Technology, Knowledge and Learning

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-021-09499-1

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Digital Media as a Medium for Adolescent Identity

Development

Sandra B. Sebre1 · Anika Miltuze1

Accepted: 21 January 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
The aim of the present study was to examine the interrelationships between adolescent
media activity, adaptive or maladaptive cognitions related to media use, and identity devel-
opment processing styles. Participating in the study were 359 adolescents (47% males and
53% females), ages 11–18 years (mean age 14.52, SD 2.24). They completed the Media
Activity Form—Youth Self-Report (Achenbach, T. (2018). Media Activity Form – Youth
Self-Report. A self-report questionnaire developed by T. Achenbach, University of New
Hampshire, New Hampshire, USA, for purposes of media activity research.), and the Iden-
tity Style Inventory ( Berzonsky et al., Psychological Assessment 25:893–904, 2013).
The results showed negative associations between informational identity processing style
and time spent gaming, as well as negative associations with time spent communicating
via digital media. Informational identity processing style was positively associated with
adaptive media-related cognitions, such as schoolwork benefits from media use. Norma-
tive identity processing style was negatively associated with time spend using media for
schoolwork or for communicating. Diffuse—avoidant identity processing style was posi-
tively associated with time spent gaming, and positively associated with ratings of preoc-
cupation with being on media. The results are discussed in regard to practical implications
and recommendations for educators and counselors of adolescents.

Keywords Adolescents · Media activity · Identity style · Media-related cognitions

1 Introduction

In light of the ubiquitous nature of digital media in the lives of many adolescents, and in
light of the undeniable advantages and benefits provided by digital literacy, it is somewhat
surprising that there have been relatively few studies examining the associations between
digital media use and adolescent identity development. Adolescence is a time of notable

* Anika Miltuze
anika.miltuze@lu.lv
Sandra B. Sebre
sebre@lu.lv
1
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Psychology and Art, University of Latvia, Riga,
Latvia

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 S. B. Sebre, A. Miltuze

changes in physical attributes, cognitive skills, emotional and social processes, and these
changes may encourage identity exploration as an essential component within the course
of adolescent development. Digital media, which involves digitally encoded information
on a digital electronic device with a screen (Smith 2013), provides a medium which opens
up a vast virtual horizon within which the adolescent is free to engage in his or her identity
explorations. The various purposes of digital media use, such as information gathering,
social networking and gaming, each can potentially provide opportunities for the adoles-
cent to develop aspects of his or her identity. However, excessive amounts of time spent
within this virtual reality can result in various risks, including the risk of developing a pre-
occupation or uncontrolled compulsion to engage in media activities that can subsequently
hinder the adolescent’s productive engagement in face-to-face interaction, and could result
in negative socioemotional consequences for daily life (e.g. Ciarrochi et al. 2016; Lam
2014; Woods & Scott 2016).

2 Adolescent Identity Development

Sometimes referred to as the godfather of identity theory, Erik Erikson began constructing
his theoretical insights on identity development after having worked with trauma-ridden
war veterans who had lost their sense of psychological wholeness, coherence and consist-
ency—i.e. loss of their identity. Erikson then transposed these insights from working with
war veterans to explore the adolescent’s need for identity development (Erikson 1959). He
surmised: “The conscious feeling of having a personal identity is based on two simultane-
ous observations: the perception of the selfsameness and continuity of one’s existence in
time and space, and the perception of the fact that others recognize one’s sameness and
continuity” (Erikson 1968, p.50).
Erikson proposed that during adolescence cognitive maturation and emotional reactivity
encourages and allows for the processes of self-reflection. However, since Erikson’s ini-
tial emphasis on the advantages of having achieved a sense of “sameness and continuity”
there has been subsequent discussion about multiple identities and identity construction as
a fluid, dynamic, ongoing process which can continue throughout one’s lifetime (Luyckx,
Goossens, Soenens & Beyers 2006). Nevertheless, adolescents are often concerned with
questions such as “who am I?”, “how am I perceived by others?” and “who do I wish to
become?”.
Erikson’s theoretical framework was operationalized by James Marcia (1966), who
developed a model that can be examined in empirical studies, and which is based upon two
specific features of identity development—self-exploration and commitment. Self-explora-
tion refers to the consideration and evaluation of various options and alternatives. Commit-
ment refers to having a fairly stable sense of self-defining beliefs, values and goals, which
are often considered in regard to one’s professional aspirations. The period of exploration
which proceeds commitment is referred to as a period of “moratorium”, when one is able
to explore and experiment with different potential identities.
Within this present study identity development is addressed in relation to identity pro-
cessing styles, as delineated by Michael Berzonsky (1992, 2011). He has developed a
model of identity formation which is focused on social-cognitive processes by which indi-
viduals construct and maintain, or revise and reconstruct their sense of identity. These are
referred to as identity processing styles and they include the following: diffuse-avoidant
processing style; informational processing style; normative identity processing style.

