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Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page i

Architecture and the Politics of

Gender in Early Modern Europe
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page ii

Women and Gender in the

Early Modern World
Series Editors: Allyson Poska and Abby Zanger

In the past decade, the study of women and gender has offered some of the
most vital and innovative challenges to scholarship on the early modern
period. Ashgate’s new series of interdisciplinary and comparative studies,
‘Women and Gender in the Early Modern World’, takes up this challenge,
reaching beyond geographical limitations to explore the experiences of early
modern women and the nature of gender in Europe, the Americas, Asia, and
Africa.

Titles in the series include:

Maternal Measures
Figuring Caregiving in the Early Modern Period
Edited by Naomi J. Miller and Naomi Yavneh

The Political Theory of Christine de Pizan

Kate Langdon Forhan

Women, Art and the Politics of Identity in Eighteenth-Century Europe

Edited by Melissa Hyde and Jennifer Milam

‘Shall She Famish Then?’

Female Food Refusal in Early Modern England
Nancy A. Gutierrez

Marie Madeleine Jodin 1741–1790

Actress, Philosophe and Feminist
Felicia Gordon and P. N. Furbank
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page iii

Architecture and the Politics of

Gender in Early Modern
Europe

Edited by
Helen Hills
University of Manchester
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page iv

First published 2003 by Ashgate Publishing

Published 2016 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2003 Helen Hills

Helen Hills has asserted her moral right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act, 1988, to be identified as the editor of this work.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Architecture and the Politics of Gender in Early Modern Europe
(Women and Gender in the Early Modern World).
1. Architecture and women–Europe–History–1500. 2. Architecture–Europe–16th
century. 3. Architecture–Europe–17th century. 4. Architecture–Europe–18th century.
I. Hills, Helen
720.8’2’094’0903

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Architecture and the Politics of Gender in Early Modern Europe
p. cm. (Women and Gender in the Early Modern World).
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Architecture and women–Europe–History. 2. Architecture and society–Europe–
History.
I. Hills, Helen
NA2543.W65A73 2003
720’.82’094-dc21 2002038461

ISBN 9780754603092 (hbk)

ISBN 9781138275836 (pbk)

Typeset in Times New Roman by Bournemouth Colour Press, Parkstone, Poole.

Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page v

Contents

Acknowledgements vii
List of Illustrations ix
Notes on the Editor and Contributors xv

PART I INTRODUCTION 1

Theorizing the Relationships between Architecture and Gender in

Early Modern Europe 3
Helen Hills

PART II PRODUCTION: ARCHITECTS AND PATRONS 23

1 A Noble Residence for a Female Regent: Margaret of Austria

and the ‘Court of Savoy’ in Mechelen 25
Dagmar Eichberger
2 The Val-de-Grâce as a Portrait of Anne of Austria: Queen,
Queen Regent, Queen Mother 47
Jennifer G. Germann
3 The Architecture of Institutionalism: Women’s Space in
Renaissance Hospitals 63
Eunice D. Howe
4 Women and the Practice of Architecture in Eighteenth-century
France 83
Tanis Hinchcliffe

PART III PRACTICE AND RESISTANCE 97

5 ‘Repaired by me to my exceeding great Cost and Charges’:

Anne Clifford and the Uses of Architecture 99
Elizabeth V. Chew
6 ‘Women in wolves’ mouths’: Nun’s Reputations, Enclosure and
Architecture at the Convent of the Le Murate in Florence 115
Saundra Weddle
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page vi

vi CONTENTS

7 Spatial Discipline and its Limits: Nuns and the Built

Environment in Early Modern Spain 131
Elizabeth A. Lehfeldt
8 Spaces Shaped for Spiritual Perfection: Convent Architecture and
Nuns in Early Modern Rome 151
Marilyn Dunn
9 Women in the Charterhouse: the Liminality of Cloistered
Spaces at the Chartreuse de Champmol in Dijon 177
Sherry C. M. Lindquist

Select Bibliography 193

Index 209
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page vii

Acknowledgements

This book was completed during research leave funded by the AHRB. I am
pleased to thank that institution and the University of Manchester, which
afforded me leave from teaching and administrative duties.
Some of the chapters in this volume started life as papers in sessions on
‘Gender & Architecture’ which I chaired at the College Art Association in
Toronto in 1998 and at the Group for Early Modern Cultural Studies
Conference in Pittsburgh in 1996. The enthusiasm with which both sessions
were greeted, together with provocative questions from the audience,
prompted me to consider putting together a volume like this one. I thank
everyone who participated then and who encouraged me subsequently.
I would like to thank the contributors for all their hard work. Most of them
adhered rigorously to the deadlines and responded to requests with
enthusiasm. My special thanks to Michael Savage for his insights and support
throughout the project, but particularly for his patient technical assistance
during the final stages.
Publishing with Ashgate has been a pleasure. Many thanks to Kirsten
Weissenberg for her excellent work as desk editor and to Tom Norton for his
help with the index. Above all, I am extremely grateful to Erika Gaffney. She
is that rare thing – a kind and intellectual editor.
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page viii
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page ix

List of Illustrations

FIGURES

1.1 Conrat Meit, Margaret of Austria as a widow, pear wood

sculpture, 7.4 cm, c. 1518, Munich, Bayrisches
Nationalmuseum (R 420).
(Photo: © Munich, Bayrisches Nationalmuseum)
1.2 The ‘Court of Savoy’, Mechelen, inner courtyard with the
great hall and the staircase leading to the new audience
chamber.
(Photo: © Dagmar Eichberger)
1.3 Plan for the reconstruction of the former palace as a French
law court, Mechelen, Stadsarchief, no. B 10388, before 1814.
(Photo: © Thomas Bachmann & Mechelen, Stadsarchief)
1.4 Reconstruction of Margaret’s former apartments on the first
floor of the western wing of the ‘Court of Savoy’, Mechelen.
(Reconstruction: © Dagmar Eichberger)
1.5 The ‘Court of Savoy’, Mechelen, view of the southern
section of the western wing with the living quarters of
Margaret of Austria on the first floor.
(Photo: © Thomas Bachmann)
1.6 Auguste van den Eynde, the ‘Court of Savoy’, Mechelen,
view of the southern wing from Voochtstraat with the
chapelle, the large staircase with two tracery windows and the
entrance gate, watercolour, Mechelen, Stadsarchief, Sch 345.
(Photo: © Thomas Bachmann & Mechelen, Stadsarchief)
1.7 Dirk Verijk, eastern view of the old Saint Peter’s church with
the wooden walkway across Korte Magdenstraat, drawing,
late eighteenth century, Arnheim, Gemeentearchief.
(Photo: © Arnheim, Gemeentearchief)
1.8 Boccaccio, Theseida, Vienna, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek, Cod. 2627, Provence, c. 1460,
fol. 53r: Emilia in the garden of Theseus’ castle.
(Photo: © Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek)
1.9 Hennessy Hours, Brussels, Bibliothèque Royale d’Albert,
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page x

x ILLUSTRATIONS

ms. II 158, southern Netherlandish, early sixteenth century,

fol. 3v: View of a Flemish residence with garden.
(Photo: © Brussels, Bibliothèque Royale de Belgique)
1.10 Brou, Augustinian monastery, Margaret of Austria’s living
quarters on the first floor of the northern cloister.
(Photo: © Bourg-en-Bresse, Musée de l’Ain)
1.11 Jan Mostaert, Philibert of Savoy, oil on wood, Madrid, Prado.
(Photo: © Madrid, Prado)
2.1 Façade, Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.
(Photo: © Caroline Rose)
2.2 Inscription on the frieze of the dome.
Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.
(Photo: © Caroline Rose)
2.3 The nave vault. Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.
(Photo: © Caroline Rose)
2.4 The Virtues, from left to right, Temperance, Fortitude,
Religion, Divine Love, Faith and Charity, on the north side
of the nave. Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.
(Photo: © Caroline Rose)
2.5 The Virtues, from left to right, Prudence, Justice, Kindness,
Hope, Humility and Virginity, on the south side of the nave.
Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.
(Photo: © Caroline Rose)
2.6 The Nativity, by Michel Anguier (1614–86).
Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.
(Photo: © Caroline Rose)
2.7 Anne of Austria presenting the Val-de-Grâce to the Holy
Trinity, in the fresco by Pierre Mignard (1612–95).
Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.
(Photo: © Caroline Rose)
3.1 Filarete, Ground plan of the Ospedale Maggiore, Milan from
Filarete’s Treatise on Architecture, c. 1461–65, Book XI,
fol. 82v.
(Photo after facsimile: Author)
3.2 Filarete, Façade of the Ospedale Maggiore, Milan from
Filarete’s Treatise on Architecture, c. 1461–65, Book XI,
fol. 83v.
(Photo after facsimile: Author)
3.3 Filarete, Cruciform plan of the Men’s Wards and Proportions
of the Ospedale Maggiore, Milan from Filarete’s
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page xi

ILLUSTRATIONS xi

Treatise on Architecture, c. 1461–65, Book XI, fol. 79r.

