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B E
Second Edition
About the Authors
D P Kothari obtained his BE (Electrical) in 1967, ME (Power Systems) in 1969
and PhD in 1975 from BITS, Pilani, Rajasthan. He was involved in teaching
and development of several courses at BITS Pilani, from 1969 to 1977.
Currently, he is the Dean (R&D) at J D College of Engineering & Management,
Nagpur. Earlier, he served as Vice Chancellor at VIT, Vellore. He was also the
Director in-charge and Deputy Director (Administration) as well as Head at
the Centre of Energy Studies at Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. He also
served as Principal at VRCE, Nagpur. During 1982–83 and 1989, he was a
visiting professor at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne,
Australia. He taught at Melbourne University for one semester in 1989. He
was also NSF Fellow at Perdue University, USA, in 1992.
Dr Kothari, who is a recipient of the most Active Researcher Award, has published and presented 812
research papers in various national and international journals, conferences, guided 50 PhD scholars and
68 M.Tech. students, and authored 50 books in various allied areas. He has delivered several keynote
addresses and invited lectures in both national and international conferences. He has also delivered 42
video lectures on YouTube with maximum of 40,000 hits!
Dr Kothari is a Fellow of the National Academy of Engineering (FNAE), Fellow of Indian National
Academy of Science (FNASc), Fellow of Institution of Engineers (FIE), Fellow IEEE, Hon. Fellow ISTE
and Fellow IETE.
His many awards include the National Khosla Award for Lifetime Achievements in Engineering from
IIT, Roorkee, in 2005. The University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India, has bestowed
the UGC National Swami Pranavandana Saraswati Award for his outstanding scholarly contributions
in the field of education, in 2005.
He is also a recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award conferred by the World Management Congress,
New Delhi, for his contribution in the areas of educational planning and administration, in 2009. Recently,
he received Excellent Academic Award at IIT Guwahati by NPSC, 2014.
In 2016, he received six Life Time Achievement awards by various agencies and Living Legend Award
at Chennai Conference.
I J Nagrath was an Adjunct Professor at BITS Pilani, from where he retired in July
1999 as Professor of Electrical Engineering and Deputy Director. He was actively
engaged in writing books related to his long teaching and research experience.
Prof. Nagrath obtained his BE with Honours in Electrical Engineering from
Birla Engineering College in 1951, and MS from the University of Wisconsin, USA,
in 1956.
He had co-authored several successful books, which include Electric Machines,
4/e, Modern Power System Analysis, 4/e, Power System Engineering, 2/e, Electrical
Machines, 2/e (Sigma Series) and Basic Electrical Engineering, 3/e (all published by
MHEI); and also co-authored Control System Engineering and authored Electronics: Analog and Digital. He
had also published several research papers in prestigious national and international journals.
B E
Second Edition
D P Kothari
Dean (R&D), J D College of Engineering & Management, Nagpur
Fellow-INAE, Fellow-INASc, Fellow-IEEE, Hon. Fellow-ISTE, FIE (India), Fellow-IETE, MCSI
Former Director Research, MVSR Engineering College, Hyderabad
Former Director General, J B Group of Educational Institutions, Hyderabad
Director General, Raisoni Group of Institutions, Nagpur
Former Director General, Vindhya Institute of Technology and Science, Indore
Former Vice Chancellor, VIT University, Vellore
Former Director-Incharge, IIT Delhi
Former Principal, VRCE, Nagpur
Visiting Fellow, RMIT, Melbourne, Australia
I J Nagrath
Adjunct Professor and Former Deputy Director
Birla Institute of Technology and Science
Pilani
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 D103074 22 21 20 19 18
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ISBN (10): 93-5260-647-7
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Preface xiii
1. Semiconductors 1.1–1.15
Goals and Objectives 1.1
1.1 Conduction in Solids 1.1
1.2 Doped Semiconductors 1.6
1.3 Hall Effect 1.10
Summary 1.13
Exercises 1.13
Summary 3.33
Exercises 3.33
6. Op-Amp 6.1–6.26
Goals and Objectives 6.1
6.1 Introduction 6.1
6.2 Basic Op-Amp Circuits 6.5
6.3 Schmitt Trigger 6.17
6.4 Constant-Gain Multiplier 6.19
6.5 Basic Logarithmic Amplifier 6.19
Summary 6.22
Exercises 6.22
14. Digital to Analog (D/A) and Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters 14.1–14.16
Goals and Objectives 14.1
14.1 Introduction 14.1
14.2 Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) 14.2
14.3 Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) 14.6
14.4 Successive Approximation Converter 14.7
14.5 Commercially Available Converters 14.9
14.6 Accuracy and Resolution 14.10
Summary 14.14
Exercises 14.14
Appendix A A.1–A.4
Appendix B B.1–B.3
Index I.1–I.8
Preface
The updated second edition is the outcome of excellent response to the first edition of Basic
Electronics released in 2014. For an engineer in the area of Electronics and Communication
it is very important to have strong foundation on fundamental concepts, techniques and
devices in Electronics Engineering. Therefore, our aim with the book is to make that learning
easy for students. In attempting to do so, the book covers the basic concepts of Electronics,
Communication Engineering and Computers in a single volume.