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Digital Media as a Medium for Adolescent Identity Development

According to Berzonsky, individuals with the diffuse-avoidant identity processing style

will try to avoid making identity-related decisions as long as possible, they will procrasti-
nate whenever the opportunity allows. Due to their delay in identity-related decision mak-
ing, these individuals may be forced to make choices based on situational demands, rather
than making informed decisions.
Individuals with an informational identity processing style will intentionally seek out
information which may be self-relevant, they will explore and evaluate relevant informa-
tion before committing themselves to certain beliefs or values. These individuals are more
tolerant of uncertainly, and willing to consider ideas and possibilities different from their
own. They are more self-reflective and more often engage in problem-focused coping when
faced with difficulties. Individuals with a normative identity processing style internalize
and conform to the standards and expectations of significant others in a fairly automatic
manner. Individuals with a norm-oriented style are self-disciplined and conscientious, but
they have a low tolerance for uncertainty and a strong need for structure (Berzonsky 2011).
Berzonsky and Kinney (2019) have shown that university students with diffuse-avoidant
identity processing style reported higher ratings of depression symptoms, and this asso-
ciation was mediated by self-regulation ability. Informational identity processing style was
indirectly linked to lower ratings of depression symptoms. Previous research has indicated
that individuals with high diffuse-avoidance ratings engage in more externalizing and inter-
nalizing problem behaviors than those individuals with informational or normative styles.
Diffuse-avoidant identity processing style has been shown to be associated with alcohol
and substance abuse, delinquent behavior, low self-esteem, procrastination and anxiety
(e.g. Courey & Pare 2016; Soenens, Berzonsky, Dunkel, Papini & Vansteenkiste 2011).

3 Digital Media as a Medium for Adolescent Identity Development

David Buckingham in Youth, Identity and Digital Media (2008) provides a more contem-
porary conceptualization of identity development as a variation upon the theme of Erik-
son’s Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968). Buckingham points out that there are two rather
polarized views regarding the costs and benefits of digital media—there are those who
emphasize the affordances provided by digital media, in contrast to those who focus upon
perceived dangers or possible risks. On the one hand, advocates of digital literacy point
to the inherent potentialities provided by digital technology—the opportunities for explo-
ration, experimentation and collaboration with peers. Advocates emphasize that digital
media provides a medium whereby the adolescent can be more creative, and can access
vast amounts of information which may assist in identity development and identity con-
struction. The expansion of social media through mobile phones provides an opportunity
to experience interpersonal bonds and to construct collective identity in cyberspace—i.e. to
access group experiences at reduced cost (Lee & Lim 2019).
Social networking provides opportunity for self-presentation, an important aspect of
identity development, with the possibility of immediate feedback. Nevertheless, adoles-
cents may be overly concerned about their outward appearance, and how they compare
to models of the ideal that is portrayed in the social media. Consequently, there can be
significant gaps between adolescents’ idealized vision of beauty, and how they perceive
themselves. Feedback from peers in the form or “likes” and “followers” may contribute to
the adolescent’s online identity and sense of self-esteem in a positive or negative manner. If
there is a meaningful gap between the idealized vision and one’s self-belief, this may lead

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 S. B. Sebre, A. Miltuze

to feelings of low self-esteem and insecurity (Chua and Chang 2016). At the same time,
adolescents whose self-esteem is highly contingent on the appraisals of others may find
social media to be a safe and appealing platform to present themselves in a confident man-
ner (Barry, Doucette, Loflin, Rivera-Hudson and Herrington 2017). Several studies ana-
lyzing messages conveyed by YouTubers and participants of online fandom communities,
have found these digital sources to provide meaningful sites for the exploration and self-
acceptance of sexual and gender identity (McInroy and Craig 2020).
The internet provides an abundance of information on virtually unlimited topics, but
among all of the information that can encourage and facilitate positive movement in iden-
tity formation, there are also sites advocating negative and other-destructive or self-destruc-
tive behaviors, for example, sites providing information on how to self-harm. Koen Luyckx
and other identity development experts have linked this advocacy of harmful behaviors to
encouragement of self-harmful identity construction: “I self-harm and that’s who I am”
(Luyckx 2019). In contrast, there are also very meaningful media platforms and online ser-
vices for suicide prevention. Of course, information that one receives or the interaction one
engages with via digital media is only one potentially contributing aspects of adolescent
identity development, in conjunction with influences from parents, peers, broader sociocul-
tural and socioeconomic aspects.

