq. (6) describes the external ambient fluid flow − k 𝜕T(x,0,t) = q(x), −Dm 𝜕C(x,0,t) = j(x) ⎪
𝜕y 𝜕y � ⎬ (10)
(u → U, v → 0), and this fluid motion is supposed to be non- u(x, ∞, t) → U(x, t), ⎪
as y → ∞
viscous and unvarying with respect to y-axis. However, the T(x, ∞, t) → T∞ , C(x, ∞, t) → C∞ ⎪
⎭
error produced in the above prediction is balanced by choosing
a sensor of very small length when compared to h(t), and this Here, in Eq. (10), case (i): on the sensor surface (y = 0),
fact is clearly illustrated in the pioneering work of Khaled and initially, it is presumed that the Casson fluid is at rest;

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BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267 247

( ) ( )
therefore, the fluid velocity vanishes at the wall. Also, vo(t) b𝜂 b
𝜙�� (𝜂) + Sc f (𝜂) + 𝜙� (𝜂) − Sc f � (𝜂) +
signifies the characteristic reference velocity on the sensor 2 2
(14)
( )
wall when permeable surfaces are involved. Further, it is 𝜙(𝜂) +
Nt ��
𝜃 (𝜂) + Sc Kr 𝜙(𝜂) = 0
presumed that the surface thermal flux (q(x)) and concentra- Nb

tion flux (j(x)) are described as a function of x-coordinate. Pertaining to Eq. (11), the articulated boundary conditions
Case (ii): possibly outside the boundary layer (y → ∞) (that of Eq. (10) under η are shown below:
is, far away from the wall of the sensor), it is presumed that }
the fluid velocity, thermal, and mass diffusion fields are f (0) = −fo , f � (0) = 0, 𝜃 � (0) = −1, 𝜙� (0) = −1 at 𝜂 = 0
presumed to be ambient velocity U(x, t) (function of x and f � (∞) → 1, 𝜃(∞) → 0, 𝜙(∞) → 0 at 𝜂 → ∞
t), ambient thermal field (T∞), and ambient mass diffusion (15)
field (C∞), respectively, and it is the same as the tempera- Here, in Eqs. (12)–(15), the superscript “prime” signifies
ture and concentration of the liquid outside the boundary the derivative of the dependent variables f, θ, and ϕ with
layer. Further, to produce the anticipated similarity numeri- respect to η. Also, the emerged physical parameters controlling
cal solutions of the investigated physical problem, authors 𝜎 B2
the Casson nanofluid flow are defined as follows: M = m 𝜌 mo
have chosen the appropriate scaling transformations for the
(magnetic parameter), b (squeezed flow index), Pr = 𝛼𝜈 (Prandtl
non-dimensionalization purpose which are listed below [11,
number), Sc = 𝜈 (Schmidt number),
12, 18, 19, 23, 24, 36, 45, 48, 50, 52, 54]: ( )( )( Dm )√
(𝜌cp )p
(Brownian motion parame-
Dm jo x 𝜈
� Nb =
⎫ (𝜌c(
p )f )a Dm a
U = ax, u = axf � (𝜂), 𝜂 = y a𝜈 , f (𝜂) = √𝜓 , a = s+bt 1
, ( )( )√
√ √
x a𝜈 ⎪ ter), Nt =
(𝜌cp )p DT qo x 𝜈
(thermophoresis param-
T−T∞
v = −f (𝜂) a𝜈, 𝜃(𝜂) = � qo x �√ 𝜈 , vo (t) = vi a, q(x) = qo x, ⎪ (√𝜌cp )f Tm k a
⎬ 2𝜋c
C−C∞
k a
√ ⎪ eter), 𝛽 = 𝜇B P (Casson fluid parameter), fo = √i (perme-
v
𝜙(𝜂) = � jo x �√ , Bm (t) = Bmo a, j(x) = jo x. ⎪ y 𝜈
U2
able velocity parameter), Ec = �√ (Eckert number),
𝜈
Dm a ⎭ �
qo x 𝜈
(11)
Cp k a

and Kr = (chemical reaction parameter).

k1
Letting Eq. (11), the dimensional magnetic Casson nano- a
The second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (7) represents
fluid partial differential equations are reduced to non-dimen-
the viscous dissipation effect which is always positive and indi-
sional ordinary differential equations. Here, in Eq. (11), the
cates a source of heat owing to the frictional forces among the
terms s, b indicate the arbitrary constants, a is the function
fluid particles. Further, the irreversible process by means of
of b and t and is termed as strength of squeeze flow,
which the work is done by a fluid on neighboring fluid layers
q(x) = qox and j(x) = jox denote the wall thermal and mass
owing to the action of shear forces is transformed into heat, and
flux, k is the thermal conductivity, and Bmo and vi are the
it is defined as viscous dissipation. Viscous dissipation effect has
uniform magnetic field and suction velocity, respectively.
a greater impact in the field of science and engineering such as
The relations h(t) = hoe−st for b = 0 and h(t) = (s+bt)1
1∕b for
polymer processing, injection molding, and aerodynamics. This
b > 0 govern the channel’s normal motion, where ho is con- dissipative heat is described with the help of the Eckert number.
stant, and this situation is well discussed in the pioneering The Eckert number is used to characterize the influence of self-
work of Khaled and Vafai [11]. heating of a fluid as a consequence of dissipation effects. Physi-
In addition to this, the Cauchy-Riemann expressions, cally, the Eckert parameter describes the relation of the kinetic
namely, u = 𝜕𝜓𝜕y
and v = − 𝜕𝜓
𝜕x
, where ψ is the stream function, energy of the molecular motion to the enthalpy. Eckert number
perfectly obey the continuity equation. Insertion of Eq. (11) always signifies the source of heat. At high flow velocities, the
into Eqs. (5)–(9) produces the group of following dimen- temperature profile in a fluidic system is not just dominated by
sionless, nonlinear, coupled, ordinary differential equations the temperature gradients that are present in the system but also
demonstrating the magnetic dissipative Casson nanofluid by the effects of dissipation due to the internal friction of the
flow under transverse coordinate η as shown below: fluid. This will result in self-heating and thus in a change of the
( ) ( ) temperature profile. The literature of Naduvinamani and Usha
1 ��� b𝜂 ��
1+ f (𝜂) + f (𝜂) + f (𝜂) [21] described various consequences of viscous dissipation
(
𝛽
)
2 (12) through the Eckert number.
+ b − M − f � (𝜂) f � (𝜂) + (1 + M − b) = 0
The Prandtl number is a dimensionless quantity that puts
the viscosity of a fluid in correlation with the thermal conduc-
� � � � � �2 ⎫ tivity. It therefore assesses the relation between the momen-
𝜃 �� (𝜂) + Pr f (𝜂) + b𝜂 𝜃 � (𝜂) − Pr f � (𝜂) + b2 𝜃(𝜂) + M Ec Pr f � (𝜂) + ⎪
� � �
2
� 2
� � �2
� ⎬ tum transport and the thermal transport capacity of a fluid.
1 + 𝛽1 Pr Ec f �� (𝜂) + Pr Nb 𝜃 � (𝜂) 𝜙� (𝜂) + Nt 𝜃 � (𝜂) =0 ⎪
⎭ Further, the Prandtl number is an example of a dimensionless
(13) number that is an intrinsic property of a fluid. Fluids with

