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STUDIES IN NATIONAL GOVERNANCE AND
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

Autonomous Vessels
in Maritime Affairs
Law and Governance Implications
Edited by Tafsir Matin Johansson
Jonatan Echebarria Fernández · Dimitrios Dalaklis
Aspasia Pastra · Jon A. Skinner
 Studies in National Governance and Emerging
Technologies

Series Editors
Edward Abbott-Halpin, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
Carolina Aguerre, Victoria, Argentina
Alberto Asquer, School of Finance, University of London, SOAS,
London, UK
Malcolm Campbell-Verduyn, International Relations, University of
Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
Maria João Maia, Institute for Technology Assessment, Karlsruhe
Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
From genome editing to deep learning, and from blockchain to quantum
computing, the rise of emerging technologies poses a number of oppor-
tunities, threats and risks to society. Emerging technologies provide
affordances to innovative products and services that can potentially revo-
lutionize fields like medicine, transport and finance. They may also result,
however, in unwelcome side-effects, unintended consequences and delib-
erate harms to particular groups and individuals, as well as entire systems
and the environment. Questions about whether emerging technologies
should be regulated at the national level, and how precisely governments
should encourage and respond to them, are controversial. Precautionary
approaches may discourage investment and make countries lose ground
with respect to other economies. Permissive regimes may put consumers
and natural environments at risk. Governments, business firms and the
civil society are expected to play a role in (re-)designing how emerging
technologies will be regulated, re-regulated and steered.
This series invites contributions on the intersection between tech-
nological development and the processes of promoting, steering and
regulating the development and applications of emerging technologies.
Books will address theoretical issues, such as what drives the develop-
ment of new technologies, how new technologies reconfigure governance
systems, and the effects of new technologies on democracy, accountability,
efficiency, economic growth, justice, power, legitimacy, sustainability and
inclusion. Empirically, the series welcomes contributions that address any
area of emerging technologies, including Artificial Intelligence, control
of sensor networks and Internet-of-Things, robotics, cryptocurrencies,
renewable energy sources, nano-technologies, genetic therapies, smart
cities, and the significance of space and technology to future development.
 Tafsir Matin Johansson ·
Jonatan Echebarria Fernández ·
Dimitrios Dalaklis · Aspasia Pastra ·
Jon A. Skinner
Editors

Autonomous Vessels
in Maritime Affairs
Law and Governance Implications
Editors
Tafsir Matin Johansson Jonatan Echebarria Fernández
World Maritime University-Sasakawa The City Law School, City
Global Ocean Institute University of London
Malmö, Sweden London, UK

Dimitrios Dalaklis Aspasia Pastra

World Maritime University World Maritime University-Sasakawa
Malmö, Sweden Global Ocean Institute
Malmö, Sweden
Jon A. Skinner
MatSu College
University of Alaska Anchorage
Palmer, AK, USA
Global College of PME
Air University
Montgomery, Alabama, USA

ISSN 2524-6291 ISSN 2524-6305 (electronic)

Studies in National Governance and Emerging Technologies
ISBN 978-3-031-24739-2 ISBN 978-3-031-24740-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24740-8

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
Chapter 11 and Chapter 18 are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attri-
bution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). For
further details see license information in the chapters.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
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 Acknowledgments

The editors of this volume acknowledge the contributions of many

individuals and organizations. First and foremost, the editors owe an
extraordinary debt to all the authors and co-authors that have published
in this peer-reviewed volume. A warm note of thanks to Mitchell Lennan,
Lecturer (Assistant Professor) in Energy & Environment Law at the
University of Aberdeen, Scotland, for providing additional editorial assis-
tance. The co-editors are extremely indebted to external reviewers:
Paul Myburgh, Associate Professor and Deputy Director, Centre for
Maritime Law, Faculty of Law, National University of Singapore; Jos
Leijten, Retired Innovation Strategist, previously in Joint Institute for
innovation Policy (Brussels) and TNO (Netherlands); Chang Hee Lee,
Professor, College of Maritime Science, Korea Maritime & Ocean Univer-
sity; Tae-eun Kim; Associate Professor of Maritime Safety Management,
Department of Technology and Safety, Faculty of Science and Tech-
nology, University of Tromsø (UiT)—The Arctic University of Norway;
and Kivilcim Ceren Buken; PhD Candidate, Hacettepe University, as
well as others that were a part of the blinded review. A special thanks
to our contributors Matti Eronen, Mikis Tsimplis, and Vibe Ulfbeck,
and external contributors Yoss LeClerc; President and CEO, Logistro
Consulting International, Vancouver BC; Former President, International
Harbour Masters Association, London UK; and Mikael Hilden, owner of
AMH Maritime Consultancy for playing an important role in the triple
peer-review process.

v
vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The editors would also like to extend sincere appreciation to the

Nippon Foundation, the World Maritime University and the World
Maritime University-Sasakawa Global Ocean Institute, the City Law
School, and the University of Alaska for their generous support.