4 Preoccupation with the Internet and Precipitating Factors

Whereas the first internet service providers began operation in 1989, already within the
next few years specialists recognized a tendency for internet users to become preoccupied
with use of the internet, and in 1996 Kimberly Young put forward the construct of internet
addiction, with symptoms similar to other forms of addiction (Young 1996). The relevant
symptoms include preoccupation with the internet, a need for increased time spent online,
withdrawal symptoms such as irritation if there are attempts to cut down on internet time,
and unsuccessful attempts to cut down on internet use. Since then, difficulties in control-
ling one’s use of the internet and the associated functional impairment has been referred to
with various terms, including compulsive internet use or problematic internet use (Widy-
anto and Griffiths 2006). There are now studies on specific aspects of internet use, such as
“problematic smartphone use” (e.g. Carvalho, Sette and Ferrari 2018) and “social network-
ing sites addiction” (e.g. Lee 2019).
Studies with adolescents have consistently shown that the amount of time spent in
online gaming is an important risk factor for the development of problematic internet use
(e.g. Ko, Yen, Yen, Lin and Yang 2007). Yet the amount of time one spends engaged with
the internet may be influenced by various proximal and distal factors. For example, the
theoretical Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model proposes
that among the predisposing factors of excessive internet use is the individual’s biopsycho-
logical constitution, influenced by biological/genetic factors and parent–child interaction
(Brand, Young, Laier, Wölfling & Potenza 2016). Internet related cognitions and expecta-
tions (such as friends online are more trustable than those offline or when I am online I
don’t have do think about my problems related to school assignments) may also encour-
age excessive internet use, especially in situations where the internet user receives positive
feedback, reinforcing these expectations (Davis 2001). Several studies have demonstrated
the independent effect of maladaptive cognitions as predictors of problematic internet use
(e.g. Sebre, Miltuze and Limonovs 2020; Zhang, Li and Li 2015). However, cognitions

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Digital Media as a Medium for Adolescent Identity Development

can also be positive and have a facilitating effect on constructive internet use. Cognitions
or expectations regarding internet use may be either adaptive or maladaptive, and may
encourage either adaptive or nonadaptive internet-related behaviors (Brand et al. 2016).
Whereas media activity encompasses a meaningful aspect of adolescent daily life, and
whereas identity development is an irrefutable aspect of adolescent development more gen-
erally, then it seems pertinent to examine the interrelationships of these major facets of
contemporary adolescence. Mannerström and colleagues (2018) have suggested that these
associations between media use and adolescent development are bidirectional—that digi-
tal technology may influence how adolescents develop socially and cognitively, but that
digital media use is also a reflection of various psychological and social factors. In rela-
tion to identity development, this potentially bidirectional process implies the following:
the adolescent’s identity processing style may affect identity-seeking behavior in general,
including the specifics of his or her internet use; at the same time, the content and form of
internet use may encourage and strengthen the adolescent’s identity processing style.
This cross-sectional study does not allow for exploration of causality, but rather pro-
vides opportunity to examine the interrelationships between adolescent digital media activ-
ity, adaptive or maladaptive cognitions related to media use, and identity processing styles
as presented by Berzonsky (2011). The following research questions were posed: (1) What
are the associations between ratings of adolescent identity processing styles (informational,
normative, diffuse-avoidant), time spent on media activity (for schoolwork, communicat-
ing, gaming), and cognitions related to digital media activity (useful information, school-
work benefits, preoccupation with media activity)?; (2)To what extent does time spent on
digital media activity and ratings of cognitions related to media activity predict each of the
identity processing styles?; (3) Are there age and gender differences in regard to adolescent
identity processing styles, time spent on digital media activity, and cognitions related to
digital media activity?