13
248 BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

small Prandtl numbers are free-flowing liquids with high ther- viscous, temperature, and mass diffusion at the boundary of
mal conductivity and are therefore a good choice for heat- the sensor surface suspended between parallel plate regime.
conducting fluids, and details can be found in the literature Pertaining to the importance of physical quantities in indus-
of Mustafa et al. [13] and Naduvinamani and Usha [21]. The tries, the required dimensionless equations of the skin friction,
concepts of homogeneous and heterogeneous chemical reac- Nusselt, and Sherwood numbers are discussed and defined
tions play a vital role in computational fluid dynamics for below [11, 12, 18, 19, 23, 24, 36, 45, 48, 50, 52, 54]:
reactor design and can be understood with the help of reaction 𝜏w
engineering. However, the size and design of the reactor need Cf = 1 (16)
deep knowledge of the heat and mass transfer process. Here, 2
𝜌U 2
in this article, the homogenous chemical reaction is deployed
through the chemical reaction parameter Kr. It is clear that xqw
Kr > 0 signifies the destructive reaction, Kr < 0 indicates the
Nux = √
qo x 𝜈a (17)
generative reaction, and Kr = 0 stands for the no chemical
reaction. The literature of Mustafa et al. [13] and Naduvi-
namani and Usha [21] clearly described this mechanism. xjw
Brownian motion and thermophoresis are the heat and Shx = √
(18)
mass transport mechanisms of movement of small-sized jo x 𝜈a
nanoparticles in the way of falling temperature and con-
centration gradients and affect the small particles related to Here, in Eqs. (16)–(18), the expressions of wall gradients
the bulk surfaces. Brownian motion resembles the random τw, qw, and jw are defined as below:
motion of nanoparticles in the based fluids. The Brown- � �� � ⎫
ian movement, also called the Brownian motion, is defined 𝜏w = 𝜇 1 + 𝛽1 𝜕u ⎪
as the uncontrolled or erratic movement of particles in a � �𝜕y ⎪
qw = −k 𝜕T ⎬ (19)
fluid due to their constant collision with fast-moving fluid �𝜕y � ⎪
molecules. This random motion amplifies the nanoparti- jw = −Dm 𝜕C ⎪
cle collision with the base fluid molecules, and as a result,
𝜕y
⎭y=0
molecular kinetic energy is transformed into thermal energy,
The dimensionless equations of engineering quantities of
and hence, the temperature profile amplifies. Commonly,
interest are derived by letting Eq. (11) into Eqs. (16)–(18)
the random motion of particles is noticed to be stronger in
through suitable deployment of Eq. (19), which provides the
smaller-sized particles, less viscous fluids, and at larger
final equations as follows:
temperatures. Physically, the thermophoresis acts against
� � �
thermal gradients, so that the liquid particles move from 1 √ 1 ��
the region of larger temperature to the region of smaller C Rex = 1 +
2 f 𝛽
f (𝜂) (20)
𝜂=0
temperatures. Since the thermophoresis mechanism acceler-
ates the particle motion from the hotter region to the cooler
region, accordingly, thermal diffusion amplifies quickly from Nux �
√ = −𝜃 � (𝜂) 𝜂=0 (21)
the warmer surface to the working fluid region and hence Rex
affects the thermal and concentration profiles. The detailed
explanation on these physical effects can be noticed in the Shx �
literature of Abdelmalek et al. [56]. √ = −𝜙� (𝜂) 𝜂=0 (22)
Rex
3.1 Engineering Quantities of Interest Equations (20)–(22) demonstrate the resultant equations
of the skin friction coefficient and the Nusselt and Sherwood
The present physical problem discussed here finds its abun-
numbers.( 2Further,
) here, in Eqs. (20)–(22), the parameter
dant engineering and industrial applications in the case of
Rex = 𝜈 represents the local Reynolds number.
ax
a micro-cantilever sensor surface prompted by an external
squeezing mechanism at the boundaries of the fluidic cells.
The pioneering work of Khaled and Vafai [11] described the
plentiful applications of fluidics and micro-fluids in modern
4 Solution Methodology
CFD technology. By virtue of this, the essential wall gradi-
The derivation of nonlinear, coupled, two-dimensional,
ents emerged in Eqs. (12)–(14) are wall shear stress, heat and
viscous incompressible partial differential equations with
mass transport rates at the sensor surface. However, these wall
associated boundary conditions signifying the magnetic
gradients point out the essential hiding information about the

