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The Daode jing
Guides to Sacred Texts
The Daode jing
A Guide
L I V IA KO H N
1
3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
List of Illustrations ix
Series Introduction: Guides to Sacred Texts xi
Introduction 1
PA RT O N E T H E T E X T
4. Social Application 67
Nonaction 67
Social Reality 69
Sufficiency 72
Humility and Simplicity 76
Clarity and Stillness 80
Sagehood 84
PA RT T WO T R A D I T IO NA L E X PA N SIO N S
PA RT T H R E E M O D E R N R E C E P T IO N
Index 263
Illustrations
The Daode jing or Tao Te Ching is the oldest and most venerated
scripture of Daoism and a classic of world philosophy. Often hailed
as representing the core of ancient Chinese mysticism, it is in fact a
multifaceted work that can, and has been, interpreted in many dif-
ferent ways: a manual of strategy, a political treatise on the recovery
of the Golden Age, a guide to underlying principles, and a metalin-
guistic inquiry into forms of prescriptive discourse. Fundamentally
it can be read in different ways: as a document of early Chinese cul-
ture or as a scripture of universal significance, cosmologically or
practically, as a general statement or an expression of an esoteric
teaching.
Looked at in terms of Chinese culture, concepts of statesman-
ship, political principles, military strategy, and royal virtues be-
come essential—the focus is on understanding the text in the
context of contemporaneous works and the social and political
situation of the time. Seen as a scripture of universal significance,
ideas of personal cultivation, freedom of mind, and the attain-
ment of spontaneity and naturalness take center stage—the text’s
main appeal is its timeless characterization and alleviation of the
human condition. Both approaches are equally important and have
been proposed by readers and scholars over the centuries; both are
also evident in numerous traditional commentaries and the uses
of the text throughout Chinese history and particularly the Daoist
tradition.
Also known in the West as “Taoism”—using an older mode of
transliterating Chinese—it is famous for its philosophy and health
2 Introduction
The Daode jing is one of the great works that shaped human civiliza-
tion and goes back to a period of pervasive change that the German
thinker Karl Jaspers, in The Origin and Goal of History (1953),
called the Axial Age, when “man as we know him today came into
being.” At this time, in many different cultures new thinkers and
religious leaders arose, who for the first time placed great em-
phasis on the individual as opposed to the community of the clan
or tribe, creating abstractions and sophisticated forms of criticism.
Examples include the Buddha and Mahavira in India, Zoroaster in
Persia, Solon and Socrates in ancient Greece, and Confucius and
Laozi in China.
This change was due to the increasing impact of literacy, which
arose in the wake of the invention of writing. A way of keeping track
of increasingly complex economical and political transactions,
writing is logophonic, that is, the visible record of spoken words,
and as such different from immediate pictorial representations
or other forms of record-keeping, including knotted cords, ar-
ranged pebbles, carved ivory bones, or pictographic abstractions.
Its first traces go back to about 3500 bce, when the Babylonians
and Sumerians in the Near East developed cuneiform ideographs,
soon followed by the ancient Egyptians and, about 1500 bce, by
the Chinese. The Greek alphabet, more potent due to its ability
of shaping words from individual letters and vowels, goes back
to about 800 bce. Easier to learn and more flexible in applica-
tion, it was both more democratic socially and more prone toward
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manufacture of textile machinery he added that of general machinery
and large tools for cutting, boring, rifling, planing and slotting. He had
a great reputation in his day, but his work seems to have been more
that of a builder of standard tools than an originator of new tools and
methods.
Charles Holtzapffel, another well-known engineer of that
generation, was the son of a German mechanic who came to
London in 1787. He received a good education, theoretical as well
as practical, and became a skilled mechanician and a tool builder of
wide influence. His principal book, “Turning and Mechanical
Manipulation,” published in 1843 in three volumes, is an admirable
piece of work. Covering a field much wider than its title indicates, it is
the fullest and best statement of the art at that time; and scattered
through it there is a large amount of very reliable mechanical history.