5 Method

5.1 Design

A non-experimental, cross-sectional, correlational design was applied for purposes of

addressing the above stated research questions.

5.2 Participants

Participating in the study were 359 adolescents (47% males and 53% females), ages
11–18 years (mean age 14.52, SD 2.24). The age distribution was as follows: 88 adoles-
cents 11–12 years old; 83 adolescents 13–14 years old; 95 adolescents 15–16 years old;
and 93 adolescents 17–18 years old. The adolescents were in attendance at non-specialized
public schools, located in several cities of Latvia. The schools were chosen according to
accessibility. Eliminated from the sample were 12 questionnaires in which the adolescent
had reported an impossible or highly improbably amount of time that they were engaged in
media activity, for example, playing video games for 24 h during a typical Saturday. All of
the study participants from this study reported that they use digital media regularly, both
during a typical weekday, as well as during a typical weekend. In another recent study on
adolescent internet use in Latvia 97% of the study respondents reported that they have a

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computer at home; 98% reported that they have internet access at home; 96% reported that
they have their own smart phone with internet access (Sebre, Miltuze & Limonovs 2020).

5.3 Description of the Instruments

All of the study instruments were independently forward and back-translated from English
to Latvian by several bilingual translators. Consensus agreement was reached in case of
any discrepancies. The translations were pilot-tested and after initial psychometric analy-
sis, the translations of some items were refined in order to ensure conceptual equivalence
of the items in comparison to the original.

5.4 Identity Processing Styles

Identity processing styles were measured with items from the Revised Identity Style Inven-
tory (ISI-5; Berzonsky et al. 2013), a scale originally developed for use with older ado-
lescents and young adults. Berzonsky writes that the ISI revision items were designed
to capture the processing of identity-relevant information in general (e.g., values, goals,
standards, beliefs, and personal problems) independently of specific identity domains. All
of the items are worded in the present tense, refer to one’s current identity processing style,
and are rated on a 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me) Likert-type scale.
For purposes of the present study we conducted an initial pilot study in order to ascer-
tain if young adolescents (ages 11–14 years old) would be able to comprehend the meaning
of the items. As a result of the pilot study we found that the young adolescent expressed
uncertainly about the meaning of the items concerning values (i.e. “I automatically adopt
and follow the values I was brought up with”), and therefore we did not use these value-
based items for the final identity processing style assessment. Due to the fact that we were
using a shortened version of the original ISI-5, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis
(EFA) with principle axis factoring and Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization. The
factor analysis indicated a clear three-factor model. Two items were further eliminated, one
of which had a factor loading of less than 0.34, and another which conceptually did not fit
with three-factor solution.
The final identity processing style assessment included 18 items and three scales. The
Informational-style scale included 8 items, such as: “I handle problems in my life by
actively reflecting on them,” (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.70). The Normative-style scale included
4 items, such as: “I think it is better to adopt a firm set of beliefs than to be open-minded,”
(Cronbach’s alpha = 0.70). The Diffuse-avoidant style scale included 6 items, such as “Who
I am changes from situation to situation,” (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.70). We also conducted
reliability analysis separately for the younger adolescents (aged 11–14 years) and older
adolescents (aged 15–18 years) and found similar reliability scores in each group.

5.5 Media Activity Time Spent and Media Activity Cognitions

Time Spent on digital media activity and Cognitions (expectations) related to digital media
activity were measured with the Media Activity Form—Youth Self-Report (Achenbach
2018), a self-report form for adolescents, aged 11–18 years old. The Media Activity Form
contains 13 items which address the amount of time spent on various forms of digital
media activity. For each item (e.g. “Communicating by text, email, messaging, etc.”) the

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Digital Media as a Medium for Adolescent Identity Development