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BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267
Ohmic dissipative Casson nanofluid flow about a micro-
cantilever horizontal sensor surface engulfed in a parallel
plate regime under the influence of viscous dissipation
and chemical reaction effects has been demonstrated in
the previous sections. Further, the closed-form solutions
of these boundary layers in Eqs. (12)–(14) with applicable
conditions in Eq. (15) are very difficult to generate through
analytical methods. However, these coupled nonlinear
ordinary differential equations can be solved by deploying
the best suitable advanced numerical techniques. Pertain-
ing to this, the authors implemented a robust and numeri-
cally efficient MATLAB-based Runge-Kutta fourth-order
scheme with a shooting technique (RK-4), since the RK-4
scheme is very versatile and employed for many of the
magnetic computational fluid dynamics (CFD) flow prob-
lems by Usha et al. [43], Rafeek et al. [52], and Basha
et al. [54]. Further, the RK-4 scheme is very effective in
rendering the multi-degree, nonlinear, multi-order, ordi-
nary differential equations into a group of first-order ordi-
nary differential equations. For the accurate numerical
simulations, authors have selected η = 5 to be the suitable
boundary, and this boundary is assumed to be far from
the velocity, temperature, and concentration boundary lay-
ers relating to η∞. Further, the selected boundary η = 5 is
numerically appropriate to generate the CFD behavior of
various emerged parameters in the suspended parallel plate
regime. Pertaining to these assumptions, the rendered 1st-
order ordinary differential equations with regard to gov-
erning equations are shown below.
The set of 1st-order differential equations that emerged
from the nonlinear Casson nanofluid momentum in Eq.
(12) is listed below:
f = 𝜒1 ⎫ 5 Results Analysis
f𝜂 = χ�1 = 𝜒2 ⎪
f𝜂𝜂 = 𝜒2� = 𝜒3 ⎬ (23)
⎪
f𝜂𝜂𝜂 = 𝜒3� = 𝜒4 ⎭
Here, in Eq. (23), the χ4 value is evaluated with the fol-
lowing relation obtained from Eq. (12):
⎛ ⎞
⎜ −1 ⎟�� b
� � � �
𝜒4 = ⎜ � � ⎟ 𝜒1 + 𝜂 𝜒3 + b − M − 𝜒2 𝜒2 + (1 − b + M)
⎜ 1+ 1 ⎟ 2
⎝ 𝛽 ⎠
(24)
Further, the set of 1st-order differential equations gener-
ated from the nonlinear energy in Eq. (13) is shown here:
} squeezed flow index (b), Casson fluid parameter (β), perme-
𝜃𝜂 = 𝜒5� = 𝜒6
(25)
𝜃𝜂𝜂 = 𝜒6� = 𝜒7
Here, in Eq. (25), the χ7 value is articulated with the
below equation generated from Eq. (13):
249
( ) ( ) ( ) }
𝜒7 = − Pr 𝜒1 + b2 𝜂 𝜒6 + Pr 𝜒2 + b2 𝜒5 − 1 + 𝛽1 Pr Ec 𝜒32 −
( )
M Ec Pr 𝜒12 − Pr Nb 𝜒6 𝜒9 + Nt 𝜒62
(26)
Similarly, the set of 1st-order differential equations taken
from the Casson nanofluid mass diffusion in Eq. (14) is
shown below:
}
𝜙𝜂 = 𝜒8� = 𝜒9
𝜙𝜂𝜂 = 𝜒9� = 𝜒10 (27)
Here, in Eq. (27), the χ10 value is calculated with the help
of the below-listed relation obtained from Eq. (14):
( ) ( ) ( )
b
𝜒10 = −Sc 𝜒1 + 𝜂 𝜒9 + Sc 𝜒2 +
b
𝜒8 −
Nt
𝜒 − Sc Kr 𝜒8
2 2 Nb 7
(28)
Also, the articulated boundary conditions expressed in
Eq. (15) are described with these new transformations are
shown below:
}
𝜒1 (0) = −fo , 𝜒2 (0) = 0, 𝜒6 (0) = −1, 𝜒9 (0) = −1 at 𝜂 = 0
𝜒2 (∞) → 1, 𝜒5 (∞) → 0, 𝜒8 (∞) → 0 as 𝜂 → ∞
(29)
However, the emerged magnetic Casson fluid flow in Eqs.
(12)–(14) with conditions in Eq. (15) is solved by render-
ing BVP into an IVP with the proper selection of unknown
values of the initial conditions till the boundary conditions
are satisfied. Consequently, the suppressed IVP is thor-
oughly solved by deploying a robust RK-4 technique. Fur-
ther, authors have adopted the 1­ 0−5 error tolerance with step
length 0.01 to produce reasonable similarity results.
The nonlinear visco-elastic shear-thinning magneto-thermo
behavior of non-Newtonian Casson nanofluid flow about
a micro-cantilever sensor surface engulfed in a squeezing
regime under the action of Joule heating and viscous dis-
sipation with chemically reactive mass diffusion mecha-
nism is demonstrated in terms of various physical param-
eters. Further, the numerical demonstration is carried out
for the different parametric values in the suspended parallel
regime and expressed by virtue of velocity, temperature,
and concentration diffusion profiles along with the engi-
neering quantities of interest. However, newly emerged
non-dimensional parameters include magnetic number (M),
able velocity parameter (fo), Prandtl number (Pr), Schmidt
parameter (Sc), thermophoretic number (Nt), Brownian
motion number (Nb), Eckert number (Ec) and chemical
reaction parameter (Kr). Further, the ranges of considered
physical parameters are chosen as follows: 0 ≤ b ≤ 3.5,
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250 BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