(Photo after facsimile: Author)
3.4 Filarete, Cruciform plan of the Women’s Wards of the
Ospedale Maggiore, Milan from Filarete’s Treatise on
Architecture, c. 1461–65, Book XI, fol. 82r.
(Photo after facsimile: Author)
3.5 Filarete, Court-yard ‘of the Pharmacy’ at the Ospedale
Maggiore, Milan.
(Photo: © Author)
3.6 Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, attrib., Drawing of Plan
of Ospedale Maggiore (and the Portal of the Palazzo Fieschi),
Drawing: Uffizi 895A.
(Photo: Gabinetto dei Disegni)
3.7 Ospedale Maggiore, Wood-cut illustration from Book VI,
fol. 99v: Vitruvius, Architectura, trans. and
ed. Cesare Cesariano, Como, 1521.
(Photo after facsimile: Author)
4.1 Map of Paris, c. 1789, redrawn from Pierre Lavedan,
Nouvelle Histoire de Paris: Histoire de l’Urbanisme à Paris,
Paris: Hachette, 1993, pp. 8–9.
4.2 Alexandre-Theodore Brongniart and Francois Joseph
Belanger, House for Mademoiselle Dervieux. Detail from
J. Ch. Krafft and N. Ransonette, Les plus belles maisons
de Paris, Paris, 1801–03, Vol. I, pl. 7.
4.3 C.-N. Ledoux, House of Mademoiselle Guimard, front
elevation. Engraving from Daniel Ramée, Architecture de
C.N. Ledoux, Paris, 1847, Vol. 2, pl. 176.
4.4 C.-N. Ledoux, House of Mademoiselle Guimard.
Ground floor plan. Detail of engraving from Daniel
Ramée, Architecture de C.N. Ledoux, Paris, 1847, Vol. 2, pl. 175.
5.1 Artist unknown, Anne Clifford, Countess of Pembroke,
c. early 1670s.
By courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London.
5.2 View of Brougham Castle from the east.
(Photo: Elizabeth Chew)
5.3 Plan of Brougham Castle, RCHME
5.4 Plans of keep and inner and outer gatehouses at
Brougham Castle. Courtesy of the Cumberland and Westmorland
Antiquarian and Archeological Society.
5.5 View of Brough Castle from the south.
(Photo: Elizabeth Chew)
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page xii

xii ILLUSTRATIONS

5.6 Plan of Brough Castle, RCHME

5.7 Plan of Pendragon Castle, RCHME
6.1 Pietro del Massaio’s illustration of Florence from Ptolemy’s
Geografia, c. 1472. Ink sketch on vellum. Vatican library, Cod. Vat.
Urb. 277. Rubaconte Ponte is circled.
(Photo: courtesy of the Kunsthistorisches Institut, Florence)
6.2 Stefano Buonsignori, Nova pulcherrimae civitati Florentiae
topographia accuratissime delineata. Circles indicate the
Ponte Rubaconte bridge and the complex of Le Murate on via
Ghibellina.
(Photo: courtesy of the Kunsthistorisches Institut, Florence)
6.3 Stefano Buonsignori, Nova pulcherrimae civitatis Florentiae
topographia accuratissime delineata: detail showing the
complex of Le Murate.
(Photo: courtesy of the Kunsthistorisches Institut, Florence)
6.4 Florence, convent of Le Murate: ground plan. Legend: A:
parlour; B: church; C: sacristy; D: refectory; E: sala grande.
Via Ghibellina lies at the bottom of the drawing.
(Drawing by Robert Weddle after the 1832 site plan
of Le Murate, Museo di Forenze com’era, Florence)
6.5 Florence, convent of Le Murate: first-floor plan.
Legend: A: choir; B: dormitory.
(Drawing by Robert Weddle)
8.1 Rome, S. Bernardino ai Monti: interior view towards the
high altar.
(Hutzel 1970, Library, Getty Research Institute, 86.P.8)
8.2 Rome, S. Lucia in Selci: view towards the choir gallery.
(McGuire)
8.3 Francesco da Volterra: Elevation drawing of S. Silvestro in
Capite, Rome, 1591.
(Archivio di Stato, Rome: Disegni e Mappe, Coll. I, Cartella 86, no.
531-D)
8.4 Rome, S. Silvestro in Capite: ground plan of the church and
convent.
(ASR: Disegni e Mappe, Coll. I, Cartella 86, no. 531-E)
8.5 Rome, S. Ambrogio della Massima: ground plan of the
church and convent.
(Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo e la Documentazione: F 3409)
8.6 Rome, S. Ambrogio della Massima: high altar.
(McGuire)
8.7 Rome, S. Ambrogio della Massima: high altar detail showing
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page xiii

ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

the De Torres family stemma.

(McGuire)
9.1 Aimé Piron, 1686. Drawing of the Chartreuse de Champmol.
Dijon, Bibliothèque Municipale, portefueille de la
Chartreuse.
(Photo: Dijon, Bibliothèque Municipale)
9.2 Anonymous plan of the Chartreuse de Champmol, detail,
eighteenth century. Dijon, Archives Municipales, D47 bis.
(Photo: Dijon, Archives Municipales, cliché D. Geoffroy)
9.3 Claus Sluter, Well of Moses, Moses and David, c. 1394–1404.
Stone, gilding, polychromy, figures approx 1.75 m in height.
Dijon, Chartreuse de Champmol.
(Photo: John Nagel)
9.4 Claus Sluter, Portal of the Church of the Chartreuse de
Champmol, c. 1385–93. Stone, H: 1.29–1.7 m.
(Photo: M. P. Lindquist)
9.5 Claus Sluter and Claus de Werve, Tomb of Philip the Bold,
c. 1384–1411, alabaster and marble, L: 3.6 m, W: 2.54 m,
H: 2.43 m. Dijon, Museé des Beaux-Arts.
(Photo: John Nagel)
9.6 Jacques de Baerze, Saints and Martyrs Altarpiece, wood,
with gilding and polychromy, c. 1390–1403, H: 1.50 m,
L: 3.77 m. Dijon, Musée des Beaux-Arts.
(Photo: John Nagel)
9.7 Jacques de Baerze, Saints and Martyrs Altarpiece.
Detail, Temptation of St Anthony, wood, with gilding and
polychromy, c. 1390–1403. H: 1.50 m, L: 3.77 m.
Dijon, Musée des Beaux-Arts.
(Photo: M. P. Lindquist)
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page xiv
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page xv

Notes on the Editor and Contributors

Helen Hills is Senior Lecturer in Art History at the University of Manchester.

Her research interests focus on the relationships between religious beliefs and
practices and architecture, urbanism and gender. Her publications include
Invisible City: the architecture of aristocratic convents in baroque Naples
(Oxford University Press, 2003).