Since the appearance of the first edition in 2014, latest advances in the field of electronics
have been included in this new edition. Certain portions have been rewritten for more clarity
and better understanding. The book offers:
• Full coverage of course on Basic Electronics including topics like Basic Computers and
Communication Engineering.
• Chapters are enriched with excellent pedagogy :
� Highly illustrative with over 415 diagrams
� 140+ Solved Examples including questions from previous year university question
papers
� 240+ Review Questions to test the conceptual understanding
� 165+ Numerical Problems to practice and prepare well for exams
� 200+ Multiple-Choice Questions
Web Supplements
This book comes with excellent PowerPoint lecture slides as supplements which can be
accessed at: http://www.mhhe.com/kothari/be2
Acknowledgments
I wish to place on record my gratitude to Prof (Dr) Priti Singh, Shruti Karkra, Dr Karamjit Kaur
and Anil Kumar, for their contributions in the making of this updated edition.
I am extremely thankful to the team members at McGraw Hill Education (India), for their
interest, cooperation and help in making the second edition a reality within record time.
D P KOTHARI
I J NAGRATH
Publisher’s Note
McGraw-Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which
can be sent to info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the
subject line). Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
CHAPTER 1
Semiconductors
Upon application of uniform electric field e (V/m), electrons while still moving rapidly and
randomly, acquire a net (average) component of velocity in opposite direction to that of the
field as shown in Fig. 1.2(b). This directed average velocity is known as drift velocity ud and is
proportional to e.
Thus,
ud = m(–e) m/s; electrons drift in direction opposite to the electric field (1.1)
where m = mobility (m/s per V/m or m2/V.s) which is a property of the material and decreases
with temperature (with faster vibration of ions in the lattice, chances for collision of electrons
with these increase).
The drift of electrons carrying charge –q constitutes electric current. If there are n free
electrons/m3, the current density J(A/m2) is
Semiconductors
1.3
1.1.2 Semiconductors
Semiconductors differ from conductors and insulators. They have two types of mobile charge
carriers. Two of the most important semiconductors are silicon and germanium, which belong
to the fourth column of the periodic table. It means that these have four valence electrons
in the outer orbit (tetravalent). The crystalline structure of both silicon and germanium is
the tetrahedral pattern as shown in Fig. 1.3(a), wherein each atom shares four of its valence
electrons with each of the four neighbouring atoms. Such bonding is known as covalent bonding
and can be represented schematically in two dimensions as shown in Fig. 1.3(b). At zero
temperature (K), all the valence electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei and there are no free
charge carriers, i.e. the material behaves as an insulator.
The energy required to break a covalent bond is about 1.1 eV for silicon and about 0.7 eV
for germanium at room temperature (about 300 K). Figure 1.4 shows the energy band diagram
of silicon from which it is seen that a valence electron must acquire quantum energy jump of
well above 1.1 eV to cross over to the conduction band.
At room temperature a few electrons have sufficient thermal energy to break the covalent
bonds becoming free, leaving behind a vacancy with a net positive charge in the region, while
the region surrounding the free electron has a negative charge. This is pictorially represented
in Fig. 1.5, which shows one free electron, one missing covalent electron with effective positive
charge called, the hole. Figure 1.5 also shows an electron, which has moved over to conduction
band leaving behind a hole. The holes have larger effective mass than electrons.
An electron released from a covalent bond leaves behind a hole and it may fill the hole
vacancy in a neighbouring bond which is equivalent to the movement of the hole from one
position to another. In other words, the hole has moved to the position vacated by the electron
from that of the earlier vacant bond, which is now occupied by the electron. Thus, both
electrons and holes act as charge carriers in semiconductors as different from the conduction
in metals (only free electrons are the charge carriers). It must be observed here that where
holes are involved, current flow always occurs because of movement of electrons but the effect
is that of a hole moving in the opposite direction.
Semiconductors
1.5
When electric field e is applied to the semiconductor material, electrons drift in opposite
direction to e while holes drift in the direction of e both adding to a current in the positive
direction. Equation (1.2) for current density now generalises for a semiconductor as
J = (n mn + p mp)qe A/m2 (1.3a)
and conductivity
s = (n mn + p mp)q S/m (1.3b)
where mn = electron mobility,
mp = hole mobility; the hole mobility being much lower than the electron mobility,
and
n, p = number of electrons or holes/unit vol (m3).