0 ≤ M ≤ 3.2, −0.6 ≤ fo ≤ 0.6, 0.1 ≤ β ≤ 1.4, 0.1 ≤ Nb ≤ 1.1,
0.01 ≤ Nt ≤ 0.12, 0 ≤ Ec ≤ 1.5, 0.5 ≤ Pr ≤ 1.9, 0.5 ≤ Sc ≤ 3.4,
and −0.6 ≤ Kr ≤ 0.6.
(i) Effect of squeezed flow index (b) on flow profiles
Figures 2, 3, and 4 explored the upshots of plate gap param-
eter (b) on the Casson nanofluid flow, thermal, and mass dif-
fusion fields against η under the effect of the external squeez-
ing mechanism. Figure 2 depicts the performance of Casson
nanofluid velocity for the various values of plate gap parameter
against η. It is noted from this graph that increasing the plate
gap parameter decreases the velocity field in the sensor sheet
boundary layer regime. Physically, a small upsurge in the
squeezed flow index results in the magnified kinetic energy of
the fluid particles; however, there is a reverse relationship
between the squeezed flow strength (a) and plate gap param-
eter (b). Thus, based on this h(t) = (s+bt)
1∕b , one can predict that
1
if b = 0, then the parallel plates are at a fixed distance ho, and
if b > 0, the plate gap is reduced, and this situation causes the
acceleration of the momentum transmission, and consequently,
diminished velocity is (recorded. Further,
) it is witnessed from
Eq. (12) that the terms f (𝜂) + b𝜂2 f �� (𝜂), −(b − M − f′(η))f′(η),
and +(1 + M − b) exert their direct effect on the velocity diffu-
sion in the sensor regime. It is clear from Eq. (12) that the
enhanced plate gap number considerably retards the ambient
fluid velocity and accordingly velocity transmission decayed
in the channel regime. Figures 3 and 4 designate the effects of
plate gap number on the thermal and concentration distribution
fields against η. It is noted that the augmenting b significantly
suppressed the temperature and concentration fields. However,
these decaying trends in thermal and mass diffusion can be
well( understood ) with( the help ) of the ter ms
+ Pr f (𝜂) + 2 𝜃 (𝜂), − Pr f (𝜂) + 2 𝜃(𝜂) in Eq. (13) and
b𝜂 � � b
( ) ( )
+Sc f (𝜂) + b𝜂2 𝜙� (𝜂) , −Sc f � (𝜂) + b2 𝜙(𝜂) in Eq. (14)
respectively. Physically, greater plate gap parameter values
significantly suppressed the squeezed forces on the velocity
field, this causes to retard the kinetic energy of the Casson
nanofluid molecules, and this situation reduces the heating due
to friction and molecular diffusion process in the channel
region. Consequently, this mechanism causes the decay of the
thermal and mass diffusion fields in the sensor region. Also,
the decaying molecular heat conduction offers cooling of the
sensor surface for the higher b values [52]. Further, the thermal
and mass diffusion boundary layer thickness decreased for the
increasing b.
(ii) Influence of magnetic number (M) on flow profiles
Figures 5, 6, and 7 depict the impact of magnetic num-
ber (M) on the velocity, thermal, and mass diffusion pro-
files against η. Figure 5 illustrates the characteristic veloc-
ity profile for the different values of magnetic parameter
M against η. It is recorded that accelerating magnetic

Fig. 2  Effect of b on f′(η)

1.2
b=0.0
b=0.8
b=1.4
1
b=2.2
b=2.8
b=3.5
0.8

Absence of squeezed flow index

f( )

0.6
satisfying the relation h(t)= ho e^(-st)

0.4

Presence of squeezed flow index

0.2
satisfying the relation h(t)=(s+bt)^(-1/b)

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

13
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267 251

Fig. 3  Impact of b on θ(η)

2.5
b=0.0
b=0.8
b=1.4
2 b=2.2
b=2.8
b=3.5

1.5
Absence of squeezed flow index

( )
satisfying the relation h(t)= ho e^(-st)

Presence of squeezed flow index

satisfying the relation h(t)=(s+bt)^(-1/b)
0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

number boosts up the velocity distribution in the channel the Lorentz force terms −(b − M − f ′ (η))f ′ (η) and
region. Also, the thickness of the velocity boundary layer +(1 + M − b) in momentum Eq. (12). According to the
𝜎 B2
decreases. Physically, the magnetic force is modified by relation M = m𝜌amo , increasing magnetic number decreases

Fig. 4  Impact of b on ϕ(η)

1.8
b=0.0
1.6 b=0.8
b=1.4
1.4 b=2.2
b=2.8
b=3.5
1.2 Absence of squeezed flow index
satisfying the relation h(t)= ho e^(-st)
1
( )

0.8
Presence of squeezed flow index
satisfying the relation h(t)=(s+bt)^(-1/b)
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

13
252 BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

Fig. 5  Effect of M on f′(η)

1.2
M=0.0
M=0.6
M=1.3
1
M=1.8
M=2.5
M=3.2
0.8

Magnetic Casson nanofluid flow

f( )
0.6

Non-magnetic Casson nanofluid flow

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

the velocity field. However, in this particular case, the magnifies the Lorentz force and offers larger and larger
velocity profile increased; this enhancement in the velocity resistance to the fluid flow in the channel region but due
field is due to the fact that increasing magnetic number to the motion of upper plate under the external squeezing

Fig. 6  Impact of M on θ(η)

2.5
M=0.0
M=0.6
M=1.3
2 M=1.8
Non-magnetic Casson nanofluid flow M=2.5
M=3.2

1.5
Magnetic Casson nanofluid flow
( )

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

13
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267 253

Fig. 7  Impact of M on ϕ(η)

1.6
M=0.0
M=0.6
1.4
M=1.3
M=1.8
1.2 M=2.5
M=3.2

( )
0.8 Non-magnetic Casson nanofluid flow

0.6

Magnetic Casson nanofluid flow

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

that cancels out this resistive magnetic body force field. regime [52]. Figure 6 demonstrates the action of the mag-
Consequently, fluid flow around the sensor wall increases netic parameter on the thermal diffusion profile in the
and hence amplifies the velocity distribution in the channel channel region against η. It is recorded from this graph that

Fig. 8  Effect of fo on f′(η)

1.2

Magnetic nanofluid flow under injection case

1
f o=-0.6
f o=-0.4
0.8
f o=-0.2
Magnetic nanofluid flow f o=0.0
f( )

0.6 under No suction/injection

f o=0.2
f o=0.4
f o=0.6
0.4

Magnetic nanofluid flow under suction case

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

13
254 BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

Fig. 9  Impact of fo on θ(η)

augmenting magnetic number amplifies the temperature field increases, and momentum boundary layer thickness
distributions in the channel regime. Physically, for the augments causing the Casson fluid flow to be more
enlarging magnetic number, it is observed that the velocity attached to the sensor wall in the micro-cantilever system.

