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 An Introduction

CORMAC BEHAN & ABIGAIL STARK

Prisons and Imprisonment
Cormac Behan · Abigail Stark

Prisons and Imprisonment

An Introduction
Cormac Behan Abigail Stark
School of Social Sciences, Law, and School of Justice
Education University of Central Lancashire
Technological University Dublin Preston, UK
Dublin, Ireland

ISBN 978-3-031-09300-5 ISBN 978-3-031-09301-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09301-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2023
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Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
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Cover credit: eStudio Calamar

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Why Prisons and Imprisonment?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Outline of the Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Using Prisons and Imprisonment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 A Note on Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Geographic Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Prisons, Imprisonment and Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Part I Punishment and Prison

2 The Prison Emerges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Punishment Before the Prison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 The Search for the ‘Model’ Prison Begins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 From Imprisonment to Confinement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Justifying Imprisonment as Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Justifying Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Retributivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Consequentialism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

v
vi Contents

4 Who Is Punished?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2 A Place for the Most Dangerous and Violent Law-Breakers?. . . . . . 52
4.3 The Unequal Distribution of Punishment and Imprisonment . . . . . . 54
4.4 The Ripple Effects—Further Marginalising the Marginalised?. . . . . 63
4.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Part II Understanding the Experiences of the Prison

5 Life, Culture and Adaptation in Prison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2 Power, Relationships and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.3 The Origins of Prison Culture—Deprivation vs. Importation. . . . . . 78
5.4 A Universal Culture for a Single Prison Community?. . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6 The Gendered Nature of Imprisonment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2 Gender, Punishment and Confinement of Women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.3 Imprisonment of Women in a Global Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.4 Who Are the Women Being Imprisoned?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.5 Women’s Experience of Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.6 Masculinity and Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.7 The Imprisonment of Transgender People. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.8 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7 Prisoners and Protest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2 Structure, Agency and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.3 Uprisings, Strikes and Disturbances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.4 Prisoners’ Rights Movements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.5 Resistance: Outside and Inside. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.6 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8 Prison in Popular Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.2 Prisons and News Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.3 Prison Films and TV Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Contents vii

8.4 Documentaries as a Window into Life Inside?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

8.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Part III The Penal Framework

9 Prisoners’ Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.2 Punishment and Civil Death. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.3 Human Rights and Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.4 Prison Rules and Prisoners’ Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9.5 ‘Rights on the Books’ and ‘Rights in Action’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.6 Prisoners and Civil Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.7 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
10 Governing Prisons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
10.2 Prisons and Social Order. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
10.3 Prison Rules and Daily Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
10.4 Regime and Routine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.5 Oversight, Monitoring and Legitimacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.6 Self-Governance and Social Order. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.7 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
11 Working in Prison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
11.2 The Demographics of Prison Staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
11.3 The Role(s) of a Prison Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11.4 Staff-Prisoner Relationships and Prison Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
11.5 The Working Conditions and Challenges of Prison Work. . . . . . . . . 203
11.6 Prison Officer Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.7 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
12 The Architecture of Incarceration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.2 Symbolism and Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.3 International Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
12.4 Place and Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
12.5 Improving the Penal Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
viii Contents

12.6 New Prisons—Old Philosophies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

12.7 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Part IV Politics and Penality

13 Comparative Penology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
13.2 Imprisonment Worldwide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
13.3 Assessing Punitiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
13.4 Comparing Penal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
13.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
14 The Future of the Prison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
14.2 The Possibility of a Better Prison: Arguments for Reform . . . . . . . . 258
14.3 The Limitations of Reform and the Case for Prison Abolition . . . . . 262
14.4 A World Without Prisons? The Barriers to Abolition . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
14.5 Alternatives to Prisons and Imprisonment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
14.6 Reflecting on Your Reading so Far: Where Next for Prisons
and Imprisonment?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Part V Researching Prisons and Imprisonment

15 Prison Research: Methods, Approaches and Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.2 Prisoners on Imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
15.3 Telling Their Own Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
15.4 The Prison Researcher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
15.5 Evaluating Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
15.6 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Appendix 1: Prisoner Autobiographies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Appendix 2: Online Resources for Researching Prisons
and Imprisonment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
References/Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Abbreviations

ACA  American Correctional Association

ACLU American Civil Liberties Union
BAME Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic
BPP Black Panther Party
CPT European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment
CR Critical Resistance
CSC Close Supervision Centre
ECHR European Convention on Human Rights
ECtHR European Court of Human Rights
EPR European Prison Rules
FNP Foreign National Prisoner
GRC Gender Recognition Certificate
HMICFRS His Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue
Services
HMIP His Majesty’s Inspectorate of Prisons
HMP His Majesty’s Prison
HMPPS His Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service
HMPS His Majesty’s Prison Service
HMYOI His Majesty’s Young Offender Institution
ICPR Institute for Crime and Justice Policy Research
ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
IEP Incentives and Earned Privileges
IMB Independent Monitoring Board
IPP Imprisonment for Public Protection
IRA Irish Republican Army

ix
x Abbreviations

IWOC Incarcerated Workers’ Organising Committee

IWW Industrial Workers of the World
JLS Jailhouse Lawyers Speak
KPI Key Performance Indicator
LGBT Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender
LWOP Life Without Parole
MOJ Ministry of Justice
NPA National Prison Association
NPM National Preventative Mechanism
OPCAT United Nations Optional Protocol on the Convention Against
Torture
POA Prison Officers Association
P-NOMIS Prison National Offender Management Information System
PPO Prisons and Probation Ombudsman
PRI Penal Reform International
PROP Union for the Preservation of the Rights of Prisoners
PRT Prison Reform Trust
PSI Prison Service Instruction
PSO Prison Service Order
ROTL Release on Temporary Licence
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
TC Therapeutic Community
UN United Nations
UNDHR Universal Declaration on Human Rights
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services
UNSMR United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of
Prisoners
VPU Vulnerable Prisoner Unit
WHO World Health Organization
WSPU Women’s Social and Political Union
List of Figures

Fig. 13.1 Comparative imprisonment rate 2022 (per 100,000)

(Source: Institute for Crime and Justice Policy Research
[2022]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Fig. 13.2 Incarceration in the United States of America
(Source: Institute for Crime and Justice Policy
Research [2022]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Fig. 13.3 Comparing US States (Source: Sentencing
Project [2021b]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Fig. 13.4 Imprisonment in Norway (Source: Institute for Crime
and Justice Policy Research ([2022]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Fig. 13.5 Imprisonment in England and Wales (Source: Institute
for Crime and Justice Policy Research [2022]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

xi
Introduction
1

Chapter Outline
This chapter will:

• Introduce the book, Prisons and Imprisonment.