respondents report how much time (hours and minutes) they typically spend on this form
of digital media activity on: a typical weekday; a typical Saturday; and a typical Sunday.
The hours reported were multiplied by 60 and added to the minutes which the respondent
had reported for each of the days. Then a total sum for each form of media activity was
ascertained by summing the minutes spent on a typical weekday, a typical Saturday and a
typical Sunday. Subsequently the number of minutes were divided by 60, in order to pre-
sent a more easily discernible overview of the results.
Subsequently three scales were devised for purposes of this study. The first was the
Schoolwork scale and consisted of one item concerned with using the computer or other
digital media to find information for school (“Using computer or digital media for school
or other work”). The second was a Communicating scale, consisting of two items con-
cerned with texting, emailing, messaging, social networking (e.g. “Social networking on
Facebook, Instagram, etc.”). Cronbach’s alpha for the two items was 0.75 in this study. The
third was a Gaming scale, consisting of two items concerned with playing video games on
a computer, i-pad, play station or telephone. Cronbach’s alpha for the two items was 0.78
in this study.
Digital media related cognitions were measured with three individual items that were
included in the Media Activity Form—Youth Self-Report (Achenbach 2018): “I obtain
useful information via digital media” (Useful Information); “My schoolwork benefits from
my use of digital media” (Schoolwork Benefits); and “I think about being on digital media
even when I’m not” (Preoccupation). Participants responded to the items on a 3-point Lik-
ert scale: 0 (not true), 1(somewhat or sometimes true) to 2 (very true or often true).

5.6 Data Collection Procedure

Permission was received from the school principals to conduct the study. Parents were
informed of the content of the study with information posted on the online platform for
teacher-parent communication, and passive consent was received, meaning that the parents
were advised to indicate if they did not want their child to participate. However, none of
the parents indicated that they did not want their child to participate. Students and par-
ents were informed that the study was about adolescent internet use in relation to their
decision-making strategies. Principles of anonymity, voluntary participation and the right
to withdraw from the study at any time without repercussions were explained. All of the
adolescents who were invited to participate in the study agreed to participate with active
consent. Questionnaires were distributed and collected by trained research assistants dur-
ing the obligatory, weekly non-academic class sessions with the class’s main teacher. The
class teachers were not present during the data collection process. The data was collected
by two research assistants over a three-week period.

5.7 Data Analysis Procedure

First, in order to compare by age and gender the mean levels of ratings of identity pro-
cessing styles, time spent on digital media activity, and cognitions related to digital
media activity, we conducted univariate analysis of variance. For purposes of this com-
parison the study participants were divided into two age groups: 11–14 years of age, and
15–18 years of age. Second, zero-order correlational analyses were conducted to examine
bivariate associations among the adolescents’ ratings of identity processing styles (infor-
mational, normative, diffuse-avoidant), amount of time spent on digital media activity (for

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schoolwork, communicating and gaming) and cognitions related to digital media activ-
ity (useful information, schoolwork benefits and preoccupation). Subsequently, a series
of three regression analyses (“stepwise”) were conducted, each with one of the identity
processing styles (informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant) as the dependent vari-
able, and as independent variables: the amount of time spent on digital media activity (for
schoolwork, communicating, gaming) and cognitions related to digital media use (useful
information, schoolwork benefits and preoccupation).

6 Results

To test for differences by age and gender in mean level of ratings of identity processing
styles, time spent on digital media activity, and cognitions related to digital media activity,
we conducted univariate analysis of variance (ANOVAs), as seen in Table 1. The analysis
revealed significant main effects of age, with the younger adolescents (aged 11–14 years
old) reporting higher levels of normative identity processing style, and the older adoles-
cents (aged 15–18 years old) reporting greater amount of time using digital media for pur-
poses of schoolwork and communication. The older adolescents also reported to a greater
extent that they believe that digital media provides useful information and that their school
work benefits from the use of digital media. Main effects of gender were found, with males
reporting higher levels of normative identity processing style, females reporting greater
use of digital media for purposes of schoolwork and communication, and males reported
greater use of digital media for purposes of gaming. There were no interaction effects for
any of the analyzed study variables.
Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations between the study variables are pre-
sented in Table 2. Informational identity style ratings were found to be negatively corre-
lated with time spent communicating (r = –0.13, p < 0.01), and negatively correlated with
time spent gaming (r = –0.13, p < 0.05). Informational identity style was positively cor-
related with ratings of “digital media provides useful information” (r = 0.19, p < 0.01),
and positively correlated with ratings of “my schoolwork benefits from my use of digital
media” (r = 0.19, p < 0.01). Normative identity style ratings were found to be negatively
correlated with time spent using media for schoolwork (r = –0.19, p < 0.01), and nega-
tively correlated with time spent communicating (r = –0.17, p < 0.01). Normative identity
style was negatively correlated with ratings of “digital media provides useful information”
(r = –0.14, p < 0.01). Diffuse-avoidant identity style ratings were found to be positively cor-
related with time spent gaming (r = 0.20, p < 0.01). Diffuse-avoidant identity style was pos-
itively correlated with ratings of a preoccupation with digital media use (r = 0.23, p < 0.01).
The adolescent’s age and gender was negatively correlated with normative identity style
(r = –0.33, p < 0.001; r = –0.13, p < 0.05, respectively), but did not correlate with either
informational or diffuse-avoidant identity style. However, because there was a correlation
of normative identity with age and gender, then age and gender were also included as inde-
pendent variables in the following regression analyses.
Results from the three regression analyses (“stepwise”) are presented in Table 3. Infor-
mational identity style ratings were shown to be predicted by ratings of the cognition that
“digital media provides useful information” (β = 0.16, p = 0.006), and positively corre-
lated with ratings of “my schoolwork benefits from my use of digital media” (β = 0.14,
p = 0.017), as well as by less time spent communicating via digital media use (β = –0.16,
p = 0.003). This regression analysis was significant, F (3,341) = 8.99, p < 0.001, and