Elizabeth V. Chew received her B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees in Art History
from Yale, the Courtauld Institute, and the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill, respectively. Her research interests include the relationships
between architecture, material culture, and gender and family politics in early
modern Britain and America. The essay included in this collection is adapted
from her doctoral dissertation on female architectural patronage and art
collecting in seventeenth-century Britain. She is currently Associate Curator
of Collections at Monticello in Charlottesville, Virginia.

Marilyn Dunn received her Ph.D. from the University of Chicago and is
Associate Professor in the Department of Fine Arts, Loyola University,
Chicago. Her numerous articles on art and patronage in seventeenth-century
Rome have appeared in Antologia delle Belle Arti, The Art Bulletin, Aurora,
Burlington Magazine, and Römisches Jahrbuch der Bibliotheca Hertziana. She
has also published essays on women as patrons and producers of art in Women
and Art in Early Modern Europe (Penn State Press, 1997) and the Dictionary of
Women Artists (Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997). Her current projects
include examinations of identity construction in Roman convent churches and
of the interaction of nuns and their families in patronage. She is working on a
book on female convents and art patronage in seventeenth-century Rome.

Dagmar Eichberger has taught Art History and Museum Studies in

Canberra, Melbourne and Saarbrücken, and is now attached to the University
of Heidelberg. Her publications in Northern Renaissance Art encompass
studies on Jan van Eyck, Albrecht Dürer, early modern court culture, the
iconography of death, and so on. Her most recent book investigates the art
patronage and collection of Margaret of Austria, regent of the Netherlands
Leben mit Kunst – Wirken durch Kunst, (Brepols, 2003).
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page xvi

xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Jennifer G. Germann is currently Andrew W. Mellon Curatorial Fellow in

French Art, The Huntington Library, Art Collection, and Botanical Gardens.
She has recently finished her dissertation (at the University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill) on the representation of Marie Leszczinska, queen of France.
She is currently assisting with the research and production of a catalogue of
the French collection at the Huntington, and continuing her research into
Marie Leszczinska’s portraits.

Tanis Hinchcliffe is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Architecture at the

University of Westminster, London, where she teaches the history of
architecture. Her publications include North Oxford (Yale University Press,
1992) and articles on eighteenth-century French architectural theory,
nineteenth-century English suburbs, and twentieth-century housing history.
Her specialist area of research is women and the practice of architecture. At
present she is engaged in a comparative study of French and Canadian
conventual architecture.

Eunice D. Howe is Associate Professor of Art History at the University of

Southern California. She publishes on Roman art and architecture, and her
research interests (in addition to hospital design) extend to women’s history,
urbanism, and travel literature. Selected publications include: ‘Appropriating
Space: Woman’s Place in Confraternal Life at Santo Spirito in Sassia, Rome’,
in Confraternities and the Visual Arts in Renaissance Italy: Ritual, Spectacle,
Images (Cambridge University Press, 2000); Andrea Palladio, the Churches
of Rome (Medieval and Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1991).

Elizabeth A. Lehfeldt is Associate Professor of History at Cleveland State

University. Her work on convents and gender history in Spain includes
articles in Renaissance Quarterly, Journal of Social History and Sixteenth
Century Journal. She is currently working on a study of gender and political
legitimacy during the reign of Isabel and Ferdinand.

Sherry Lindquist received her Ph.D. from Northwestern University. Her

work on artistic identity and court art appear in Gesta, Manuscripta and
Source. She has essays forthcoming in Manuscripts, Images and Publics:
Creating and Consuming Medieval Pictures (Ashgate), The Court Artist in
Renaissance Europe (Isabella Stuart Gardner Museum) and Les princes des
fleurs de lis: L’art à la cour de Bourgogne, Le mécénat de Philippe le Hardi
et de Jean sans Peur et l’art en Bourgogne (1360–1420) (Beaux-Arts de
Dijon et le Cleveland Museum of Art). Her current work includes a book-
length study on agency, visuality, and society at the Chartreuse de Champmol
in Dijon, and an investigation into the relationship among optics, artistic style
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page xvii

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

and socual maening grounded in writings of Jean Gerson. These studies are
supported by a J. Paul Getty Postdoctoral Fellowship in the Arts and
Humanities and a Fulbright research fellowship repectively.

Saundra Weddle received her Ph.D. in the History of Architecture and

Urbanism at Cornell University. She is Assistant Professor of Architecture and
Art History at Drury University.
Architecture Prelims 26/9/03 12:05 pm Page xviii
Introduction 26/9/03 12:34 pm Page 1