• Outline the unique characteristics of the book.
• Consider the use of language around prisons and imprisonment.
• Set out the geographic scope of the book.

1.1 Introduction

This book is about prisons and imprisonment. Historically, prisons and impris-
onment have been a source of interest to the general public. Despite limited or
no public access to them, prisons continue to attract attention and engage our
consciousness today. Although there is near universal acceptance of an institu-
tion that represents our society, the reality of life behind bars is rarely revealed in
news reports, ‘real life’ documentaries, dramas, films and social media commen-
taries. Using academic scholarship, empirical research, government papers, pol-
icy reports, and accounts from lived experiences of the institution, this book will
examine prisons and imprisonment. It will sketch out the history of punishment,
consider the objectives of imprisonment, explore the complexities and contradic-
tions of prison life, analyse the place of prison in twenty-first century society, and
examine its prospects for the future.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2023
C. Behan and A. Stark, Prisons and Imprisonment,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09301-2_1
2 1 Introduction

1.2 Why Prisons and Imprisonment?

The power to punish is one of the primary demonstrations of the authority of

the modern state. Over time, different methods of punishment have become the
dominant means of sanctioning people, and today, punishment varies in differ-
ent countries. In Western society, by the end of the nineteenth century, imprison-
ment began to be seen, to varying degrees, as a natural, taken-for-granted, even
common-sense response to some types of deviant activity. Although many people
today might find it hard to imagine punishment without prisons, this book will
examine, and challenge readers to consider if prison is an effective, equitable and
justifiable method of dealing with law-breakers.
As the prison is now firmly established and plays a central role in the different
options available for punishment, this book aims to:

• Critically consider the theoretical foundations of imprisonment;

• Examine the social world of the prison and the sociology of prison life;
• Investigate the place of the prison in popular culture;
• Locate the institution within its wider social, political and cultural contexts;
• Encourage readers to engage in discussions about the use of imprisonment;
• Lay the foundations for readers to pursue further research on prisons and
imprisonment.

As you progress through this book, a few conclusions about prisons and impris-
onment will become clear. Firstly, there is a wide range of institutions that are
called prisons. These institutions differ in their purpose, levels of security, regime,
daily routine and architectural design. Despite this, they all share one common
objective—the secure confinement of those they house. Secondly, there is no sin-
gle characteristic that defines a prisoner, other than their confinement. Therefore,
people have different experiences of imprisonment. Similar to the study of all
human activity, the same life event or circumstances may be experienced differ-
ently, for a variety of reasons, including age, gender, race, creed, socio-economic
position and life history. These characteristics impact on a person’s experience
within the criminal justice system and, depending on where a prisoner serves
their time, this can influence their experience of imprisonment. Thirdly, the use
of imprisonment, and who is imprisoned reflects the society in which the prison is
situated.
This book is more than a study of prisons and imprisonment. As the use of
punishment, in particular imprisonment, reveals something deeper about the
social, cultural, economic and political environment in which it is located, it is
1.3 Outline of the Book 3

also a study of society. ‘The aims of prisons cannot be divorced from the char-
acteristics of the societies in which they take root’, according to O’Donnell
(2016: 48). He argues that: ‘Local legislative and policy contexts, together with
societal values and community sentiment, play a critical role’. Throughout the
book, the connection between the prison and society will be emphasised. Similar
to other public institutions, all that goes on therein (even if they are run by pri-
vate industry) is done in the name, and on behalf of, the state and society. Crewe
(2009: 9) reminded his readers that prisons are institutions ‘whose dynamics are
rarely exposed, even though they reveal important dimensions of state practice
and authority’. Throughout the book, we will use the study of prisons to reveal
characteristics of the criminal justice system, and uncover how state practice and
authority is exercised.

1.3 Outline of the Book

This chapter defines the parameters of the book. It begins with the aims and
objectives, outlines the scope and emphasises the importance of language in stud-
ying prisons and imprisonment. Beginning with Chapter 2, Part I examines con-
tinuities and changes in the history of imprisonment, as well as the theoretical
dimensions of the prison, including the philosophies of punishment. Chapter 2
outlines the history and development of the prison as an institution. With the
modern prison emerging in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it
was argued by those who championed the institution that it was a more humane
form of punishment than the cruel and brutal practices that preceded it. Chapter 3
sketches out some of the debates around the justification/s for punishment. It
analyses several of the controversies about the objectives of prison. Chapter
4 examines the demographics of those who are sent to prison. This indicates a
remarkable similarity over time, and from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, with a dis-
proportionate number of people imprisoned around the world from minority and
marginalised communities.
In Part II, the focus is on prison life: the varied experiences of incarceration,
including its portrayal in popular culture and representation in the media. Chapter 5
examines the sociology of prison life. Within this chapter, the ‘classics’ of prison
research will provide the reader with a more in-depth understanding of the social
world behind bars. Chapter 6 considers the role of gender in shaping experiences
of imprisonment. The prison is a highly gendered institution, experienced dif-
ferently depending on one’s gender, and impacting the performance of gendered
identities for imprisoned people. Chapter 7 examines prisons and protests. This
4 1 Introduction

includes an examination of resistance from those who were politicised outside and
others who became politically conscious inside prison. Chapter 8 concludes this
part by looking at the depiction of the prison in popular culture. The reality of the
institution usually stands in stark contrast to the common portrayals that are medi-
ated through drama, film and popular accounts. It draws attention to inaccuracies/
distortions in representation in order that readers can distinguish between accurate
(if indeed there is a unified, single authentic reality) and sensationalised portray-
als of prisons and prisoners in film and on television. These representations are
significant, not for their authenticity or accuracy, but for how they permeate into
popular consciousness, and may even provide justification for the existence of the
prison.
Part III analyses various frameworks within which the prison operates.
Chapter 9 on prisoners’ rights examines what rights people lose (and perhaps
should keep) on incarceration, beyond the denial of liberty. Chapter 10 on gov-
erning prisons examines prison rules, prison conditions and minimum accept-
able standards set out in various international documents, such as the United
Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (Nelson Man-
dela Rules) (UNODC 2015). Chapter 11 surveys the emerging body of research
into the experiences of prison officers. The form of any building can indicate its
function, and Chapter 12 examines how different architectural designs of prisons
reflect the ideological perspectives of penal policymakers.
Part IV of the book will consider political ideologies and penal policies. Chap-
ter 13 considers the use of imprisonment in a global context. Examining the USA,
Norway, and England and Wales, it considers how the treatment of prisoners
reflects social, economic, political and cultural contexts. Chapter 14 examines the
future of the prison and the debates on reform and abolition. It assesses if the
prison can be a place of reform, and outlines alternative models of imprisonment.
It considers if the prison is an inevitable and indeed, permanent feature of mod-
ern society, or if there is a potential for a future without prisons.
The final section deals with researching prisons and imprisonment. Chapter
15 outlines some of the methods that can be used, and the materials and sources
available, for researching prisons. With limited access to closed institutions, it
offers some ideas on how to undertake further study of penology as you progress
through the book, and after you have finished reading it.
As you read through this book, remember the central themes include ques-
tions around the objectives of imprisonment, what activities are labelled deviant,
who is criminalised and imprisoned, and why penal policy and prison systems
differ. We encourage readers to reflect on an institution that has emerged to take
a prominent place in our understanding of punishment in the western world in
1.4 Using Prisons and Imprisonment 5