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 Table 1  Comparison of identity processing styles, time spent on media activity, and cognitions about media use by age and gender (n = 359)
Age group 1 (11–14 years) Age group 2 (15–18 years) F age/F gender

Females (n = 85) Males (n = 86) Females (n = 107) Males (n = 81)

M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)

Identity: Informational 3.51 (0.47) 3.48 (0.55) 3.60 (0.50) 3.56 (0.64) 2.52/0.34
Identity: Normative 2.77 (0.75) 3.02 (0.69) 2.33 (0.69) 2.46 (0.74) 41.60**/5.69*
Identity: Diffuse/Avoidant 2.33 (0.61) 2.61 (0.71) 2.55 (0.69) 2.40 (0.67) 0.003/0.79
Time Spent: Schoolwork 2.56 h (4.79) 1.24 h (1.41) 3.37 h (3.62) 3.15 h (3.81) 12.64**/3.97*
Digital Media as a Medium for Adolescent Identity Development

Time Spent: Communicating 11.32 h (13.78) 6.72 h (7.23) 22.48 h (18.94) 15.54 h (13.07) 43.59**/14.55**
Time Spent: Gaming 2.62 h (4.02) 10.67 h (10.07) 2.06 h (4.89) 10.86 h (11.21) 0.05/99.10***
Cognitions: Useful Info 1.17 (0.43) 1.21 (0.41) 1.41 (0.49) 1.50 (0.60) 25.26**/1.85
Cognitions: Schoolwork Benefits 0.77 (0.59) 0.77 (0.59) 1.00 (0.65) 0.91 (0.72) 7.18**/0.41
Cognitions: Preoccupation 0.36 (0.59) 0.48 (0.63) 0.28 (0.53) 0.35 (0.62) 2.60/2.24

*p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; Time Spent was derived by adding the self-reported number of hours and minutes spent on a typical weekday, typical Saturday and typi-
cal Sunday for each type of activity

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Table 2  Correlations between identity processing styles, time spent on media activity and cognitions about media use (n = 359)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mean SD

1. Identity: Informational – 3.55 0.54

2. Identity: Normative 0.04 – 2.62 0.76
3. Identity: Diffuse/Avoidant –0.16** 0.11* – 2.48 0.68
4. Time spent: Schoolwork 0.04 –0.19** 0.03 – 2.62 3.70
5. Time Spent: Communicating –0.13** –0.17** 0.05 0.28** – 5.68 6.25
6. Time Spent: Gaming –0.11* 0.03 0.20** 0.01 0.05 – 3.12 4.50
7. Cognitions: Useful Info 0.19** –0.14** –0.06 0.10 0.09 0.00 – 1.32 0.54
8. Cognitions: Schoolwork Benefits 0.19** –0.07 –0.06 0.10 0.00 –0.03 0.36** – 0.87 0.64
9. Cognitions: Preoccupation –0.10 0.05 0.23** –0.02 0.14** 0.21** –0.02 –0.08 0.36 0.60

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. The reported mean score of Time Spent in various media activities is the mean score of the summed score of the hours (or parts of hours) engaged in
this media activity on a typical weekday + typical Saturday + typical Sunday
S. B. Sebre, A. Miltuze
Digital Media as a Medium for Adolescent Identity Development

Table 3  Regression analyses (Stepwise) predicting each of identity processing style