PART I

INTRODUCTION
Another random document with
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 142. See his letter of that date in Macvey Napier’s Correspondence, p. 29.
143. It was not published till 1824. It was certainly written after the results of
the Census of 1821 had been published.
144. Pref. to 2nd ed., pp. iv, v; 7th ed., p. vi.
145. p. 52.
146. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 11 n.; 7th ed., p. 9 n.
147. 2nd ed., Pref. p. vii.
148. 2nd ed., Bk. I. ch. ii. p. 10.
149. Adds the 3rd ed.
150. 3rd ed., p. 21; 7th ed., p. 9.
151. 3rd ed. l. c.
152. 2nd ed., p. 13; 7th ed., p. 10. His own book has helped to make this less
true.
153. 2nd ed., pp. 14, 15. With this description of the “cycle” compare the view
of Marx as given below in Book IV.
154. Miss Martineau, Autob., vol. i. p. 210.
155. Reply to Malthus, p. 20. Cf. below, Book IV.
156. Pref. to 2nd ed., p. vi.
157. 2nd ed., Pref. p. vi. True even then, and much more afterwards.
158. Godwin, On Population, I. iv. 31, 32.
159. 2nd ed., p. 31; 7th ed., p. 23.
160. Démocratie en Amérique, Pt. II. ch. x. p. 278. The author is in thorough
agreement with Malthus.
161. 2nd ed., p. 39; 7th ed., p. 28.
162. 2nd ed., p. 25; 7th ed., p. 18.
163. Ibid. p. 43; 7th ed., p. 31.
164. Ibid. p. 39; 7th ed., p. 28.
165. 2nd ed., p. 44; 7th ed., p. 32.
166. Malthus in Edin. Rev., July 1803, p. 345.
167. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 25; 7th ed., p. 18.
168. Ibid. p. 29; 7th ed., p. 21.
169. 2nd ed., pp. 37, 45; 7th ed., pp. 27, 32.
 170. Though, like Coleridge (MS. note in another place), he mentions brandy.
171. 2nd ed., pp. 43, 92; 7th ed., pp. 31, 64. Cf. I. vi., 2nd ed., p. 82 n.; 7th ed.,
p. 57 n.
172. See above, pp. 35, 36.
173. E. g. 2nd ed., II. ii. 199; 7th ed., p. 135.
174. Compare the suggestive remarks of Rogers, Six Centuries, pp. 270, 271.
He thinks that a movement like Lollardism could not have succeeded in times of
utter depression.
175. Essay, Book I. ch. v.
176. E. g. cannibalism and late marriages.
177. 2nd ed., p. 46; 7th ed., p. 33. Cf. pp. 290 and 339.
178. In Essays, vol. i., Essay XI., Populousness of Ancient Nations, p. 444 (ed.
1768).
179. Cf. Plato, Repub., ii.
180. 2nd ed., p. 57; 7th ed., p. 41.
181. Behm and Wagner (Bevölk. d. Erde, 1882) give it at 16,300.
182. 2nd ed., p. 57 n.; 7th ed., p. 40 n.
183. Report of Admiral D’Horsey to the Admiralty, 1878.
184. See above, pp. 17, 18.
185. Behm and Wagner say ninety-three.
186. Essay, Book I. ch. vi.
187. See above, p. 83.
188. 2nd ed., p. 68 n.; 3rd ed., p. 115 n. He afterwards altered “totally” to
“often entirely,” 7th ed., p. 47 n.
189. Wealth of Nations, Book IV. ch. vii. Part iii. p. 286 (ed. MacC.).
190. 2nd ed., p. 66; 7th ed., p. 46.
191. His own word: 2nd ed., p. 67; 7th ed., p. 47.
192. Gen. xiii. 1–9. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 65; 7th ed., p. 45.
193. See e. g. Mackenzie Wallace: Russia, vol. ii. pp. 48, 90, &c.
194. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 72; 7th ed., pp. 50, 51.
195. Gibbon, ch. ix. p. 175.
196. Tacitus, Germ. 14.
197. 2nd ed., pp. 74, 77; 7th ed., pp. 52, 53.
 198. Ch. ix. 176: “indeed the impossibility of the supposition.”
199. Grandeur et Décadence des Romains, ch. xvi. p. 138, ed. 1876.
200. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 76; 7th ed., p. 53.
201. Ibid. Bk. I. ch. vii.
202. 2nd ed., p. 99; 7th ed., p. 68.
203. 7th ed., p. 82.
204. 2nd ed., p. 92; 7th ed., p. 63.
205. 2nd ed., p. 94; 7th ed., p. 65.
206. Ibid. p. 104; 7th ed., p. 72.
207. Coleridge (MS. notes) reminds our author that Mahomet allowed
oblations of sand for water.
208. Cf. above, p. 96, &c.
209. 2nd ed., III. xi. 474–5; 7th ed., III. xiv. 381.
210. Especially Book I. ch. x., the chapter on Turkey.
211. Essay, Bk. I. ch. xii., ‘China and Japan.’
212. 2nd ed., p. 162; 7th ed., p. 112.
213. Ibid. p. 175; 7th ed., p. 120.
214. See Essay, Bk. I. chs. xiii., xiv.
215. Sparta is the chief Greek instance.
216. 2nd ed., p. 172; 7th ed., p. 118.
217. 2nd ed., p. 150; cf. pp. 164, 172–3. 7th ed., p. 104; cf. pp. 113, 118.
218. See above, p. 99.
219. 1st ed., p. 119; 7th ed., Appendix, p. 515.
220. Essay, 7th ed., p. 122.
221. 2nd ed., p. 254; 7th ed., p. 246. Cf. 2nd ed., pp. 172, 175, and 67; 7th ed.,
pp. 118, 120, and 47. Cf. Hume, Pop. of Anc. N., pp. 487, and especially 504.
222. 7th ed., pp. 163, 387, 394; 2nd ed., pp. 113, 287, 292. Cf. 1st ed., pp. 118–
19, 123 n.
223. 2nd ed., p. 178; 7th ed., p. 122.
224. 7th ed., p. 380, top.
225. 2nd ed., p. 175; 7th ed., p. 120.
226. 2nd ed., p. 175; 7th ed., p. 120.
 227. 2nd ed., p. 180; 7th ed., p. 124. “It is therefore upon these causes alone,—
independently of [2nd ed. says ‘besides’] actual enumerations,—on which we can
with certainty rely.”
228. Dr. Wallace, Dissertation, p. 55, had given Attica in its palmy days a
population of 608 to the square mile; England in the nineteenth century has only
445, and crowded Belgium 487.
229. Essay, 1st ed., p. 54; 7th ed., pp. 120, 122; cf. pp. 262, 434. Cf. Wealth of
Nations, IV. vii. 254, 255.
230. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 598; 7th ed., p. 476.
231. l. c. cf. 2nd ed., pp. 175, 178; 7th ed., pp. 120, 122.
232. Essay on Population, 2nd ed., p. 180; 7th ed., p. 124.
233. E. g. II. iii. 152, 1; IV. ix. 304, 2 (ed. MacC.).
234. E. g. 7th ed., pp. 307, 434, 473–4.
235. Taine, Angleterre, pp. 176, 232–3.
236. Ibid. p. 233.
237. Wealth of Nations, III. iv. 183, 2, &c.
238. Bacon, Nov. Org., I. xlv.
239. See below, Bk. IV.
240. Except the hog, adds Gibbon, Decl. and F., ch. ix. p. 171 n.
241. See above, p. 48.
242. The phrase on p. 216 of 2nd ed. (p. 148 of 7th), “in the preceding summer
of 1788,” is probably a slip. We do not hear elsewhere of any visit so early. See
below, Bk. V.
243. See above, p. 49. Cf. 2nd ed., p. 281; 7th ed., p. 173, &c.
244. For his other movements and other details of his life, see Bk. V.
(Biography).
245. 2nd and 7th edd., Bk. II. ch. i.
246. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 189; 7th ed., p. 129.
247. The Russian figures being incredible. See later, p. 133.
248. 2nd ed., p. 184; 7th ed., p. 126.
249. 2nd ed., pp. 188, 189; 7th ed., pp. 128, 129. Cf. Thornton’s chapter (II.) on
the “Social Effects of Peasant Proprietorships,” Peas. Prop. (ed. 1874), p. 55.
250. In 6th ed., 1826. See 7th ed., p. 144.
251. English Blue Book on Foreign Poor Laws, 1875, p. 109.
 252. Statesman’s Year Book, 1880, p. 439.
253. Essay, 7th ed., p 112.
254. E. g. that of Essay, 7th ed., p. 130.
255. Essay, 7th ed., p. 139; cf. pp. 151, 152.
256. Ibid. p. 152.
257. Essay, Bk. II. ch. ii.
258. Ibid. Bk. II. ch. iii.
259. 2nd ed., pp. 213–14; 7th ed., pp. 146, 147.
260. 2nd ed., pp. 214–15; 7th ed., p. 147, foot.
261. Ibid. p. 218; 7th ed., p. 150. Cf. above, p. 30.
262. 2nd ed., p. 219; 7th ed., p. 151. Compare Price, Observations, p. 280 note;
and especially Hume, Pop. of Anc. N., p. 445 (ed. 1768).
263. Essay, ibid.
264. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 220; 7th ed., p. 151.
265. Ibid. p. 221; 7th ed., p. 152.
266. Essay, 2nd ed., pp. 216–17; 7th ed., p. 149.