twenty-first century society. While it has become an institution with a significant

social, economic and political role, Morris and Rothman in The Oxford History of
the Prison (1998: xi) conclude that ‘it is apparent that Western societies typically
carry expectations of the prison that are unreal or contradictory’.
Finally, instead of considering the use of imprisonment solely within a crim-
inal justice framework, we try also to reflect on its use within a social justice
context. As we argue in this book, the prison does not operate in isolation from
the society in which it is located. It reflects wider social, economic, political and
cultural characteristics. As the criminal justice system does not operate in a neu-
tral manner, we challenge readers to reflect on the various elements of a system
that leads to a disproportionate number of people from minority and marginalised
communities ending up in prison. Imprisonment has a major impact on the lives
and prospects of individuals, along with significant detrimental consequences for
their families and communities. Therefore, we argue that we need to critically
think about the role and functioning of prison from a social justice perspective.

1.4 Using Prisons and Imprisonment

The aim of this book is to introduce some of the key issues around prisons and
imprisonment. Written for students of penology and the general reader, it is
intended to stimulate your interest and introduce some of the essential themes to
understand the subject. As outlined earlier, the chapters cover a range of topics,
and each is accompanied by a reference list/further reading to allow you to delve
more deeply into these issues. Each chapter begins with an outline and concludes
with a summary of the main points dealt with in the chapter. Throughout each
chapter, there are questions to consider, and an activity at the end to be used to
reflect on some of the central ideas dealt with in your reading. Spotlights high-
lighting key topics are contained within each chapter. A glossary providing an
explanation of specific terms is included at the end of the book. Each term in the
glossary is indicated in bold throughout the text.
In studying penology, try to avoid sensationalist accounts which only rein-
force stereotypes of prison and prisoners. As you read through this book, try to
go beyond the vision of the prison we have all seen dramatised on television or
at the cinema. These representations seldom reflect the complexity of prison life
and rarely incorporate the perspectives of those who have spent (or continue to
spend) time incarcerated. Popular versions of prison life that ignore, sensation-
alise, or sometimes disparage the voices of people who have direct experience
of imprisonment can present a skewed portrayal of the institution. As with any
6 1 Introduction

academic study, you should try to read as many reputable sources as you can, to
endeavour to get a rounded picture of the prison. Further, we should be careful
about foregrounding one perspective in narrative/s about the prison. This is par-
ticularly important in studying the experience of imprisonment, as many times
those who have direct experience of serving time in the institution can be silenced
in the ‘hierarchy of credibility’ (Becker, 1967: 241). Read with a critical eye, and
be careful not to take portrayals of prisoners and prisons at face value, even from
official and/or government sources.

1.5 A Note on Language

Penology is the study of punishment. It concerns not only the nature of these
sanctions, but questions their utility, impact and outcomes. As with all social
sciences, language use in penology is contested. Various names have been, and
are currently employed to describe places of confinement. These include house of
corrections, asylum, jail, prison, borstal, penitentiary, reformatory, detention cen-
tre and correctional institution (Morris & Rothman, 1998; Ugelvik et al., 2020).
The names used can reveal the penal philosophy of policymakers and their expec-
tations of the institution.
Historically, the language used to describe prisoners has been dehumanising
(Cox, 2020). In official discourse from governments and policymakers, and infor-
mally in the media and wider society, a range of words are used: ‘offender’, ‘con-
vict’, ‘prisoner’, ‘criminal’, ‘felon’ and other, more pejorative terms. Language
is powerful because it influences not only how society views an individual, but
the ‘words we use to refer to people predispose us to act towards them in a dif-
ferent way’ (Scott, 2014: 412). In many jurisdictions the discourse around pris-
oners is negative, indicating their exclusion and detachment from society. They
have become ‘othered’ (Garland, 2001). Othering prisoners labels them as differ-
ent from the rest of society, and reduces people to labels associated with their
imprisonment or past crimes. Further, it can also lead to an individual internalis-
ing a negative identity and can be counter-productive if the objective is desistance
from criminal activity and re-entry into society (Maruna, 2001). Even after serv-
ing their time, the prison follows them: individuals move from the label of ‘pris-
oner’ to ‘ex-prisoner’, from ‘convict’ to ‘ex-convict’. As Jahmaine, a person with
lived experience of the criminal justice system, argued in a discussion in Proba-
tion Quarterly (2021): ‘Language needs to be kept as neutral and respectful as
possible, otherwise it can make people feel not worthy and lead to reoffending.’
1.6 Geographic Scope 7

The term ‘offender’ has been controversial in the United Kingdom, with many
prisoners and scholars arguing that it should be removed from official and popu-
lar discourse, as it characterises the individual solely on the basis of their crime.
In 2016 the Scottish government, in its National Strategy for Criminal Justice,
encouraged government departments and partner organisations, when refer-
ring to former prisoners, to no longer use the term ‘offender’, but replace it with
the phrase ‘person with convictions’ or ‘person with an offending history’. The
Scottish government recognised that ‘defining people as “offenders” for the rest
of their lives, will not help to change their behaviours, or shift attitudes within
wider society’. They concluded: ‘We must be aware of the power of language
to facilitate or inhibit this process’ (Scottish Government, 2016: 14). HM Prison
and Probation Service in England and Wales in its 2021 probation reform pro-
gramme (2021: 4) stated that they ‘will also move away from the term “offender”
in those contexts where it is an unhelpful label, instead referring in this document
to supervised individuals or individuals’. Cox (2020: 4) has identified an increase
in destigmatising language in the US, and after studying the UN Nelson Mandela
Rules on the treatment of prisoners, she believes there is a ‘shifting global lan-
guage of imprisonment’, away from negative categorisation.
Despite these developments, there are still debates about the use of language
around prisons and people serving time in them, even amongst those who advo-
cate for more respectful language. Nevertheless, Cox (2020: 8) reminds us that
‘our choices and intentions with respect to language reflect a long and complex
history of struggle over the landscape of incarceration’. Many prison activists
and penal reformers reject the terminology of the state and penal authorities,
and campaign for a new language that recognises a person-first approach. While
we are aware of these debates, and accept that there is no neutrality in discus-
sions about prisons and imprisonment, for the purpose of this book, we will use
the word ‘prisoner’. We do this for the sake of brevity and the factual status of
imprisonment. However, throughout, we wish to remain sensitive to the dignity
and humanity of people serving time in prison, and would encourage readers to
do so as well.