Fig. 10  Impact of fo on ϕ(η)

1.8
fo =-0.6
1.6 fo =-0.4
fo =-0.2
1.4
fo =0.0

1.2 Magnetic nanofluid concentration fo =0.2

field under suction case fo =0.4
1 fo =0.6
( )

Magnetic nanofluid concentration

0.8 field under no suction/injection

0.6
Magnetic nanofluid concentration
field under injection case
0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

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BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267
1.2
=0.1
=0.2
=0.3
1
=0.5
=1.4
-->
0.8
f( )
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Fig. 11  Effect of β on f′(η)
This situation causes an upsurge in the convective heat
transport coefficients. Accordingly, boosted heat transfer
coefficient accelerates the temperature field in the flow
region. Also, this enhancement is due to the presence of
Ohmic heating and viscous dissipation in the flow region.
Figure 7 demonstrates the action of the magnetic number
on the mass diffusion field. It is recorded that an enlarged
magnetic number decreases the nanoparticle concentration
distribution; hence, the mass diffusion profile behaves as
the decaying function of the magnetic parameter.
(iii) Impact of permeable velocity parameter (fo) on flow
profiles
Figures 8, 9, and 10 illustrate the action of permeable
velocity number on velocity, thermal, and concentration
transmission fields against η. Here, in this case, the effect
of fo on flow profiles is defined through the boundary condi-
tion in Eq. (15). It is clear that fo > 0 signifies the suction
mechanism, fo < 0 shows the injection case, and fo = 0 stands
for the no suction/injection process. Figure 8 explores the
effect of fo on velocity distribution in the channel regime.
255
Magnetic nanofluid flow
under Newtonian case
Magnetic nanofluid flow
under non-Newtonian case
3 3.5 4 4.5 5
It is recorded that magnifying fo suppressed the velocity
profile. Physically, enlarging permeable velocity number
considerably affects the working fluid flow to be attached
more on the sensor surface, which causes the reduction in
the molecular velocity of the fluid particles, and hence, fluid
velocity decreases.
√ Also, it is clear that, according to the
relation fo = 𝜈 , an increment in fo amplifies the kinematic
viscosity of the fluid which in turn offers more resistance to
the fluid flow over the sensor surface; thus, the velocity pro-
file exhibits the decaying trend. Also, momentum boundary
layer thickness is suppressed for the enlarging fo. Figure 9
describes the impact of fo on the temperature field against η.
It is recorded that magnifying fo amplifies the thermal distri-
bution in the channel regime. Physically, for the larger values
of fo, temperature boundary layer thickens and bounds on
the sensor surface causing velocity drop but enhancing the
thermal conductivity of the fluid, and accordingly, tempera-
√
ture profile rises. Also, according to the formula fo = 𝜈 ,
increasing fo amplifies the kinematic viscosity of the fluid,
increases frictional heating, and releases more thermal
energy into the working fluid, and consequently, the tem-
perature profile shows an increasing trend. Figure 10 depicts
13
256 BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

Fig. 12  Impact of β on θ(η)

2.5
=0.1
=0.2
=0.3
2 =0.5
=1.4
-->
1.5
Magnetic nanofluid thermal field

( )
under Newtonian case

1
Magnetic nanofluid thermal field
under non-Newtonian case

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

the influence of fo on mass diffusion profile against η in the for the magnifying values of fo, blowing mechanism exists
channel region. It is recorded that enhanced fo increases the and causes the liquid to settle on the sensor surface; as a
concentration diffusion in the sensor system. Physically, result, working fluid velocity diminished but enhanced

Fig. 13  Impact of β on ϕ(η)

2
=0.1
1.8 =0.2
=0.3
1.6 =0.5
=1.4
1.4 -->

1.2
Magnetic nanofluid concentration
field under Newtonian case
( )

0.8 Magnetic nanofluid concentration

field under non-Newtonian case
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

13
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267 257

Fig. 14  Impact of Nb on θ(η)

3
Nb=0.1
Nb=0.3
2.5 Nb=0.5
Nb=0.7
Nb=0.9
Nb=1.1
2

( )
1.5
Magnetic Casson nanofluid flow
under Brownian motion effect

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

coefficient of mass diffusion which causes the increment of the concentration boundary layer thickness is increased by
the mass diffusion in the micro-cantilever system. Further, amplifying fo.