267. Ibid. 7th ed., Bk. II. chs. iv. to x., as rearranged in the 3rd ed.
268. Six Centuries of Work and Wages, pp. 118, 119.
269. Essay, 2nd ed., II. v. p. 245; 7th ed., II. iv. p. 159. Cf. 2nd ed., p. 320; 7th
ed., p. 206.
270. Ibid. 2nd ed., p. 347; 7th ed., p. 260.
271. Ibid. 2nd ed., p. 348; 7th ed., p. 260.
272. See above, p. 18.
273. So in substance Cairnes in his rehabilitation of the Wages Fund. Leading
Principles, pp. 196 seq. Cliffe Leslie passim.
274. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 240; 7th ed., p. 155.
275. Ibid. p. 247; 7th ed., p. 160.
276. “Partout où il se trouve une place où deux personnes peuvent vivre
commodément, il se fait un mariage.”—Esprit des Lois, Bk. XXIII. ch. x. (not
XXII., as in 7th ed.).
277. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 247; 7th ed., p. 160.
278. Ibid. 2nd ed., p. 221; 7th ed., p. 152.
279. Essay, 2nd ed., pp. 248–9; 7th ed., pp. 161–2.
 280. Ibid.
281. 2nd ed., p. 246; 7th ed., p. 159. The Italics are the author’s.
282. Ibid. p. 247; 7th ed., p. 160.
283. Ibid.
284. 2nd ed., p. 205; 7th ed., p. 139.
285. Essay, 2nd ed., pp. 387 seq.; 7th ed., pp. 287 seq.
286. Ibid.
287. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 391; 7th ed., pp. 289–90.
288. Ibid.
289. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 393; 7th ed., p. 291.
290. 2nd ed., p. 395; 7th ed., p. 292.
291. Ibid.
292. Appointed in March 1826, in the last thirteen months of Lord Liverpool’s
Government. Malthus came before them on 5th May, 1827. See Third Report of
Emigration Committee, pp. 9, 10, and for his evidence pp. 311 seq.
293. 1st Report, 1826 (May); 2nd, 1827 (April). The free use of technical terms
is not surprising, for political economy was then a popular study. For examples see
1st Report, pp. 46, 57; 2nd Report, pp. 63, 102; 3rd Report, pp. 261, 308.
294. 2nd Report.
295. 3rd Report, 1827 (June).
296. p. 9.
297. Cf. below, ch. vii. (on Ireland), especially pp. 197 and 199.
298. 3rd Report, p. 315, qu. 3257.
299. The Emigration Committee recommended that the help of the state
should only be given on condition of a local initiative and local contribution.
300. See e. g. qu. 3370.
301. 7th ed., p. 292.
302. W. of N., I. viii. 36 (MacC.’s ed.). “Other” is not a slip; the writer is
conscious of his cynicism.
303. Essay, III. iv. 293, of which the concluding paragraph was added in 1817.
304. Essay, 7th ed., Bk. II. ch. v.
305. 2nd ed., pp. 275–6; 7th ed., p. 169.
306. Or “Leyzin,” as Malthus spells it.
 307. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 271; 7th ed., p. 166.
308. Average sixty-one years.
309. 2nd ed., p. 274; 7th ed., p. 168.
310. 2nd ed., p. 280; 7th ed., p. 173, top. The remark savours of paradox.
311. Ibid. p. 280, foot; 7th ed., p. 173.
312. Ibid. p. 281; 7th ed., p. 173.
313. See above, p. 127.
314. Compare above on “oscillations,” p. 147, and below, Bk. II. chs. ii. and iii.
315. Essay, 7th ed., Bk. II. chs. vi., vii.
316. 2nd ed., p. 285; 7th ed., p. 175.
317. 2nd ed., p. 296; cf. 7th ed., p. 182 n. “Indeed in adopting Sir F.
d’Ivernois’s calculations respecting the actual loss of men during the Revolution, I
never thought myself borne out by facts, but the reader will be aware that I
adopted them rather for the sake of illustration than from supposing them strictly
true.”
318. 7th ed., p. 188.
319. 7th ed., p. 176; cf. p. 175.
320. 7th ed., pp. 177, 181 n.
321. Ibid., p. 178 and n.
322. Not above suspicion. See 7th ed., p. 176 n.
323. The military advantage of an increasing population is pointed out also in
the article on Newenham’s ‘Ireland,’ Edin. Rev., July 1808, p. 350.
324. Cf. Josiah Tucker, On Trade, p. 17 (3rd ed., 1753).
325. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 297 n; 7th ed., p. 185, which omits one clause. Cf. 2nd
ed., pp. 290–1; 7th ed., pp. 179, 180.
326. 2nd ed., p. 291; 7th ed., pp. 179, 180. Cf. the often-quoted passages about
the bleak rock and the garden, written (be it remarked) before and not after the
Revolution, in Arthur Young’s Travels in France (Bury St. Edmunds, 1792), pp. 36,
37, 42; cf. p. 341.
327. E. g. 5th, 1817; 7th ed., ch. vii.
328. 7th ed., p. 188.
329. Arthur Young, Travels in France, pp. 410, 437.
330. Essay, 7th ed., p. 189.
331. Cf. Fyffe, Mod. Europe, i. 124.
 332. Essay, 7th ed., p. 189.
333. A characteristic utilitarian touch. 2nd ed., p. 295, top; 7th ed., p. 183.
334. Ibid.
335. 2nd ed., p. 294; 7th ed., p. 183.
336. Essay, 7th ed., p. 320 (III. vii.).
337. Levasseur, France avec ses Colonies (1875), p. 842. According to
Anderson, Chron. Ded., Vol. III. p. xliii, some said twenty, others seventeen. But
Mr. Kitchin cites Vauban to show that there had been a decline in population from
fifteen to thirteen millions between the beginning of the war of Succession and the
end of it (1702, 1713).—History of France, vol. iii. p. 342. Cf. Fox Bourne’s Life of
Locke, i. p. 350; Vauban’s Dîme Royale, pp. 162–3.
338. Josiah Tucker, Essay on Trade (3rd ed., 1753), p. 14. There may be
rhetorical exaggeration in his statements. “The subordination of the common
people is an unspeakable advantage to the French in respect to trade. By this
means the manufacturers [workmen] are always kept industrious. They dare not
run into debauchery; to drunkenness they are not inclined. They are [practically by
the law of military service] obliged to enter into the married state, whereby they
raise up large families to labour, and keep down the price of it; and consequently,
by working cheaper, enable the merchant to sell the cheaper.”
339. Wealth of Nations, IV. iii. pp. 220–1.
340. See above, p. 155. Levasseur makes it twenty-five; Arthur Young, who
considers France over-populated by five or six millions, makes it twenty-six
(Travels in France, pp. 468–9; cf. p. 474). Price had made it thirty.
341. Grounds of an Opinion, &c., p. 12. See below, Bk. II. ch. i.
342. Census as given in Annuaire de l’Économie Politique (1882), p. 899.
343. Political Economy (1820), pp. 433 seq. Cliffe Leslie (Mor. and Pol.
Essays, 1879, p. 424) attributes the few births to the very Law of Succession of
which Malthus was afraid.
344. In the country districts at least. On the relation of luxury to trade, &c., see
below, Bk. II. ch. iii. p. 268.
345. E. g. by M. Levasseur in La France avec ses Colonies (1875), p. 853.
346. Appendix to Wealth of Nations, note iv. p. 465.
347. Levasseur, l. c. pp. 845, 846 ft.
348. Times, Jan. 1883.
349. English Registrar-General’s 45th Report, for 1882, pp. cii, cvii.
350. Levasseur, La France, l. c.
351. E. g. Times, l. c.
 352. Essay, 7th ed., IV. xiii. p. 474; 2nd ed., IV. xi. p. 594.
353. 2nd ed., II. ix.; 7th ed., II. viii, ix.
354. 1st ed., pp. 63, 64.
355. 1st ed., pp. 65–6; cf. 2nd ed., p. 300, and 7th ed., p. 193.
356. See below, Bk. II. ch. iv., &c.
357. The numbers given then were five millions.—Froude, Hist. of England, i.
3.
358. See Hansard, Parl. Hist., xiv. 1317.
359. Not unfelt in 1801. So Arthur Young speaks as if the agricultural interest
had not unfrequently regarded the Board of Agriculture as a new instrument of
taxation. (Report on Suffolk, p. 16.)
360. In charge of Rev. Alexander Webster.