1.6 Geographic Scope

With most research, higher level institutions, journals, resources and academics
located in the Global North (Carrington et al., 2019), this has led to a neglect of
Southern experiences of criminology (Carrington et al., 2016), while the growing
body of research available is not always published in English. This is particu-
8 1 Introduction

larly so with the social science subjects pertinent to our study—criminology and
penology. While it is changing, criminology is currently largely United States and
United Kingdom-centred (Ugelvik et al., 2020). In his study of life in an Ethio-
pian prison, O’Donnell (2019: 267) argued that our understanding of penology
‘tends to be rooted in research carried out in Europe and the United States’. As
the US has the largest incarceration rate in the world (Institute for Crime & Jus-
tice Policy Research (ICPR), 2022), it is perhaps understandable that there is con-
siderable research about its penal system. With England and Wales having one of
the highest rates of imprisonment in Western Europe (ICPR, 2022), it also has a
wide range of literature available about its penal system.
This book draws on literature, reports and data available in English, with a
primary focus on England and Wales. Therefore, much of the processes, language
and terminology that we use will be in this context. However, we will seek to
draw comparisons with other jurisdictions throughout, to better situate England
and Wales within the global context of imprisonment. While this book concen-
trates on research available in the English language, we are acutely aware that this
not only limits the scope but that there is research available in other languages on
the themes and subjects covered in this book. That we have not included studies,
policy analysis and research that is published in other languages reflects our own
lack of linguistic competency, rather than a judgement on their significance.

1.7 Prisons, Imprisonment and Society

Finally, before you embark on your journey studying penology, remember that
you are not just researching prisons and imprisonment, you are scrutinising a
society. Many criminologists (and indeed other commentators, as we will see
in this book) believe that the use of imprisonment reveals characteristics of the
treatment of minority and marginalised groups in society, who, throughout his-
tory, and in most (if not all) countries throughout the world tend to be dispropor-
tionately represented in the prison population. We argue in this book that how a
state defines crime, who it decides to punish and imprison, and how it treats those
it incarcerates can be used to examine any jurisdiction. As an activist with the
African National Congress, Nelson Mandela (1918–2013) was convicted of sab-
otage and attempting to overthrow the government. He spent 27 years incarcer-
ated in some of South Africa’s most notorious prisons, including Robben Island.
He later wrote: ‘No one truly knows a nation until one has been inside its jails.
A nation should not be judged by how it treats its highest citizens but its lowest
ones’ (cited in Green, 2013: 93).
References/Further Reading 9

Other people who have been imprisoned have recorded their experiences,
their views on the role of prison in society, and whether it achieves its objectives.
While you may agree or disagree with their views on punishment, and indeed
their perspectives on incarceration, their lived experiences provide frames of ref-
erence that help in our understanding of prisons and imprisonment and provide
perspectives that cannot be gained by those without this experience. These chal-
lenge us to reflect on the role, impact and usefulness of an institution that has
become embedded in western society. When you read this book, try to keep in
mind that the use of a particular form of punishment represents the social, polit-
ical, economic and cultural character of a society at a moment in time. As you
begin to engage in debates and discussion around the use of imprisonment as
punishment, consider what it says about how a state treats its citizens, and how
the use of punishment can be used as a baromter to judge a state and society. In
Western society, it seems that the use of prison has become embedded, not only
in the structures that house prisoners but in how society views punishment. How-
ever, always be mindful, as we will see in the next chapter, that the prison arrived
relatively late in human history as a form of punishment. We must therefore
understand its development, inquire into its objectives, continue to consider the
reasons for its existence, and even reflect on what, if any, is the future for prisons
and imprisonment.

Chapter Summary
• This chapter introduced the book and some of the themes in the study of
prisons and imprisonment.
• It is important to be sensitive to language usage when referring to people in
prison.
• Punishment and imprisonment must be understood in a wider social, politi-
cal and economic context.
• A study of prisons and imprisonment can reveal important characteristics
of a society.

References/Further Reading

Becker, H. (1967). Whose side are we on? Social Problems, 14(3): 239–249.
Carrington, K., Dixon, B., Fonseca, D., Rodriguez Goyes, D., Liu, J., & Zysman, D.
(2019). Criminologies of the global South: Critical reflections. Critical Criminology,
27(1): 163–189.
Another random document with
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Next morning, at the first break of day, she sprang up out of bed and
hurried to look at the cushion, but there lay the rosebud a rosebud
still, and not a Princess, as she thought it would be.
Queen Flora was very much disappointed,
particularly as the King laughed at her folly for
believing she had seen a faery, when
suddenly a shaft of golden sunlight shone
through the window right on to the cushion,
and in an instant, instead of the flower there
appeared a beautiful naked baby, who laughed and crowed gaily.
The Queen was nearly mad with joy, and took the baby up in her
arms to show the King, who was equally delighted.
“You see there are faeries after all,” he said to the Queen.
“I always thought so,” replied the Queen.
“Oh, my dear!” said the King, who was quite shocked at such a story.
“Pooh!” answered Queen Flora, tossing the baby up in her arms, and
this ended the conversation.
 II.

THE ROSE-PRINCESS IS LOST.