B SE β p F R2

Predicting Informational Identity 8.99*** 0.07

Cognitions: Useful Info 0.16 0.06 0.15** 0.006
Time Spent: Communicating 0.000 0.00 – 0.14* 0.003
Cognitions: Schoolwork 0.12 0.05 0.14* 0.017
Benefits
Predicting Normative Identity 17.54*** 0.13
Age 0.00 0.02 – 0.30**0.000
Time Spent: Schoolwork 0.00 0.00 – 0.12* 0.024
Gender – 0.16 0.08 – 0.11* 0.046
Predicting Diffuse-Avoidant Identity 14.79*** 0.08
Cognitions: Preoccupation 0.25 0.06 0.21** 0.000
Time Spent: Gaming 0.00 0.00 0.15** 0.006
Included in the Stepwise regression analyses as independent variables were all three of the Time Spent vari-
ables, all three media-related Cognition variables, age and gender
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001

explained 7% of the variance of informational identity processing style ratings. Normative

identity processing style ratings were shown to be negatively predicted by time using digi-
tal media for schoolwork (β = –0.12, p = 0.024), and negatively predicted by age and gender
(β = –0.30, p = 0.000, β = –0.10, p = 0.046, respectively). This regression analysis was sig-
nificant, F (3,340) = 17.54, p < 0.001, and explained 13% of the variance of normative iden-
tity processing style ratings. Diffuse-avoidant identity processing style ratings were shown
to be predicted by ratings of preoccupation with digital media use (β = 0.21, p = 0.000),
and by time spent gaming (β = 0.15, p = 0.006). This regression analysis was significant,
F (2,342) = 14.79, p < 0.001, and explained 8% of the variance of diffuse-avoidant identity
processing style ratings.

7 Discussion

This study was predicated on the sociocultural context of contemporary adolescent life and
their daily engagement with digital media activity, which occurs in parallel with adolescent
developmental challenges, including the challenges of identity formation. Adolescents use
digital technology for many different purposes, such as for schoolwork, for social commu-
nication and for gaming. This digital media use can be encouraged or discouraged by adap-
tive or maladaptive media-related cognitions. To date there have been relatively few studies
examining adolescent digital media activity in relation to identity formation. Therefore, the
goal of this study was to examine these interrelationships, including media-related cogni-
tions, and specifically in regard to identity processing styles (informational, normative and
diffuse-avoidant), as delineated by Berzonsky (2011).
Initial analysis also included an examination of possible differences by age and gender.
No differences for either age or gender were found for the informational and diffuse-avoid-
ant identity processing styles. This is not surprising for several reasons. First is that Ber-
zonsky (2011) has construed the identity processing styles as reflecting stylistic differences

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 S. B. Sebre, A. Miltuze

in social-cognitive processes, which would not necessarily differ by age or gender. Second
is that contemporary views on identity development emphasize the dynamic and multidi-
rectional nature of this process (Luyckx et al. 2006), thereby precluding specific develop-
mental trends. Third, the finding that there are no differences in diffuse-avoidant strategies
between the age groups, spanning from 11 to 18 years, attests to the uncertainty in seeking
for an understanding of one’s self for a certain percentage of adolescents across this age
range. The finding that early adolescent males indicated a higher level of normative pro-
cessing style may be due to a general immaturity of this group, uncritically accepting the
values of one’s parents, or may be an artifact of this particular sample.
In general, the results of this study point to both benefits and costs of digital media use
in relation to adolescent identity development. Results of the study show that informational
identity processing style was predicted by media-supportive cognitions: “I obtain useful
information via media” and “My schoolwork benefits from my use of media”. Informa-
tional processing style was negatively predicted by time spent gaming, as well as in social
communication via the internet. In previous studies informational processing style has
been shown to be the most adaptive identity processing style, positively linked with all six
dimensions of psychological well-being (Berzonsky & Cieciuch 2016). It is not surprising
that adolescents with informational identity style would harbor adaptive media-related cog-
nitions which include expectations that the internet can provide meaningful information.
These adaptive cognitions could facilitate use of the internet for exploration of identity-
related issues such as professional career choices. The results that adolescents with infor-
mational processing style are relatively less prone to spend time engaged in digital social
communication—e.g. texting, chatting, sending Instagram messages—implies that such
activity may not be particularly conducive to identity development, especially if it is not
personally meaningful.
Ratings of diffuse-avoidant identity processing style were linked to greater amounts of
time spent gaming, and linked to a preoccupation with media use: “I think about being on
media even when I’m not on media”. Previous studies have shown that diffuse-avoidant
identity style is positively associated with various forms of internalizing and externalizing
behavioral problems (Courey & Pare 2016; Soenens et al. 2011), and negatively associated
with indices of psychological well-being (Berzonsky & Cieciuch 2016). Students with high
diffuse-avoidance ratings have indicated an unwillingness to maintain contact with nega-
tive aversive feelings and thoughts, and they tend to rely on maladaptive coping strategies.
Berzonsky and Kinney (2019) argue that young people should be encouraged to accept
their negative thoughts and feelings, rather than to seek means of escaping from them. Oth-
ers have suggested that gaming may serve as a form of escapism, and may subsequently
interfere with identity development (Kardefelt-Winther 2014). Considering that the results
of this study show that males, both from the younger and older adolescent groups, report
significantly higher rates of gaming that females, there is reason for educators and counse-
lors to pay particular attention to the gaming habits of adolescent males, and to especially
examine if this is a form of escapism to avoid negative thoughts and feelings. Of note is
that also previous studies have shown males to engage more extensively with gaming than
females (Robinson et al. 2015).
Although the present study is cross-sectional in design and merely shows asso-
ciations between these various factors, these associations provide the basis for future
exploration of bidirectional effects between identity development and digital media use,
as has been suggested by Mannerström and colleagues (2018). It may be that adoles-
cents with diffuse-avoidant identity processing style have a greater tendency to engage
in extensive gaming, at least in part as a means to avoid dealing with negative thoughts,