361. Parl. Hist., vol. xv. p. 69, quoted by Mahon, Hist. of England, sub dato,
ch. xxxi. p. 39. Cf. Trevelyan, Early Life of Fox, ch. i. p. 14.
362. Dr. Adam Anderson, Chronological Deduc. of Commerce, Introd., p.
xliii.; first printed in 1762.
363. See especially Estimate (7th ed., 1758), Vol. I. Pt. II. sect. viii. pp. 186 seq.
364. Chron. Ded., ibid.
365. I. e. to the discussion described by Dr. Anderson. Cf. Malthus, Essay, 7th
ed., p. 164. Muret’s pessimistic paper was printed in 1766.
366. In his Political Arithmetic, 1774.
367. Estimate of the Comparative Strength of Britain during the present and
four preceding Reigns, by George Chalmers, F.R.S., S.A., 1st ed., 1782.
368. Natural and Political Observations, 1696. Apud Davenant and Chalmers.
369. Primitive Origination of Mankind.
370. Political Survey of Great Britain, 1774.
371. Cf. Chalmers, Estimate, p. 4, Pref. p. cxxxviii., and John Howlett’s
Examination of Dr. Price’s Essay (Maidstone), 1781.
372. Cf. Macaulay, History, ch. iii. 137.
373. Observations, supplement, p. 366. Cf. Malthus, Essay, App. p. 519.
Arthur Young, France, p. 409. The whole subject will be considered later in
connection with Scotland.
374. See Observations on Smuggling, 1779.
375. But see the caveat in the Registrar-General’s 44th Report (for 1881), p.
vi.: The price of wheat and the marriage rate do not always vary inversely.
 376. In the same way the returns to the Board of Agriculture at the end of the
century are full of (not quite disinterested) praises of enclosures as an
encouragement of population.
377. Lecky, Eighteenth Cent., i. 261, 479 seq. Restrictions on the sale were
successfully adopted by Pelham in 1751, at the time when the question of
depopulation was coming to the front.
378. An unsafe presumption. See below, Bk. II. ch. ii., &c.
379. E. g. inoculation.
380. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 317; 7th ed., p. 198, compared with 7th ed., p. 189, &c.,
above, pp. 115–16.
381. Essay, 7th ed., p. 198 note; first printed in 3rd ed. (1806), p. 461 n.
382. 2nd ed., p. 302 n.; 7th ed., p. 194 n.
383. This is asserted in the Preliminary Report to the last English census
(1881). Against the idea, see the Annual Register’s reviews of Eden’s work on the
Poor (1797), and of his Estimate of English numbers (1800). The Register had
numbered Burke and Godwin among its writers, and was not likely to be behind
public opinion.
384. See the review of Arthur Young’s Question of Scarcity plainly stated,
1800, in Ann. Register, sub dato.
385. Chairman of the Committee on the Public Finances 1797, Speaker of the
Commons 1802, Lord Colchester 1817.
386. 2nd ed., p. 318; 7th ed., p. 204. Cf. 2nd ed., p. 317; 7th ed., pp. 192, 203,
206, 219, &c.
387. 2nd ed., p. 311; 7th ed., pp. 201, 202, foot. Compare 44th Rept. of Reg.-
Gen. (England), p. v.
388. As e. g. in 1800–1 compared with 1802–3; 7th ed., p. 214.
389. 2nd ed., p. 319; 7th ed., p. 205. Cf. passages cited on last page.
390. Cf. Essay, 2nd ed., pp. 308–9; 7th ed., pp. 198–9.
391. 2nd ed., pp. 312–13; 7th ed., p. 201. The 2nd ed. has a reference to “the
late scarcities” wanting in the later edds. Registration, be it remembered, was then
of baptisms and burials, not births and deaths.
392. See above, p. 176. Cf. on the other hand the concession, 2nd ed., p. 317;
7th ed., p. 203, middle.
393. Essay, 2nd ed., p. 319; 7th ed., pp. 205–6.
394. 7th ed., p. 188.
395. Rickman himself allowed their defectiveness. See Essay, 2nd ed., p. 304;
7th ed., p. 196. Cf. above, p. 179.
 396. 2nd ed., p. 302; 7th ed., p. 194. By the Registrar-General’s Report for
1882 it was as 1 in 64½ in that year.
397. 2nd ed., p. 303; 7th ed., p. 195.
398. 7th ed., p. 205.
399. 2nd ed., pp. 213–14; 7th ed., p. 202.
400. 45th Report of Registrar-General (England), (1882), p. ci.
401. 7th ed., p. 210.
402. 2nd ed., p. 302; 7th ed., p. 194 n.
403. Numbers calculated by “natural increment,” i. e. births and deaths—
26,138,248; numbers actually enumerated—25,968,286.—Preliminary Report, p.
iii.
404. ’31–’41, incr. 14.52; ’71–’81, incr. 14.34.
405. Or three and a quarter millions of people to England and Wales alone.
406. 7th ed., II. ix. p. 215 (written first in 5th ed., 1817).
407. Essay, 7th ed., p. 258; cf. Prel. Rept. Census, 1881, p. ix.
408. The account of Scotland in the Essay, Bk. II. ch. x., is taken from the
Statistical Account of Sir John Sinclair, 1791–99. Sinclair was acting, on the south
side of the Tweed, as President of the Board of Agriculture. See below, Bk. II. ch. i.
p. 218.
409. There was very little in Scotland. It is only once mentioned by Adam
Smith. MacCulloch says “never,” but he had overlooked Wealth of Nations, IV. vii.
251–2.
410. The last of late introduction. See Reports to Board of Agriculture:
Central Highlands (1794), p. 21.
411. 2nd ed., p. 384; 7th ed., p. 229.
412. Not feudal but pre-feudal, or allodial. See Wealth of Nations, III. iv. 183,
1.
413. Wealth of Nations, ibid.
414. Selkirk, Highlands, 1805, p. 25.
415. See the Legend of Montrose, &c.
416. Adam Smith, l. c.; cf. I. viii 36, 1 (the often-quoted description of “half-
starved highland women” with their twenty children in contrast to the “pampered
fine lady” with few or none.)
417. Reports to Board of Agriculture: Central Highlands, 1794, p. 52.
 418. Wealth of Nations, III. iv. 184, 1 (written 1774), a passage which shows
that the clearances and the consequent cry of Depopulation are to be looked for as
early as the middle of the century. We are sometimes told that from the ’45 to the
end of the century was the golden age of highland farmers. But the willingness of
the clansmen to enter Chatham’s highland regiments would hardly imply great
contentment.
419. Cf. Essay on Pop., pp. 332 (2nd ed.), 227 (7th ed.), and Selkirk, l. c., pp.
43 seq. Contra, see Report of Crofters Commission, 1884, p. 51.
420. Made under the Marquis of Stafford between 1807 and 1820, in which
year the popular odium was at its height, and the landlord made his defence in a
well-known pamphlet by his factor, James Loch.
421. Cf. Malthus, Essay, 7th ed., p. 229, top; cf. pp. 221 ft., 223 ft.; 2nd ed., pp.
326–7.
422. See Malthus, Essay, 7th ed., p. 227. Cf. Farr in Statist. Journ., 16th Feb.
1846.
423. Drawn chiefly from the Statistical Account of Scotland, 1791–99.
424. Lavergne, Econ. Rur. de l’Angleterre, ch. xx. p. 310.
425. The 6th simply adds the numbers of the people from the census of 1821,
with hardly any comment.
426. 2nd ed. says “barbarism.”
427. 2nd ed., “depressed.”
428. 2nd ed. adds, “by the filth of their persons.”
429. 2nd ed., pp. 334–5; 7th ed., p. 229. He refers to the rebellion of 1795–98,
that was prelude to the Union of 1800, and was fresh in his memory.
430. Edin. Review, July 1808, the only review in that journal assigned to him
by express testimony.
431. 3rd Report of Emigration Committee (1827), Evid., qu. 3225.
432. In the article on Newenham he incidentally utters the paradox that in
view of the low standard of food the people’s indolence is almost an advantage, for
it prevents wages falling quite down to that level.—Art. p. 341. Cf. Essay, IV. xi.