Of course there was great joy when it came to be known that Queen
Flora was the mother of a lovely Princess, and all the bells in the city
were set ringing, while the poor people, for once, had as much food
as they could eat. The ladies of the Queen admired the beautiful
baby very much indeed, and there was no doubt the little Princess
was really a charming child. By the advice of the King, however,
Queen Flora told nobody about the transformation which took place
at sundown, and always put the Princess to bed herself every night.
Then, as the sunlight died out of the western skies, the pretty baby
would change into a delicate white rosebud, and rested on a velvet
cushion beside the Queen’s bed every night. At the first golden ray
of the sun the bud changed to a beautiful Princess once more, and
no one ever knew that she was only a flower transformed for the day
into a human being.
As the years rolled on, the Rose-Princess grew into a tall, slender
girl, with golden hair, blue eyes, and the most beautiful complexion,
white and pink, flushed like a delicate rose. When she walked she
swayed like a graceful lily, and always dressed in a green gown with
a girdle of white roses, which were her favourite flowers.
She also wore a silver circlet on her golden
hair, upon which were fastened diamond
roses and leaves made out of bright green
emeralds, which made her look so beautiful
that all who beheld her fell in love on the spot.
Many princes heard of her beauty and wanted
to marry her, but she did not care for any of
her suitors, which pleased Queen Flora very
much, for she was anxious her Princess
should marry the great-grandson of the exiled
King, and cease to change into a rosebud.
The King made a proclamation that if the descendant of the old
dynasty came to the palace, he would marry his daughter and be
heir to the throne; but no one ever came forward to claim the hand of
the Princess, which showed that the Faery Rosina spoke truly when
she said the exiled Prince knew nothing about his royal blood.
The Princess was christened Rose by the Queen, because she
really was the offspring of the white rose tree, but her complexion
was so delicate, and her love for roses so great, that every one
called her the Rose-Princess instead of the Princess Rose.
Now, on the seventeenth birthday of the Rose-Princess, there was a
mighty revolution in the city of Buss, and a great multitude of men
and women marched to the palace in order to dethrone the King. He
was not a bad King as kings go, but, not knowing how to govern, he
did nothing but amuse himself with balls and fêtes, letting his
courtiers govern as they pleased. As the courtiers were all very
greedy, and wanted money, they put such heavy taxes on the
people, that at last the King’s subjects could stand it no longer, and
while a ball was taking place in the great hall of the palace, in honour
of the Rose-Princess’s birthday, the doors were burst open, and the
mob rushed in. The ball was being given in the day-time, so that the
Rose-Princess could attend, because, of course, she could not
dance when changed into a flower. The music was sounding most
beautifully, the King and Queen sat on their thrones with golden
crowns, and the Rose-Princess was dancing gaily, when the noisy
crowd of ragged men and women rushed into the beautiful palace.
Oh, it was really a terrible scene! All the gaily dressed lords and
ladies were seized by the dirty hands of the people, and stripped of
their beautiful jewels. The great mirrors were all smashed, the lovely
blue hangings torn down and trampled on by the mob, the gorgeous
gardens were all destroyed, and these rioters, breaking into the
King’s wine-cellars, began to drink the fine wine of which he was so
proud.
All the women of the city collected a lot of velvet couches, gorgeous
dresses, and rich curtains into a heap in the garden, and, setting fire
to it, danced about in a ring, singing loudly—
 “High to low
Down must go;
Low to high
Now must fly.
All the lords and ladies dead,
Let us eat their costly bread,
While beneath our feet we tread
Every proud and haughty head.”