Fig. 15  Impact of Nt on ϕ(η)

1.8
Nt=0.01
Nt=0.03
1.6
Nt=0.05
Nt=0.07
1.4 Nt=0.09
Nt=0.12
1.2

1
( )

0.8 Magnetic Casson nanofluid flow

under thermophoresis effect
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

13
258 BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

Fig. 16  Impact of Ec on θ(η)

3
Ec=0.0
Ec=0.3
2.5 Ec=0.6
Ec=0.9
Ec=1.2
2 Ec=1.5

Dissipative magnetic nanofluid flow

( )
1.5

Non-Dissipative magnetic nanofluid flow

1

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Fig. 17  Impact of Pr on θ(η)

2
Pr=0.5
1.8
Pr=0.8
Pr=0.6
1.6
Pr=1.0
1.4 Pr=1.4
Pr=1.9
1.2
( )

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

13
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267
(iv) Effect of Casson fluid parameter (β) on flow profiles
Figures 11, 12, and 13 explore the action of the Casson
nanofluid parameter (β) on the velocity, thermal, and mass dif-
fusion fields against η in the sensor region. Figure 11 describes
the impact of β on the Casson nanofluid velocity field against
η. It is noted that enlarged β significantly increases the nano-
fluid motion in the channel regime. Physically, enhanced β
considerably amplifies the dynamic viscosity of the working
fluid, and accordingly, velocity field decreases. But, here, in
this case, the opposite trend is observed, since the motion of
the upper plate under the external squeezing cancels out this
resistive viscous force and consequently amplifies the veloc-
ity field. Thus, nanofluid velocity behaves as an amplifying
function of β. Figures 12 and 13 describe the action of Casson
fluid number on thermal and mass diffusion fields against η. It
witnessed from these graphs that amplifying the β decreases
the thermal and mass diffusion fields in the flow region. Physi-
cally, enlarged β increases the working fluid viscosity, and this
viscous resistance is canceled due to the presence of an exter-
nal squeezing mechanism; consequently, coefficient thermal
diffusion decreases, and hence, temperature field decreases.
Similarly, concentration diffusion behaves as a decreasing
function of Casson fluid parameter. Also, thinning of the mass
diffusion boundary layer is recorded for the magnifying β.
(xxii) Effects of Brownian motion (Nb) and thermophoretic
parameter (Nt) on temperature and concentration
profiles
Figure 14 explores the effect of Brownian motion num-
ber Nb on the heat diffusion profile against η. It is found that
enlarging Nb boosts up the temperature diffusion in the micro-
cantilever sensor system. Also, enlarging Nb boosts up the
temperature diffusion process in the boundary layer region.
Physically, amplifying the Brownian motion parameter sig-
nificantly enhances the molecular nanoparticle random motion
and produces molecular micro-mixing which results in the
enhanced Casson nanofluid thermal conductivity. Accord-
ingly, this situation shifts nanoparticles from a cooler sensor
surface region to a quiescent liquid region. This augmenta-
tion in thermal conductivity and nanofluid convection boosts
up the thermal diffusion, and consequently, the temperature
profile increases. This result plays a key role in industrial
and thermal engineering, particularly in the enhancement of
machine productivity and efficiency [56]. Figure 15 describes
the impact of the thermophoretic number Nt on the mass dif-
fusion field against η. It is recorded that the increased thermo-
phoretic parameter boosts up the mass diffusion field in the
sensor region. Physically, magnified Nt enhances the associ-
ated thermophoretic forces and causes the larger mass diffusion
259
of associated Casson nanofluid concentration in the channel
regime, and hence, the mass diffusion profile magnifies.
(vi) Effects of the Eckert number (Ec) and the Prandtl
number (Pr) on temperature profile
Figure 16 describes the influence of the Eckert number
(Ec) on thermal diffusion field is against η. The heat dis-
sipation in the given physical system is primarily evalu-
ated in terms of the Eckert number. The greater values of
the Eckert number show the advective transport process
which produces considerable effects on heat transfer phe-
nomena when compared to the enthalpy changes in the
given physical system or medium. However, it is noticed
from Fig. 16 that the thermal profile is an increasing
function of the Eckert number. The physics behind this
observation can be cleared from( the terms
) in Eq. (13)
( )2
such as +M Ec Pr (f ′(η)) 2 and + 1 + 𝛽1 Pr Ec f �� (𝜂) .
Physically, the enlarged Eckert number significantly
amplifies the velocity gradients in the sensor regime
which in turn accelerates the sliding of the fluid layers,
this situation releases more thermal energy into the work-
ing fluid in the sensor system, and accordingly, tempera-
ture field augments. Further, this upsurge in the thermal
field is obvious because Ec has a direct impact on the heat
dissipation process which in turn enhances the thermal
field. Also, the thermal boundary layer thickness
decreases upon the increment in the Eckert number. In
addition to this, the second term on the right-hand side of
Eq. (7) represents the viscous dissipation effect which is
always positive and indicates a source of heat owing to
the frictional forces among the fluid particles. Further,
the irreversible process by means of which the work done
by a fluid on neighboring fluid layers owing to the action
of shear forces is transformed into heat, and it is defined
as viscous dissipation [21]. Viscous dissipation effect has
a greater impact in the field of science and engineering
such as polymer processing, injection molding, and aero-
dynamics. Figure 17 depicts the effect of the Prandtl num-
ber (Pr) on the thermal diffusion profile against η. It is
recorded that enlarging the Prandtl number decelerates
the thermal diffusion field in the boundary layer regime.
Physically, this is due to the reason that increasing the
Prandtl number suppresses the working fluid thermal dif-
fusivity which in turn causes the temperature drop inside
the channel regime. Also, temperature boundary layer is
diminished for the enlarging Prandtl number. Further, it
is clear that the lower Prandtl number fluids conduct the
heat much faster when compared to the higher Prandtl
number fluids; thus, the deployment of the higher Prandtl
number Casson fluids achieves a greater rate of cooling
13
260 BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

Fig. 18  Impact of Sc on ϕ(η)

2
Sc=0.5
1.8
Sc=0.7
Sc=1.0
1.6
Sc=1.5
1.4 Sc=2.2
Sc=3.4
1.2

( )
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

of the sensor surface in the micro-cantilever squeezing
regime [13].
(vii) Effects of the Schmidt number (Sc) and chemical
reaction parameter (Kr) on concentration profile
Figure 18 describes the influence of the Schmidt number
(Sc) on the concentration diffusion profile of Casson nano-
fluid against η. It is recorded that enhancing the Schmidt
number suppressed the concentration distribution in the

Fig. 19  Impact of Kr on ϕ(η)