By 1840 the number of men engaged in tool building was
increasing rapidly, and it is impossible to consider many English tool
builders who were well known and who did valuable work, such as
Lewis of Manchester, B. Hick & Son of Bolton, and others. One
noteworthy man, however, ought to be mentioned—John George
Bodmer, who was neither an Englishman, nor, primarily, a tool
builder.[71] He was a Swiss who worked in Baden and Austria, as
well as in England, and his fertile ingenuity covered so many fields
that a list of the subjects covered by his patents occupy six pages in
the “Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers.”
[71] For a “Memoir” of Bodmer see “Transactions of the Institution of Civil
Engineers,” Vol. XXVIII, p. 573. London, 1868.
Bodmer went to England for the first time in 1816 and visited all
the principal machine shops, textile mills and iron works. He returned
in 1824 and again in 1833, this time remaining many years. On his
second trip he established a small factory for the manufacture of
textile machinery at Bolton, in which was one of the first, if not the
first, traveling crane.[75] At the beginning of his last and long
residence in England, Bodmer appointed Sharp, Roberts &
Company makers of his improved cotton machinery, which they also
undertook to recommend and introduce. This arrangement was not
successful, and a few years later, in partnership with Mr. H. H. Birley,
Bodmer started a machine shop and foundry in Manchester for
building machinery.
[75] Ibid., p. 581.
Nearly all of the machinery for the Manchester plant was designed
and built by Bodmer himself and it forms the subject of two
remarkable patents, granted, one in 1839 and the other in 1841.[76]
The two patents cover in reality nearly forty distinct inventions in
machinery and tools “for cutting, planing, turning, drilling, and rolling
metal,” and “screwing stocks, taps and dies, and certain other tools.”
“Gradually, nearly the whole of these tools were actually constructed
and set to work. The small lathes, the large lathes, and the planing,
drilling, and slotting machines were systematically arranged in rows,
according to a carefully-prepared plan; the large lathes being
provided, overhead, with small traveling cranes, fitted with pulley-
blocks, for the purpose of enabling the workmen more economically
and conveniently to set the articles to be operated upon in the lathes,
and to remove them after being finished. Small cranes were also
erected in sufficient numbers within easy reach of the planing
machines, &c., besides which several lines of rails traversed the
shop from end to end for the easy conveyance on trucks of the parts
of machinery to be operated upon.”[77] There were, in addition to
these, however, “a large radial boring machine and a wheel-cutting
machine capable of taking in wheels of 15 feet in diameter, and of
splendid workmanship, especially in regard to the dividing wheel,
and a number of useful break or gap-lathes, were also constructed
and used with advantage. It is especially necessary to mention a
number of small, 6-inch, screwing lathes, which, by means of a
treadle acting upon the driving gear overhead, and a double slide-
rest—one of the tools moving into cut as the other was withdrawn,—
screw cutting could uninterruptedly proceed both in the forward and
in the backward motion of the toolslide, and therefore a given
amount of work accomplished in half the time which it would occupy
by the use of the ordinary means. Some of the slide-lathes were also
arranged for taking simultaneously a roughing and finishing cut.”[78]
[76] The first of these is described in the American Machinist of March
13, 1902, p. 369.
[77] “Memoir,” p. 588.
[78] Ibid., p. 597-598.
The latter part of Bodmer’s life was spent in and near Vienna,
working on engines and boilers, beet sugar machinery and
ordnance; and at Zurich, where he died in 1864, in his seventy-ninth
year.
Bodmer does not seem to have originated any new types of
machine tools, with the exception of the vertical boring-mill, which he
clearly describes, terming it a “circular planer.” It was little used in
England, and has been considered an American development.
It is hard now to determine how far Bodmer has influenced tool
design. It was much, anyway. Speaking of the patent just referred to,
John Richards, who has himself done so much for tool design, says,
“Here was the beginning of the practice that endured.” He has
described some of Bodmer’s tools in a series of articles which show
a standard of design greatly in advance of the practice of his time.[79]
Another writer says of Bodmer, “He seems always to have
thoroughly understood the problems he undertook to solve.” “One is
lost in admiration at the versatility of the inventive genius which could
at any one time—and that so early in the history of machine design
—evolve such excellent conceptions of what was needed in so many
branches of the mechanics’ art.”[80]
[79] American Machinist, Vol. XXII, pp. 352, 379, 402, 430, 457, 478,
507, 531, 559, 586, 607, 637.
[80] Ibid., Vol. XXV, p. 369.