You may be sure the King and Queen did not wait to face these
terrible people, but, disguising themselves in mean garments, fled
from the palace, leaving all their beautiful things to be destroyed by
the mob, who chose a President, and proclaimed a Republic, then
began to kill all the lords and ladies they could find. The whole nation
seemed to go mad, and there was no law or order anywhere, but
every one did exactly as they pleased, so that the entire kingdom
was brought to the verge of ruin.
And the Rose-Princess?—ah, poor lady! she also fled in dismay from
the terrible people, and sought refuge in her own room. It was still
early in the afternoon, so she could not change into a rose, and thus
escape the fury of the mob; and, as her parents had deserted her,
she stood trembling in her beautiful chamber, thinking she would be
found and torn to pieces. Besides, being ignorant of her nightly
transformation, she was afraid to go to bed, lest she should be killed
while asleep.
As she stood weeping and wringing her hands in despair, she
suddenly saw a tall handsome lady standing before her, looking at
her kindly. This was the Faery Rosina, who had come to save the
Rose-Princess from the people, as it was not her fault that they had
rebelled against the King.
“Do not weep, Rose-Princess,” she said in a kind tone; “though
things seem to be going wrong just now, they will all come right.”
“But my dear parents!” cried the Rose-Princess, weeping.
“They have left the palace,” said the faery in a severe tone, “and will
now endure hardship, to punish them for the way in which they have
neglected their office; but when they have learnt a lesson, they will
come back again.”
“But what will become of me?” cried the Rose-Princess, as the noise
of the mob came nearer and nearer.
“You will be quite safe,” replied the faery; “and the people who are
now crying out to kill you, will soon be cheering you on your
wedding-day, when you are married.”
“Married to whom?” asked the trembling Princess.
“Ah, that you must find out!” answered the Faery Rosina, as the
crowd commenced to batter at the door of the room. “But now I must
save you from the people, or they will certainly kill you.”
As she said this, she touched the Princess, who immediately
changed into a white rosebud, and lay on the dark green carpet like
a snowflake. Then the Faery Rosina vanished, and the door was
burst open, as the mob rushed in.
Of course they now saw nothing, and never for a moment dreamt
that the white rose lying on the carpet was their beautiful Princess,
so they commenced to pull down all the costly things in the room,
and would have trampled the rosebud under their feet, only a young
student picked it up.
He was a handsome fellow of twenty, this young student, with a
slender figure and a dark, splendid-looking face. His name was
Ardram, and he was one of the leaders of the revolt, although he did
not wish the people to destroy everything as they were doing.
Ardram was a very learned youth, and the son of a poor sick woman,
of whom he was very fond. He had seen all the misery of the poor
people who were in want of bread, and the sinful luxury of the court,
so thought it but right that a change should be made. Therefore he
led the people to the palace, to ask justice of the King, but they had
become too strong for him, and he was already regretting that he
had not let them stay where they were. However, it was too late now
for regrets, but he determined not to take any part in the follies of the
mob, so walked home to his own little room in the city, with the white
rosebud in his button-hole.
All night long he saw the flames rising from burning dwellings, and
heard the shrieks of people being killed, so he felt very sad to think
that he was the original cause of it all, though he certainly had no
intention of letting such things be done. Then he determined on the
morrow to talk to the people, and try and persuade them to stop their
plundering and cruelty, but, in the meantime, went to bed and slept
for an hour in an uneasy manner.
He forgot all about the white rosebud, which had fallen on the floor,
as he flung himself, dressed as he was, on his bed, but when he
awoke in the morning, he was much surprised to find seated beside
him a beautiful woman, who was weeping bitterly.
“Who are you?” asked Ardram, springing to his feet; “and how did
you come here?”
“I am the Rose-Princess,” she replied sadly; “but I do not know how I
came here. You will let me stay, will you not? I am so afraid of those
terrible people who broke into the palace.”
“Oh, I won’t let them harm you, Princess,” said Ardram, who had
fallen in love with her beautiful face; “but you must not leave this
room, or else I cannot protect you.”
“I’ll stay here,” said the Rose-Princess obediently; “but will you
please give me something to eat?—I feel rather hungry.”
So Ardram brought out some bread and wine, off which the Princess
made a hearty meal, talking to her host all the time she was eating.
“I saw you in the palace yesterday,” she said, looking straight at
Ardram.
“Yes,” replied the student, blushing; “I was with the people. We only
wanted justice, and I did not think they would go on like they did. The
people were too strong for me, so I left them.”
“And will you put my father on the throne again?” asked the Rose-
Princess eagerly.
“I’m afraid that will be impossible, Princess,” said Ardram quietly,
“unless he promises to govern better. You see, many years ago, a
king was deposed for governing badly, and your grandfather was put
on the throne—now they’ll offer the crown to some one else.”
“Perhaps they’ll offer it to you?” suggested the Rose-Princess.
“I don’t think so,” said Ardram, laughing, as he arose to his feet; “but
if I did become king, I would take care that all my subjects were well
off. Now I’ll go out, Princess, and you stay here.”
“Very well,” answered the Rose-Princess; “and do look for my
parents.”
“I will—though I daresay they’ve left the city,” said Ardram, and he
went away more in love with the Princess than ever.
Meanwhile the Rose-Princess was left alone, and thought how noble
and brave Ardram was.
“If he was only the Prince I was to marry!” she sighed; “but then the
faery said everything would come right, so, perhaps, he is to be my
husband after all.”
She waited all through the long day for the return of Ardram, but he
did not return till sundown, and just as his hand was on the door, the
Princess changed into a white rosebud, so, when he entered, he
found the room empty.
“Princess, Princess, where are you?” he called out in alarm; but of
course no Princess answered him, and Ardram asked every one in
the house if they had seen a beautiful lady go out, but no one had
done so.
“I’ll go and see my mother,” said Ardram in perplexity, for his mother
was a very wise woman, although at present she was lying on a bed
of sickness. As soon as Ardram made up his mind to ask his
mother’s advice, he put on his cap to go, when he spied the white
rosebud on the floor.
“Hullo!” he cried, picking it up; “this is the rose I found in the palace
yesterday—my mother is fond of flowers, so I’ll take it to her;” and he
went away.
The streets were quite full of people, all in a great state of
excitement, for the King, Queen, and Princess had vanished, and, as
all the ministers were beheaded, there was no one to rule, so the
whole kingdom was in a dreadful state.
Ardram reached his mother’s house, and found her in bed, very ill,
but when she saw him she was much delighted.
“How are things going?” she asked, after he had kissed her.
“Very badly,” replied Ardram; “no one is able to rule, and I’m afraid
we will have a civil war.”
“Oh no, we won’t,” said his mother quickly. “If the people won’t have
their present King, perhaps the exiled Prince of the old royal family
will be found.”
“I’m afraid not,” replied her son, smiling; “but if he is, I hope he’ll rule
wisely.”
“I hope so too,” said his mother pointedly.
“Who gave you that beautiful rose, Ardram?”
“I picked it up in the palace, mother,” he
answered, and, taking it out of his button-hole,
he gave it to her to smell. Then he told her all
about the beautiful Princess, and his mother
was very much astonished that the poor lady
had left the safe shelter of his room, and
perhaps been torn to pieces by the angry
people in the street.
At last Ardram went away, leaving the rosebud with his mother, who
laid it on her pillow and went to sleep. Next morning, when the
beams of the sun were shining into her chamber, she awoke, and
found the Rose-Princess sleeping beside her.
“Are you not the Rose-Princess?” she asked, for of course she
recognised the King’s daughter at once by her crown.
“Yes,” answered the Rose-Princess quickly; “but how did I get here?
The last thing I remember before I went to sleep, was standing in
Ardram’s room.”
“You must have walked here in your sleep, then,” said the sick
woman, looking at her, “because he has been searching for you
everywhere.”
“Oh, I’m so sorry!” said the Rose-Princess, rising. “I would not like
him to think I’d run away, because I am so fond of him.”
“Are you fond enough of him to marry him?” asked the mother sadly.
“Yes, I am,” answered the Princess, blushing; “but I’m afraid he
would not marry me. Besides, you know, I am to marry the exiled
Prince of the old royal family, as soon as he is found.”
“He is found,” said the sick woman quietly. “Ardram is my son, and
the great-grandson of the King who was driven from the throne, so, if
you marry him, he will be able to regain his throne again.”
“And my father and mother?” asked the Princess in a faltering voice.
“I’m afraid they’re not fit to reign, if all I have heard is true,” said the
mother in a melancholy tone; “and if you and my son, Prince Ardram,
ascend the throne, I hope you will govern more wisely. Now, to prove
the truth of what I say, pull out that wooden box from under my bed.”
The Rose-Princess did as she was told, and, on lifting up the lid, saw
a most beautiful crown, all over diamonds, and rubies, and great
blue sapphires, sparkling like the stars.
“That is the old royal crown,” said the sick woman, as the Princess
put it on her head, “and Ardram will be crowned with it.”
“But if your son is the Prince, why did you not send him to the palace
to marry me?” asked the Rose-Princess, who looked truly royal, as
she stood in the room with the great crown on her golden head.
“Because I wanted him to see the misery of the people, before ruling
over them,” said the mother quickly. “Now he knows what poor
people endure, he will be a wise king, and govern well. Now, I will
sleep until my son comes back, then we will see about getting you
married.”
So she turned her face away, in order to sleep, and the Princess put
away the royal crown, and began to sing to the sick woman in a low,
sweet voice. This is what she sang:
“Roses red, in the red, red dawn,
Open your hearts to the sun, I pray;
The dew lies heavy upon the lawn,
Westward rises the golden day.

Roses, droop in the hot noon-tide,

Scatter your petals of red and white,
Far in the depths of your green leaves hide,
Till to the eastward the sun takes flight.

Roses white, at the shut of day,

Close your blossoms thro’ sunless hours;
The moon rides high in the sky so grey.
Night brings sleep to the weary flowers.”

Then she also fell asleep, and, as night came on, she was once
more changed into the white rosebud, and lay on the pillow beside
the grey head of Ardram’s mother. When the doctor, a gruff old man
called Mux, came in, the sick woman awoke, and asked at once for
the Princess.
“What princess?” asked Mux gruffly. “There’s no princess here. So
much the better, as I’d cut her head off if I saw her.”
“But she was here when I went to sleep,” said Ardram’s mother
angrily.
“Well, she isn’t here now,” retorted the doctor. “I expect she’s left you
to look for the King and Queen. But never mind about her—how do
you feel yourself?”
But the sick woman was much agitated over the loss of the Rose-
Princess, and when her son entered, she told him how the Princess
had been with her all day, and again vanished; whereupon Ardram
rushed out into the streets, to see if he could find the poor Rose-
Princess again.
When Mux was taking his leave, Ardram’s mother said she had no
money to pay him.
“Never mind,” said the doctor gruffly, for he was really very kind-
hearted; “I’ll take this rose as payment;” and he picked up the white
rose off the pillow.
“It’s very kind of you, doctor,” said the sick woman gratefully. “Take
the rose by all means—my son gave it to me. But, doctor, do try and
find the Princess; if you do, I will reward you better than you think.”
“Stuff!” said the gruff Mux; and he went away home with the white
rosebud fastened in his coat.
 III.