3.5
Kr=-0.6
Kr=-0.4
3 Kr=-0.2
Kr=0.0
Kr=0.2
2.5 Kr=0.4
Kr=0.6

2 Magnetic nanofluid flow under

( )

Generative chemical reaction (Kr < 0)

1.5 Magnetic nanofluid flow under

No chemical reaction (Kr = 0)

1 Magnetic nanofluid flow under

Destructive chemical reaction (Kr > 0)

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

13
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267 261

Fig. 20  Effect of M on CfRe1/2

against b
1.11

1.1
M=0.0
M=0.1

Skin-friction coefficient
1.09
M=0.2
M=0.3
1.08 M=0.4
M=0.5
1.07

1.06

1.05

1.04

1.03
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Squeezed flow index

channel regime. Physically, according to the formula,
Sc = D𝜈 , enlarging the Schmidt number significantly
m
reduced the coefficient of mass diffusion in the channel
regime, and consequently, the decreased mass diffusion coef-
ficient causes the decay of the concentration profile in the
boundary layer regime. Further, the thickness of the mass

Fig. 21  Effect of β on CfRe1/2

against M
1.3

1.2
Skin-friction coefficient

1.1

1
=1.8
=1.9
Skin-friction coefficient for non-Newtonian case
0.9 =2.0
=2.1
=2.2
0.8 =2.3
Skin-friction coefficient for Newtonian case
-->

0.7

0.6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Magnetic number

13
262 BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267

3.5 0.9
Nb=0.1
Nb=0.3
0.85
Nb=0.5
3
Nb=0.7
Nb=0.9 0.8

Mass transfer rate

Nb=1.1
Heat transfer rate

2.5
0.75

2 0.7

0.65
1.5 Kr=-0.6
Kr=-0.4
0.6 Kr=-0.2
Kr=0.0
1
0.55 Kr=0.2
Kr=0.4
Kr=0.6
0.5 0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Thermophoretic number Schmidt number

Fig. 22  Effect of Nb on ­NuRe−1/2 against Nt Fig. 24  Effect of Kr on ­ShRe−1/2 against Sc

diffusion boundary layer decreased in the suspended channel
region. However, these decaying concentration features are
u n(d e r s t o o d) w i t h d(i f fe r e n t) t e r m s s u c h a s
Sc f (𝜂) + b2 𝜂 𝜙� (𝜂) − Sc f � (𝜂) + b2 𝜙(𝜂) in Eq. (14); here,
in this case, the Schmidt number has a direct influence on
the mass diffusion profile. Figure 19 demonstrates the influ-
ence of chemical reaction number (Kr) on Casson nanofluid
mass diffusion field against η. Here, in this case, Kr = 0
stands for no chemical reaction process, and Kr > 0 and
Kr < 0 signify the destructive and generative chemical reac-
tion processes, respectively. It is recorded from this graph
that enlarging Kr suppressed the nanoparticle concentration
field and decreasing Kr boosts up the magnitude of the con-
centration field in the boundary region. This fact is cleared
with the term +Sc Kr ϕ(η) in Eq. (14). Also, the mass diffu-
sion boundary layer is diminished for the amplified Kr.

Fig. 23  Effect of β on ­NuRe−1/2

against M
1.13

1.12

1.11
Heat transfer rate

=1.8
1.1 =1.9
=2.0
=2.1
1.09
Heat transfer rate for non-Newtonian case =2.2
=2.3
1.08 Heat transfer rate for Newtonian case -->

1.07

1.06
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Magnetic number

13
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267 263

Fig. 25  Effect of β on ­ShRe−1/2

against M
0.69
Mass transfer rate for Newtonian case

0.68

Mass transfer rate

0.67
Mass transfer rate for non-Newtonian case

0.66

0.65 =1.8
=1.9
=2.0
=2.1
0.64
=2.2
=2.3
-->
0.63
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Magnetic number

(viii) Effect of physical parameters on engineering quanti- number amplifies the Nusselt number in the flow regime.
ties of interest This is due to the reason that the increased magnetic number
enlarges the associated Lorentz forces in the flow region, and
Figures 20 and 21 depict the influence of magnetic num-
these forces are resistive in nature and cause the dissipation
ber, plate gap parameter, and Casson fluid number on the
of more thermal energy in the system, and consequently, the
skin friction profile. Figure 20 illustrates the impact of the
heat transfer rate amplifies. Further, heat transfer rate is higher
magnetic number on the skin friction profile against the plate
in the case of non-Newtonian Casson fluid when compared
gap parameter. It is recorded that accelerated magnetic vari-
to the Newtonian case which is clearly depicted in Fig. 23.
able and plate gap number retard the skin friction coefficient.
Figures 24 and 25 illustrate the influence of chemical reac-
Physically, amplified plate gap number decreases the Cas-
tion number, the Schmidt number, and magnetic and Casson
son fluid velocity distribution, since skin friction is mainly
fluid parameters. It is witnessed from Fig. 24 that the enlarged
measured in terms of velocity gradients, and consequently,
chemical reaction number and the Schmidt number retard the
the skin friction profile decreases. Figure 21 represents the
Sherwood number. Since the Sherwood number is completely
skin friction coefficient for different values of Casson fluid
described in terms of concentration gradients, it is recorded
number against the magnetic parameter. It is witnessed that
that an increased Schmidt number decreases the mass diffu-
increased β and M significantly decreased the skin friction
sion field which in turn causes the decay of the mass transfer
profile. Also, it is recorded that viscous Casson fluid has
rate. From Fig. 25 it is depicted that the amplified Casson
higher skin friction values when compared to the Newtonian
fluid parameter increases the mass transport rate, whereas the
fluid, and this fact is clearly described in Fig. 21. Figures 22
raised magnetic number decelerates diminished the Sherwood
and 23 illustrate the influence of Brownian motion param-
number in the flow regime. Also, it is noted that the Sherwood
eter, thermophoretic number, and magnetic and Casson fluid
number has higher values in the case of Newtonian fluid when
parameters. It is witnessed from Fig. 22 that the enlarged
compared to the viscous non-Newtonian Casson fluid, and this
Brownian motion and thermophoretic parameters amplify
fact is clearly described in Fig. 25.
the Nusselt number in the channel, since enhanced Nt aug-
ments the associated thermophoretic forces which in turn is
5.1 Runge‑Kutta Numerical Code Validation
responsible for the enhanced heat transfer rate. From Fig. 23
it is depicted that the amplified Casson fluid number decayed
The numerical accuracy of the similarity solutions of the
the heat transmission rate, whereas the increased magnetic
representative nonlinear coupled magnetic Casson nanofluid