456–7. For his view of potatoes in Ireland, ibid., 453.
433. Cf. Review of Newenham, p. 352.
434. Cf. Rogers, Six Centuries of Work and Wages (1884), p. 484.
435. In a sense already frequently noticed. So in answer 3401, where he seems
to accept the phrase “moral degradation” as applied to Ireland.
436. Cf. above, pp. 95 and 195 n. Professor Rogers must have forgotten such
passages as these when he wrote the 62nd and 63rd pages of his Six Centuries of
Work and Wages (1884), though he furnishes his own correction on a following
page (484).
437. Wealth of Nations, V. iii. 430, 1, 2.
438. Sir Wm. Petty made it 1,100,000 in 1672. See MacCulloch, Append. to
Wealth of Nations, (IV.) 462.
439. See Sir H. Parnell’s evidence in 3rd Report to Emigration Committee,
1827, p. 200. He thinks that between 1792 and 1821 the population of Ireland had
doubled itself.
440. Malthus, Evidence before Emigration Committee, 1827; 3rd Report, qu.
3430, p. 327.
441. Querist (1735) 134: “Whether if there was a wall of brass a thousand
cubits high round this kingdom, our natives might not nevertheless live cleanly and
comfortably, till the land, and reap the fruits of it?” The “caged rats” of the Corn
Law pamphlets give us the other side of the question.
442. “Of such consequence in the encouragement of any industry is a steady
unvarying policy.”——Arthur Young, France, p. 388.
443. See above, p. 151, &c.
444. See above, pp. 191–2.
445. l. c. p. 399. Cf. Lecky, Eighteenth Cent., vol. ii. pp. 222 seq.; Review of
Newenham, pp. 349, 350.
446. See above, p. 18.
447. 7th ed., p. 378 ft. Cf. Polit. Econ., 1st ed., pp. 252, 290, and 394 seq.
448. Essay, III. viii. 323 (first in 5th ed.). See later, p. 268, &c.
449. Essay, 7th ed., pp. 452–3; 2nd ed., pp. 575–6.
450. Ibid., p. 323 ft. (7th); MacCulloch, Appendix to W. of N., p. 467, 2.
451. Essay on Pop., 2nd ed., p. 576; 7th ed., p. 453 ft.
452. Lavergne, pp. 423–4.
453. Even in 1875 the Registrar-General’s Report showed that there were then
fewer marriages in Ireland than in England, in proportion to the population, and
that they came later. Cf. the 18th Report, for Ireland (1882), pp. 18, 19.
454. Review of Newenham, pp. 351–4.
455. See above, Bk. I. ch. i.
456. 2nd ed., Bk. III. chs. i. to iii.; 7th ed., Bk. III. chs. i. and ii.
457. 7th ed., ch. iii. (on Owen, &c.), which replaces a reply (2nd and 3rd edd.)
to Godwin’s first reply.
 458. All except those on pauperism. When pauperism is reached, the thread of
the essay is again taken up.
459. Pol. Econ., 1820, Introd. p. 11. Cf. Tract on Value, p. 60 ft., and above, p.
37.
460. High Price of Bullion, 1809. See below, p. 285.
461. Malthus, Pol. Econ., Introd. pp. 2, 5, 22, &c.; Essay on Pop., Pref. &c.;
Ricardo, Principles of Pol. Econ. and Taxn. (1817), Pref.
462. Life of Ricardo in preface to Works, p. xxxi.
463. J. S. Mill, Political Economy, 1848 and 1849. It was not a complete
breach. The new faith and the old perplex each other and the reader, in the pages
of Mill.
464. Pol. Econ., Introd. Cf. the Discussions on the Measure of Value, Pol.
Econ., ch. ii., and pamphlet on the subject. So Roscher, Nationalökonomie, § 1 and
n.
465. Arist., Ethics, i. (3).
466. “Definitions in Political Economy, preceded by an inquiry into the rules
which ought to guide political economists in the definition and use of their terms,
with remarks on the deviations from these rules in their writings” (1827), p. 5.
467. Pol. Econ., Introd. p. 11.
468. Definitions, p. 4.
469. Ibid., p. 5.
470. Definitions, pp. 6, 7.
471. Pol. Econ. (1820), p. 28. “And have an exchangeable value,” was the
Ricardian addition; and in the Quarterly Rev., Jan. 1824, p. 298, Malthus weakly
allows the addition to pass.
472. Pol. Econ., Introd. p. 11.
473. MacCulloch, Life of Ricardo, prefixed to Princ. of Econ. and Taxation
(ed. 1876), p. xxv.
474. Letter quoted by Empson in Edin. Review, Jan. 1837.
475. Pol. Econ., Pref. pp. 12, 13 (2nd ed.). Cf. above, p. 57.
476. Arist., Ethics, x. 1. Some thought pleasure was the goal, but, for the sake
of others, “one must not say so.”
477. See below, ch. iv.
478. Porter’s Progress of the Nation, p. 148 (ed. 1851). Cf. MacCulloch, Wealth
of Nations, Notes, p. 525.
479. Dissolved in 1817.
 480. Between 1767 and his death in 1820, he wrote no less than a hundred
volumes on agriculture. His bet is given in Sir J. Sinclair’s Life by Archdeacon
Sinclair, i. 253.
481. At the end of 1801.
482. Communications to Board of Agriculture, iv. 232–5 (1805). Cf. Ann.
Reg., 1801, p. 131.
483. E. g. that the members should always use mixed instead of pure wheaten
flour.
484. Ann. Reg., 1801, p. 129.
485. As was done, e. g., by Chief Justice Kenyon, King’s Bench, Rex v. John
Rusby, Nov. 1799.
486. See J. S. Girdler, Forestalling, &c. (1800), S. J. Pratt’s poem on Bread for
the Poor (1800).
487. Girdler, l. c. pp. 46,48, &c.
488. Philps, Progress of Great Britain, p. 132.
489. Cf. the figures given in Malthus’ Tract on Value, pp. 69–79, and in
Professor Rogers’ Six Centuries of Work and Wages, pp. 487 seq.,—both of them
taken chiefly from Eden on the Poor.
490. Wealth of Nations, I. viii. 44, 1.
491. On the whole subject see Craik, Hist. of Commerce, ii. 142–5.
492. Macpherson, ditto, iii. 148 (year 1728), 307 (year 1757).
493. Ibid., iii. 329, 331; MacC., Comm. Dict. (ed. 1871), p. 430.
494. Cf. Essay on Population, p. 352 (7th ed.). Cf. above, p. 25.
495. Macpherson, iii. 438, 452.
496. Cf. Malthus, Essay on Pop., p. 453 (2nd ed.); Grounds of on Opinion, &c.,
p. 43.
497. E. g. National Industry of Scotland, vol. ii. pp. 208–9 (1779). MacCulloch
has quoted other passages (Wealth of Nations, xlviii. n., and Note on Rent, p. 453,
1, and n.). Sir Edward West agrees with Malthus in his qualified approval of the
Corn Laws. See Price of Corn, &c., p. 139.
498. A reprint of the 3rd (?)
499. If we include the Crisis, it would be the fifth time.
500. It was popular enough to reach a 3rd edition in 1815.
501. See Grounds of an Opinion, &c., p. 2.
502. Observations, pp. 20–1.
 503. Ibid., p. 17.
504. The English price in Nov. 1884.
505. Observations, pp. 19, 22, 23, 27.
506. Ibid., p. 28. If the Ricardian hypothesis is not true of individuals, it is still
less true of Governments, as Cobden experienced.
507. Ibid., pp. 30, 31.
508. Ibid., p. 32: “Many of the questions both in morals and politics seem to
be of the nature of the problems de maximis et minimis in fluxions; in which there
is always a point where a certain effect is the greatest, while on either side of this
point it gradually diminishes.”
509. Cf. even Observations, pp. 5, 12, 13.
510. See below, chs. ii. and iii.
511. The expression of Grenville in a letter to Pitt, 1800. See Stanhope, Life of
Pitt, ii. 371.
512. Unless perhaps Mr. Bagehot’s. Col. Thompson understood the theory of
population only in its cruder form. In answer 337 of the Catechism (1839) he meets
the objection that free trade would only increase population by saying: “No man
has a right to prevent us running a constant race with hunger if we can.”
513. Grounds, &c., p. 46 n.
514. Ibid., pp. 3, 11, 12,
515. Ibid., pp. 30, 33.
516. Ricardo, Works, p. 33[8?]5 (MacC.’s ed.). For remarks on this part of