THE ROSE-PRINCESS FULFILLS HER DESTINY.

Gruff Dr. Mux took the white rosebud home with him, little thinking
it was the lost Princess, which was perhaps just as well, seeing that
he was such an enemy to the royal family. At least every one thought
he was, but everybody was wrong to think so, as, in spite of the
names he called them, he was really a great upholder of the throne,
and in his humble house the exiled King and Queen had been
hidden all the time of the revolution. No one thought of looking for
them in the house of such a red republican as Dr. Mux, so they were
as safe there as though they were guarded by stone walls and
faithful soldiers.
When Dr. Mux arrived home, he went straight to bed, but arose very
early in the morning, before the sun was up, and called the King and
Queen.
“Sire and madam,” he said, bowing before them, “as I came through
the streets, I noticed that the people were talking about re-
establishing the throne.”
“Oh, then we will go back to our palace,” said the Queen joyfully.
“And make an example of all traitors,” observed the King sternly.
“Nothing of the sort, sire and madam,” said the doctor, bowing again.
“From what I heard, I think the people want to put your daughter on
the throne.”
“Nonsense!” said the King.
“Pooh!” said the Queen.
“You think so?” observed the doctor severely. “Listen.”
They did listen, and heard a roar in the distance coming nearer and
nearer, then a great mass of people came sweeping up the street,
crying out, “Long live Queen Rose!” “Let us see our new Queen!”
“Where is the Rose-Princess?”
“Ah, where indeed?” cried the Queen, weeping. “I have not seen our
beautiful daughter since the mob attacked the palace.”
“She would easily be recognised,” said the doctor.
“I’m not so sure of that,” replied the King, looking at the Queen. “You
know our Princess is enchanted by the faeries.”
“Faeries?” echoed the doctor; “I never saw one.”
“But I did,” said the Queen.
“Excuse me, my dear madam—dyspepsia,” returned the doctor
gravely, for you see he did not know how the Princess changed to a
rosebud every night.
The Queen was very angry, but dared not say anything, lest the
doctor should deliver her up to the mob, who were now surging in
the wide street, listening to a man who was speaking.
“That is Ardram the student,” said the doctor. “I saw his sick mother
last night—she gave me this rosebud.”
“Ah,” sighed the Queen, as she took the rosebud from the doctor,
“how like my poor lost daughter!”
“I do not see the resemblance, sire and madam,” said the doctor;
“but listen to Ardram;” and he went out of the room, leaving the King
and Queen to hearken to the man who had taken their throne from
them. He was talking in a loud tone to the mob, and telling them they
ought to elect the Rose-Princess for their Queen, as she would know
how to govern better than her parents. The sun was just rising, and
the golden beams were shining on his face, so that he looked truly
noble.
“A seditious traitor!” cried the King.
“Cut his head off!” said the Queen.
But they had not the power to do so, and, amid cries of “Long live
Queen Rose!” Ardram leaped from his standing-place, and all the
mob swept down the street to look for the lost Princess.
The King and Queen turned from the window in great anger, when
they saw to their surprise that the Rose-Princess was standing in the
room.
“My child, my child!” said the King, kissing her.
“It was your rosebud, then?” said the Queen, folding the beautiful girl
in her arms.
“What rosebud?” asked the Rose-Princess in surprise; “and how did
I come here?”
“The doctor brought you,” said the King.
“Did he carry me through the streets?” asked the Princess, very
much astonished. “I wonder I was not recognised.”
“No one could recognise you as you were then,” said the Queen, and
nodded wisely, but she did not tell the Princess that she had been a
rosebud when she was carried by the doctor.
“I’ve had such a lot of adventures,” said the Rose-Princess; “but I
don’t know how I came from one place to the other. First, I was in the
palace, then in Ardram’s room, then by his sick mother’s bedside,
and now here. It must be the faeries.”
“It is the faeries,” observed the Queen, kissing her daughter again.
“You’ll know all about it when you marry the exiled Prince, and break
the spell.”
“Oh, I can break whatever spell there is when I marry Ardram,” said
the Rose-Princess; “he is the exiled Prince.”
“Nonsense!” said the King, frowning.
“Pooh!” said the Queen in an angry tone.
“Oh, but he is,” cried the Rose-Princess gaily. “I saw his crown, for
his mother showed it to me.”
“Then, if he is the real Prince,” said the King, “you had better marry
him, and break the enchantment.”
“What enchantment?” asked the Rose-Princess.
“You will find it all out,” began the Queen, “when”—
“When you marry Prince Ardram,” finished the King.
All day the three royal people sat in the humble room of the doctor,
and talked about their troubles. Rose-Princess told her parents all
about the misery of the people, and how they ought to govern, but
the King and Queen only laughed, which showed that the severe
lesson of exile was lost on them. Gruff Dr. Mux was very much
astonished to see the Rose-Princess, and told her how she had
been proclaimed Queen by Ardram.
“Then I’ll marry him,” said the Rose-Princess promptly, “for I love him
very much. Where is he?”
“Coming up the street,” said the doctor. Then all four went to the
window, and saw that the crowd of people were coming back,
looking very disappointed because they had not found the Princess.
Ardram mounted on a great stone in front of the church door, for the
cathedral of the city was just opposite the doctor’s house. When the
Rose-Princess saw him, she ran out of the room, down the stairs,
and across to where the student was standing.
“Ardram, Ardram, I am here!” she cried, and climbed up beside him.
The people recognised their beautiful Princess at once, and cried
out,—
“Long live Queen Rose!”
“And King Ardram,” said the Princess loudly; “if you make me
Queen, you must make him King, and we will both rule wisely.”
“She never thinks of us,” said her father.
“Ungrateful child!” cried the Queen.
But no one heard them, for the mob began to roar, “Long live King
Ardram and Queen Rose!” and the red light of the setting sun shone
on the handsome couple as they stood on the stone. Ardram was
beside himself with joy, not at being made King, but because the
beautiful Rose-Princess had her white arms round his neck, and was
saying how much she loved him.
Suddenly the red light in the sky vanished and the sun set, leaving
Ardram standing alone on the stone with a white rose in his hand.
“Where is the Queen?” roared the mob.
“I don’t know,” cried Ardram, looking at the white rosebud in a
bewildered manner; “she is gone.”
“He wants to be King alone,” cried the people, “and has made the
Queen disappear by magic.”
“No, no,” said Ardram. “I love her too much for that.”
“Kill him! kill him! he’s a magician!” yelled the people, and they all
pressed forward to tear Ardram off the stone, but, seeing his danger,
he jumped down and ran into the church, closing the great doors
after him. There he was safe, for the mob dared not to break into the
church, but all night roared round it like a stormy sea round a little
boat.
The King and Queen left the window, and told the gruff doctor all
about the enchantment of the Rose-Princess, which he was now
inclined to believe, as he had seen her disappear so suddenly before
his eyes. He recommended the Queen to call on the Faery Rosina,
which she did, and in a moment the faery, a tall, beautiful woman, in
a robe of shining green, was standing before them. Then the doctor
did believe in faeries, because he now really saw one for the first
time, and was much astonished.
“Well, are you sorry you lost your throne?” asked the faery severely.
“Very,” said the King and Queen together.
“If you go back, will you rule wisely?” she said, looking at them.
“We will rule just as we ruled before,” they replied.
“Then you are not fit to go back,” said Rosina sadly. “I see I have not
cured you after all.”
“Nonsense!” said the King.
“Pooh!” said the Queen, and they both thought the faery was very
rude.
“I’ll settle everything to-morrow morning,” said the faery, quite angry
at their folly. “I can do nothing till the Rose-Princess becomes a
woman again—she will of course marry the Prince Ardram to break
the spell.”
“Is he really the Prince?” asked the King and Queen together.
“Yes, he is,” retorted the faery shortly, and then vanished, leaving
them quite disconsolate, as they thought they would never get back
their throne.
Meanwhile Ardram walked up and down the dark church all night,
listening to the roaring of the crowd outside, and wondering how the
Princess kept vanishing and appearing so strangely. He was more in
love with her than ever, and at last went fast asleep on the altar
steps, dreaming about his lovely bride, who said he would rule as
King with her. The rosebud lay on the steps beside him, but Ardram
never thought for a moment that his charming Princess was so near
him.
Next morning he awoke in the early grey dawn, before the sun was
up, and found himself surrounded by the King, the Queen, Dr. Mux,
his mother, now looking strong and well, and a beautiful tall woman,
in a green robe, with a wand made of white roses.
“I am the Faery Rosina,” she said to him in a low, sweet voice, “and I
am come to put things to rights, Prince Ardram.”
“Why do you call me ‘Prince’ Ardram?” asked the student, looking
puzzled.
“The Rose-Princess will tell you,” said the faery, smiling.
“But where is she?” asked Ardram, looking around.
“There,” said the faery, pointing with her wand to the white rosebud,
which lay on the floor where Ardram had flung it the previous night.
“Impossible!” he said in astonishment.
“Not at all,” cried the King, coming forward; “nothing is impossible to
a royal princess. That rosebud is my daughter.”
“Given to the King and Queen by me,” said Rosina sweetly. “They
did not know how to rule, and as I knew this revolution would take
place, I wanted to provide an heir to the throne.”
“But the white rose cannot reign,” said Ardram, rather bewildered.
“Not now, but wait till the sun rises,” cried the fairy. “Ah, here is the
first yellow beam! Now look.”
Every one looked at the white rosebud lying on the floor, and then a
yellow beam which struck through a painted window, creeping nearer
and nearer till it shone on the white bud. In an instant that vanished,
and in its place stood the Rose-Princess, looking tall and beautiful.
On seeing Ardram, she bounded towards him and put her arms
round his neck.
 ON SEEING ARDRAM SHE BOUNDED TOWARD
HIM AND PUT HER ARMS ROUND HIS NECK