13
264







 
Fig. 26  Validation of current similarity solutions with the existing results of Khaled and Vafai [11] and Usha et al. [23]
flow about a horizontal sensor surface is validated by com-
paring them with the published pioneering results of Khaled
and Vafai [11] and Usha et al. [23] for temperature for dif-
ferent values of the Prandtl number. Figure 26 demonstrates
this validation for various parametric values of Pr in the
absence of Joule heating, viscous dissipation, and nanofluid
concept. Further, Fig. 26 clearly furnished that the MAT-
LAB-based RK-4 numerical code is highly accurate and pro-
duces reliable solutions for the nonlinear thermo-magnetic
fluid flow problems. Finally, this validation recommends the
guarantee of the produced MATLAB-based similar solu-
tions in the sensor regime. Further, the suspended micro-
cantilever channel regime is considerably cooled with an
accelerating Prandtl number.
6 Concluding Remarks
The main focus of this research paper is to explore the
dynamics of Joule heating and viscous dissipation on
the two-dimensional unsteady viscous incompressible
13
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267
Results of Khaled and Vafai [11]
Results of Usha et al. [23]
Present similarity solutions
Pr = 0.71
Pr = 2.0
Pr = 6.7
  
chemically reactive squeezed flow of Casson nanofluid about
a micro-cantilever horizontal sensor surface engulfed in par-
allel plate regime under Lorentz force which has been dem-
onstrated numerically by deploying a robust and efficient
MATLAB-based RK-4 technique. Also, the microscopic
flow features of Casson nanofluid are explored through the
Brownian motion and thermophoresis parameters. However,
the current physical problem is greatly motivated by the
practical applications of the sensor mechanism in microflu-
idics, at the boundary of the fluidic cells. The hidden physics
in this flow mechanism is described through the parametric
analysis and graphical illustrations. The emerged key fea-
tures corresponding to the current investigation are here:
• Increasing Prandtl number decelerates the thermal pro-
file in the channel regime. The smaller Prandtl number
Casson nanofluids conduct the heat in a much faster way
when compared to the higher Prandtl number liquids.
Thus, the deployment of the higher Prandtl number
nanoliquids is greatly employed in the cooling of sensor
surfaces [11].
BioNanoScience (2024) 14:241–267
• Magnifying Brownian motion parameter increases the
temperature profile in the flow regime. This specific
nature of the thermal field has a significant impact on
the engineering designs of biosensors, mainly in the
improvement of device efficiency and productivity [56].
• Increasing magnetic interaction parameter significantly
enhanced the Casson nanofluid velocity field owing to
the free stream influence, magnifies the thermal dif-
fusion, and consequently increases the thickness of
the temperature boundary layer. This specific result is
useful in the tuning of the velocity field in the desired
direction [52].
• Boundary layer flow Casson nanofluid is strongly
diminished for the enhancing values of squeezed flow
index. Also, larger squeezing disturbances significantly
decreases the thermal and concentration diffusion pro-
cess in the channel regime.
• Viscous dissipation and magnetic Joule heating effects
through the Eckert number significantly boosted the
thermal transport process over the sensor surface in the
channel region.
• Amplifying the permeable velocity parameter decreases
the Casson nanofluid velocity and enhances the tem-
perature and concentration transport process.
• Increased squeezed flow index and magnetic number
decreases the skin friction on the sensor surface.
• Heat transport process boosted from the sensor sur-
face to the surrounding fluid medium for the stronger
Brownian motion, thermophoretic, and magnetic
parameters.
7 Limitations and Future Scope
Current numerical analysis described in this article states
that the MATLAB-based Runge-Kutta fourth-order scheme
with shooting technique is very versatile and powerful in
the numerical computation of coupled, nonlinear, magneto-
thermo non-Newtonian viscous fluid flows in micro-canti-
lever sensor systems. However, here, in this research article,
our motivation is confined to the non-Newtonian Casson
nanofluid model only. Specifically, in this paper, electric and
magnetic field induction effects have been neglected along
with heat source/sink influences. Authors, upcoming articles
may include the collective influences of electro-magnetic
and thermal source/sink effects which will be very helpful in
the study of biomedical micro-cantilever flow mechanisms.
Also, alternative rheological fluid models like couple stress
fluid, Maxwell fluid (short memory model), Powell-Eyring
fluid, and Tangent hyperbolic fluid are also suitable for the
conductive polymer processing employed in the current
biomedical micro-cantilever sensors systems. However, the
authors undertook the aforementioned challenges and are
265
currently paying full attention to report the numerical simi-
larity results immediately.
Acknowledgements The author Dr. Hussain Basha wishes to express
his gratitude to the reviewers who highlighted the important areas for
improvement in the earlier draft of this article. Their suggestions have
served specifically to enhance the clarity and depth of the interpretation
of results in the revised manuscript.
Author Contribution H.B. wrote the initial and final draft of the man-
uscript, including mathematical formulation, numerical simulations,
results and conclusions, validation of the results and formatted the
manuscript to Journal specifications and designed the research concept.
Funding None.
Data Availability This manuscript has no associated data.
Declarations
Research Involving Humans and Animals Statement None.
Consent for Publication Additional informed consent was obtained
from all individual participants for whom identifying information is
included in this article.
Informed Consent None.
Conflict of Interest None.
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