Malthus’ tract see ibid., p. 382.
517. Grounds, &c., p. 36 n. Cf. Ricardo, p. 390.
518. See above, p. 211.
519. Pol. Econ., ch. iii. sect. i. p. 134 (1820).
520. Wealth of Nations, I. xi., beginning.
521. He does not always prefix this qualification; but that he intended it
appears clearly from the Tract on Rent, p. 3 n.: Not every land that yields food will
yield rent. Cf. Pol Econ. (1820), p. 141.
522. Compare Tract on Rent, p. 16 n.
523. The title of the tract is, An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent,
and the Principles by which it is regulated. It appears from a letter of Malthus to
Sir John Sinclair on 31st Jan., 1815, that it was passing through the press in that
month. Sinclair, Correspondence, i. 391 (1831).
524. As, he might have added, in education.
 525. Pol. Econ. (1820), p. 142, but especially p. 187. Cf. Tract on Rent, pp. 8–
12.
526. Rent, p. 10.
527. Cf. also below, p. 294.
528. Wealth of Nations, IV. ii. 307, 2; cf. IV. v. 240, 2.
529. Essay on the Application of Capital to Land, with observations showing
the impolicy of any great restriction of the importation of corn, and that the bounty
of 1688 did not lower the price of it. By a fellow of University College, Oxford.
(London, 1815.) Page 2.
530. W. of N., II. iii. 148, 1.
531. Essay, 1st ed., p. 363.
532. Tract on Rent, p. 16; Essay on Pop. (7th ed.), p. 327. Cf. above.
533. Rent, p. 20; cf. pp. 18, 57. Essay on Pop., 2nd ed., p. 433; 7th ed., p. 327.
“If we look only to the clear monied rent,” &c.
534. Ricardo, Preface to Principles of Pol. Econ. and Taxation.
535. Reprinted by MacCulloch in his edition of Pol. Econ. and Taxation, pp.
367–390.
536. MacCulloch ed. of Pol. Econ. and Taxation, p. 374 n.
537. Ibid., p. 371.
538. So Prof. Rogers ascribes the high rents of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries very largely to the low wages; higher ones would have “reduced rent first,
and profits afterwards.”—Six Centuries, p. 482; cf. pp. 480 and 492.
539. Pol. Econ. (1820), p. 161 (ch. iii. sect. iii.).
540. Pol. Econ. and Taxation, pp. 373, 375, 379–80; cf. pp. 71 and 72, but
especially 68 ft. Malthus on the whole follows Adam Smith, I. ix.; Mill has followed
Ricardo.
541. So far as the account is meant to be historical, it must be corrected by
Carey. See above, p. 65.
542. Ricardo, l. c. p. 372 and n. Cf. below. He appeals to Adam Smith’s
principle of compensation (Wealth of Nations, I. x.).
543. Rogers (Six Centuries, p. 352) goes so far the other way as to make
improvements the only cause of an increase of rent, though the passage should be
read with p. 480, and especially pp. 482 and 492.
544. E. g. Mrs. Fawcett, Pol. Econ. for Beginners, pp. 65, 66; and even West,
on Rent, p. 50.
 545. 3rd Report, 1827, p. 321, qu. 3341. Cf. Perr. Thompson, True Theory of
Rent, pp. 8, 12, 34, &c. (1832, 9th ed.).
546. Tract on Value, p. 6.
547. Ricardo, Low Price of Corn, &c., Works, pp. 373, 380, 381, &c.
548. Ibid., pp. 377, 379.
549. Ricardo, Works, l. c. p. 378.
550. Pol. Econ. and Tax., ibid. pp. 50 seq., esp. pp. 54, 55.
551. l. c. p. 55 ft.
552. Low Price, &c., ibid., p. 379.
553. Pol. Econ. and Tax., ch. v.; cf. Malthus, Pol. Econ. (1820), p. 230.
554. But cf. Works, p. 377 n.
555. Pol. Econ., IV. iii § 4. Cf. Walker, Land and its Rent, pp. 177–81, though it
has been pointed out that on p. 178 that writer omits Mill’s qualifying phrase,
(improvements) “suddenly made.”
556. See Sir James Caird’s table appended to Landed Interest (1878). Cf.
Cairne’s Essays in Pol. Ec., vi. p. 216.
557. Bk. III. ch. vii p. 429.
558. Essay, 2nd ed., Bk. III. ch. viii. p. 437.
559. Ibid., l. c. ch. ix. pp. 443 seq.
560. Essay, Bk. III. ch. ix. p. 450.
561. Ibid., ch. x. p. 465.
562. Ibid., Bk. V. ch. x. p. 468 n.
563. Pol. Econ. (1820), pp. 227 seq., (1836) pp. 240 seq.
564. Six Centuries of Work and Wages, ch. xii., esp. p. 345.
565. The facts of Malthus’ “review” may be roughly given in the following
diagram, where the bar indicates the wheat earned per day by the agricultural
labourer. The amount for 1350 assumes that the Statute of Labourers was
successful.
 566. 7th ed., pp. 321 seq. (Bk. III. ch. viii.), first in 1817.
567. Cf. above, p. 225 n. In Pol. Econ. (1820), p. 432, he says, “All the great
results in Pol. Econ. respecting wealth depend upon proportions.” 2nd ed. added
(p. 376), “not only there, but throughout the whole range of nature and art.” So he
thinks a peck of wheat a good “middle point” of wages. Pol. Econ. (1820), p. 284,
(1836) p. 254.
568. Essay, 7th ed., Bk. III. ch. ix. pp. 328 seq. Cf. pp. 334, 338.
569. Ibid., p. 332.
570. Ibid., Bk. III. ch. x. pp. 334 seq.
571. See above, p. 201 n. Cf. Essay on Pop., 7th ed., p. 337.
572. Essay, l. c. p. 338.
573. l. c. Bk. III. ch. x. pp. 338–9.
574. Fortnightly Review, Nov. 1881, his last writing. Cf. Essay, l. c. pp. 340–
342.
575. In two long chapters on Corn Laws and Bounties, Essay on Pop., Bk. III.
ch. xi. pp. 343–367. Cf. above, pp. 226 seq.
576. See below, Bk. IV.
577. The Measure of Value stated and illustrated, with an application of it to
the alteration in the value of the English currency since 1790. (April) 1823.
578. So Tract on Value, p. 1. But in Definitions value is “the relation of one
object to some other or others, in exchange, resulting from the estimation in which
a thing is held” (def. 40, 41; cf. with def. 5).
579. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, I. v.
580. Measure of Value, p. 23. Cf. Pol. Econ. (1820), pp. 126 seq.; (1836), pp.
84, 93 seq.
581. Measure of Value, p. 20 n. On pp. 23–4 he adds, “taking the average of
summer and winter wages.”
582. See below, p. 268. Pol. Econ. (1820), p. 125; (1836) p. 102, &c.; Tract on
Value, passim.
583. Work and Wages, ch. iii. p. 75. Malthus, Pol. Econ., 2nd ed., pp. 108 seq.
584. Cf. Marx, Kapital, pp. 19, 21, &c.
585. MacC.’s ed., pp. 45 seq. Cf. Tract on Value, p. 20 n., above quoted.
586. Cf. Ricardo, Pol. Econ., Works (ed. MacC.), p. 15.
587. Meas. of Value, pp. 8–12.
588. Meas. of Value, pp. 22, 65. Cf. Cairnes, Australian Episode, in Essays in
Pol. Econ. (pp. 92 seq.; cf. pp. 37, 61), (1873),—first published in Fraser’s Mag.,
Sept. 1859.
589. Meas. of Value, p. 23.
590. Ibid., pp. 27–29.
591. Meas. of Value, p. 29 n.
592. He might have said simply that the one is intrinsic, the other extrinsic, in
relation to the agricultural products themselves.
593. Meas. of Value, p. 63.
594. Meas. of Value, pp. 67 seq. Cf. below, pp. 283 seq.
595. Who allows cost to play a greater part in value. Cf. below, pp. 278–9. But
Ricardo, Pol. Econ., sect vi. p. 28, disclaims belief in any universal measure of
value.
596. Malthus, quoted by Empson, Edin. Rev., Jan. 1837, p. 499.
597. He was F.R.S. 1819, and a member of Pol. Econ. Club at its foundation in
1821.
598. 4th May, 1825; 7th Nov., 1827. Transactions of it R. S. L., vol. i. part i. p.
171.
599. Report of R. S. L., 1824, p. 21.
600. We might expressly wish to know a coat’s value in money or its value in
cutlery or coals. The Professor at the Breakfast-table talks of “Madeira worth from
two to six Bibles a bottle.”