“Good morning, my Prince,” she said sweetly.

“But I am no prince,” cried Ardram, clasping her to his breast.
“Yes, you are,” said the Rose-Princess merrily; “you are the great-
grandson of the King who was deposed.”
“Is this true, mother?” asked Ardram.
“Perfectly true,” she replied, producing the crown. “Here is the royal
crown; you are the real King, but I did not dare to tell you till the
Faery Rosina gave me permission.”
“And I waited till now because I wanted you to marry the Princess
Rose,” said the faery, as Ardram placed the crown on his head. “The
Princess is enchanted, and turns into a rose every night, so in order
to break the spell she must marry you.”
“When?” asked both lovers together.
“Now,” said the faery, and, touching Ardram’s dress, it changed into
beautiful royal robes all of gold, and at the same moment the Rose-
Princess appeared dressed in wedding garments, with her crown of
silver and diamonds on her head. The organ rolled out a bridal
march, and the priests came forth in a long procession. In a few
minutes the Princess Rose was married to Ardram, and then her
silver crown rolled off.
“You must not wear silver any more,” said the faery, “because the
spell is now broken, and you will never change to a rosebud again.”
So saying, she touched the Rose-Princess’s head with her wand,
and immediately there appeared a beautiful golden crown, as
gorgeous as that worn by Ardram.
“Now you are King and Queen,” said Rosina graciously, “so you will
go to the palace and govern wisely.”
“Oh yes, we will,” cried the new King and Queen joyfully and then
they kissed one another as they stood in their royal crowns and
splendid garments before the great altar.
“But what is to become of us?” said the old King and Queen.
“You are not fit to govern,” said the faery severely, “and only care for
pleasure, so you will go away to the other end of the kingdom, to a
city of your own, where the people are as fond of pleasure as you
are, and there you will be happy.”
“Nonsense!” said the King.
“Pooh!” replied the Queen.
Nevertheless, both of them were secretly very delighted, as they
would now be able to enjoy themselves as they pleased. Then the
faery ordered the doors of the cathedral to be thrown wide open, the
organ played a triumphal march, and the new King and Queen
walked slowly down the church, looking the handsomest couple in
the world. The gruff doctor and the old mother followed, but the
deposed King and Queen had vanished with the Faery Rosina, who
transported them to their own city, where they ruled and enjoyed
themselves for many years.
Then all the people in the city saw the new King and Queen standing
before them with their royal crowns, and the bells rang, the streets
were made clear again, and as the young couple moved through the
crowd, which strewed flowers before them, the people cried,—
“Long live King Ardram and Queen Rose!”
And the Rose-Princess never changed into a flower again, but
became a true, loving wife to the King, who ruled well and wisely, for
he had seen the hardships of his subjects when he was a poor
student. They reigned long and happily, and had many children, but
in all their prosperity the Queen never forgot how she had been an
enchanted Rose-Princess.