In a pure sample of a semiconductor material, electron-hole pairs are simultaneously
generated so that
n = p = ni = number of electrons or holes/m3
Such a semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. Constantly new electron-hole pairs
are being generated and older ones are recombining (electron is captured by a hole and the
pair vanishes). At room temperature the density of free electron-hole pair (ni) is not very high,
i.e. only a small fraction of valence electrons are in free state (about 1 in every 1012 atoms).
Some of the properties of Si and Ge are given in Table 1.1.
* Ref: “Properties of Silicon and Germanium II” Proc. IRE, June 1958, p. 1281.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Estimate the relative concentration of germanium atoms and electron-hole pairs at 300 K
(room temperature). Also, predict the intrinsic resistivity. Given atomic weight of germanium,
72.60 g/g-atom; q = 14.6 × 10–19 coulombs.
FEMMES D’OFFICIER
En souvenir de Whistler.
Alger, 16 janvier.
Alger, 18 janvier.
Alger, 23 janvier.
BLIDAH-OURIDA
Théophile Gautier l’a chantée, Fromentin l’a peinte avec les plus
clairs rayons de sa palette, auréolée de soleil et de fleurs. Paul
Margueritte a, dans une page admirable d’énervement sensitif, décrit
son atmosphère de caresse et de langueur, ce parfum, écœurant à
la longue, de jonquille et de fleur d’oranger, qui est la respiration
même de Blidah, Blidah dont la fragrance persistante et monotone
finit par vous engourdir et vous lever tout à la fois le cœur, Blidah
obsédante et charmeresse, telle la note doucement aiguë d’un
joueur de flûte arabe, faite de rêverie de kief et de mélancolie qui
somnole.
Et au pied de ses hautes montagnes, contreforts de l’Atlas
ombreux et ravinés, aux transparentes roches bleues éclaboussées
d’eaux vives, oueds et torrents bordés de lauriers-roses et
d’amandiers neigeux, je ne pouvais pas mieux la comparer, cette
Blidah qu’un poète indigène a appelée Ourida, et que ses
détracteurs ont traitée méchamment de marchande de sourires, je
ne pouvais pas mieux la comparer qu’à quelque beau musicien venu
de Smyrne ou d’Alexandrie, Asiatique aux lourdes paupières turques
artistement bistrées, et chantant, échoué là, avec ses parfums et ses
langoureuses attitudes d’oriental un peu efféminé, quelque ardente
mélopée amoureuse, embaumant à la fois la fraîcheur de la neige et
l’essence de rose et de bois de santal.
La fraîcheur de la neige, dont la blancheur ensoleillée étincelle et
ruisselle aux cimes des montagnes surplombant de leur ombre les
jardins de Blidah !
Cette essence de rose, que semblent distiller dans le clair-obscur
de leurs ramures les micocouliers, les grenadiers et les rosiers en
fleurs de ses innombrables bosquets, mimosas vaporeux de son
jardin Bizot et figuiers centenaires de son Bou-sacra.
Ces enivrantes odeurs de santal enfin, comme remuées sous les
pas de ses femmes voilées, à l’unique œil noir entrevu par la fente
du haïck ; et dans cette griserie de lumière, de fraîcheur et
d’opprimants parfums, le joueur de derbouka, en qui s’incarnait pour
moi le charme alangui et comme endormant de Blidah, s’évoquait à
mes yeux au fond d’un café maure. Couché plutôt qu’assis sur une
table octogone incrustée de nacre, les jambes et les bras nus hors
d’une longue gandoura brochée de grosses fleurs sur fond jaune,
une robe d’or couleur des jonquilles mêmes de Blidah, il chantait.
Ainsi posé avec, au coin de son oreille, un gros bouquet de roses
jaunes et de narcisses piqué sous sa chéchia, il laissait, le musicien
d’Asie, traîner d’indolentes mains sur l’instrument à cordes, et sa
voix gutturale un peu lasse, aux inflexions tour à tour molles et
dures, égrenait ces paroles ferventes qui m’ont semblé être la
chanson même de l’amant à l’amante ou du poète épris à la belle, à
l’éternellement aimante Ourida.
Un or mystérieux
Sommeille dans tes yeux.
Telles d’étranges bagues,
Dont l’éclat amorti luirait au fond des mers,
J’accueille et reconnais d’anciens chagrins soufferts,
Devenus des joyaux dans tes prunelles vagues.
LE CIMETIÈRE
LA NOUBA