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Digital Media as a Medium for Adolescent Identity Development

feelings and experiences. At the same time this extensive engagement and preoccupa-
tion with gaming may support and facilitate the diffuse-avoidant processing style as well
as identity uncertainty, as the results of this study imply.
Adolescents participating in this study with high normative identity processing style
ratings indicated that they are not prone to spend much time on using the computer or
other forms of digital media for school purposes. This result is somewhat inconsistent
with previous research which has shown individuals who endorse a normative style are
conscientious and self-disciplined (Berzonsky 2011). However, at the same time norma-
tive processing style has been associated with cognitive closure (Berzonsky & Kinney
2019). It may be that since individuals with normative style tend to adopt and internal-
ize the prescriptions, goals, and expectations of significant others, they are less apt to
spend time in searching for additional information, but rather rely upon the informa-
tion already provided within the academic structure. Also, of note is that the results of
this study showed age and gender to be predictive of normative style, indicating that
females, especially in later adolescence, have a lesser tendency to rely upon the pre-
scriptions and expectations of others.
The limitations of the present study include the cross-sectional design and the reli-
ance upon adolescent self-report. Especially in regard to time spent on digital media
activity it would be useful in future studies to include measures from experiential tim-
ers which could gauge the actual length of time engaged with various forms of digital
media. As indicated above, a longitudinal design used for future studies could examine
the direction of causality and test for possible bidirectional effects. A limitation of the
present study is reliance upon single items for indications of adaptive and maladaptive
cognitions. Future studies should include a more substantial cognition scale. Also, the
results from the present study serve to explain only a small percentage of the variance of
identity processing styles. In future studies it would be meaningful to include explora-
tion of other variables known to contribute to adolescent identity development, such as
parent-adolescent relationships and peer relationships.

8 Conclusions and Practical Implications

The results of this study highlight the interrelationships between identity processing styles,
time spend engaged with various forms of media activity and media-related cognitions.
Adolescents with informational identity processing style reported media-related cognitions
and expectations that digital media will provide useful information and that schoolwork
will benefit. Adolescents with diffuse-avoidant study did not endorse such adaptive cogni-
tions, but rather reported that they spend greater amounts of time gaming, and tend to be
preoccupied with media use. Knowing from previous studies that diffuse-avoidant style is
associated with negative mental health indices, it would be imperative for educators and
counselors to help minimize such diffuse-avoidant behavior whenever possible. Such assis-
tance could include helping the adolescent to become aware of the benefits of not avoiding
negative feelings and negative experiences, of not engaging in maladaptive coping strate-
gies, but rather seeking other means of coping and other means of dealing with negative
experience, rather than engaging in gaming as a means of escape. Educators and coun-
selors might also place greater emphasis on helping adolescents to self-regulate and self-
differentiate substantial and meaningful uses of digital technology.

13
 S. B. Sebre, A. Miltuze

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