Sweden Tafsir Matin Johansson

November 2022 Jonatan Echebarria Fernández
Dimitrios Dalaklis
Aspasia Pastra
Jon A. Skinner
 Contents

1 Introduction to Autonomous Vessels in Maritime

Affairs: Law & Governance Implications 1
Tafsir Matin Johansson, Jon A. Skinner,
Jonatan Echebarria Fernández, Aspasia Pastra,
and Dimitrios Dalaklis

Part I Setting the Scene

2 Innovate or Fade—Introducing Ocean Innovation
Diplomacy to the Maritime Sector 19
Andrei Polejack
3 Evolution of IMO’s MASS: Through the Prism
of the Chair 33
Henrik Tunfors

Part II Naval Warfare & Security

4 Advent of a New Era in Naval Warfare: Autonomous
and Unmanned Systems 63
Raul Pedrozo
5 Maritime Security in the Age of Autonomous Ships 81
Anna Petrig

vii
viii CONTENTS

Part III Safety & Seaworthiness

6 Designing Norms for Autonomous Ships: The
Obligation to Call for Help and the Duty to Save Life
in Danger at Sea 99
Michael Tsimplis
7 Safety and Seaworthiness Challenges of MASS
in the Shipping and Port Sector 119
Klimanthia Kontaxaki and Vera Alexandropoulou
8 How to Ensure Safe Navigation: Navigation Safety
Regulation in MASS 139
Mika Viljanen

Part IV Global Environmental Change

9 Autonomous Vessels in the Era of Global
Environmental Change 163
Sean Pribyl

Part V Autonomous Passenger Transportation

10 Autonomous Urban Passenger Ferries—A New
Mobility Mode in Need of Appropriate Regulation 187
Øyvind Smogeli
11 New Design Solutions and Procedures for Ensuring
Meaningful Human Control and Interaction
with Autonomy: Automated Ferries in Profile 213
Christoph A. Thieme, Marilia A. Ramos, Even A. Holte,
Stig O. Johnsen, Thor Myklebust, and Øyvind Smogeli

Part VI Liability & Insurance

12 Autonomy, Autonomous Shipping and Coastal
Authorities’ Concerns 245
Matti Eronen
13 Remote Control and Remote Risk
of Liability?—Vicarious Liability for Remotely
Controlled Vessels in Scandinavian and English Law 263
Vibe Ulfbeck and Aslı Arda
 CONTENTS ix

14 Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS):

Precarious Legal Position of the Shore-Based Remote
Controller 277
Proshanto Kumar Mukherjee
15 Navigating the Turbulent Waters of Liability:
Making the Case for the Application
of Risk-Management-Based Liability Approach
to Autonomous Vessels 297
Anil Ozturk
16 Insurance of Marine Autonomous Surface Ships:
Risk Allocation, Seaworthiness and Technological
Challenges from an Underwriter’s Perspective 315
Manuel Varela Chouciño, Jonatan Echebarria Fernández,
and Johanna Hjalmarsson

Part VII Selected National & Regional Developments

17 Selected Industry Issues Regarding Autonomous
Vessels: The Canadian Perspective 337
Maria Katsivela
18 The Societal Impacts of Autonomous Ships: The
Norwegian Perspective 357
Ørnulf Jan Rødseth, Dag Atle Nesheim, Agathe Rialland,
and Even Ambros Holte
19 US Perspectives on Regulating Maritime Autonomy 377
Annie Brett

Part VIII Tying the Threads

20 Autonomous Ships: Where Is It Going from Here? 397
Paul Topping
 Notes on Contributors

Vera Alexandropoulou has worked for the Harvard Business School,

FHM—a major shipping law firm in New York, and Norton Rose, was
legal counsel at the Piraeus Port Authority (2005–2018) and is Vice
President of Thalassa Foundation since 2013. She established the Alexan-
dropoulou Law Firm in 2005. Vera has acquired significant experience
in sectors including commercial and corporate law, shipping, energy,
banking and finance, and real estate. She is involved as legal consultant
with various institutions and associations, mainly in the field of energy
business and fund structures, and is the author of codification of Greek
renewable energy and natural gas legislation, having published articles
on Greek ship finance, Greek listed funds, environmental issues, sustain-
able shipping, and ports. Being a member of the BUGWRIGHT2 Senior
Advisory Group for WMU-GOI H2020 Project, she has co-authored
the article on “Maritime remote inspection technology in hull survey &
inspection: A synopsis of liability issues from a European Union context”,
Journal of International Maritime Safety, Environmental Affairs, and
Shipping Volume 5, 2021, Issue 4. She speaks fluently English, French,
German, and Spanish, while she understands Chinese.
Aslı Arda is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Copenhagen,
Faculty of Law, Center for Private Governance (CEPRI) and a qualified
lawyer admitted to Bar of Ankara, Turkey. Aslı holds a Ph.D. in Law from
the University of Exeter, UK. She has a background in contract law, ship-
ping, reinsurance, and arbitration. Her current research mainly concerns

xi
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

the liability and management aspects of the implementation of remotely

controlled and autonomous ships and she is particularly interested in
digitalization in shipping and green shipping. She is also a member
of the Shipping and Ocean Law Group (SHOC) at the University of
Copenhagen.
Annie Brett is an Assistant Professor of Law at the University of Florida
Levin College of Law, where she teaches and writes in the areas of
environmental law, ocean and coastal law, and the intersection of law
and science. Her scholarship focuses on how emerging technologies are
impacting environmental and maritime law. In addition to legal venues,
Professor Brett has published in leading scientific outlets, presented
in national and international policy forums, and served on several US
National Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine committees
dealing with issues around maritime law and emerging technologies. Prior
to joining the University of Florida, Annie worked on international ocean
policy for Stanford University and the World Economic Forum. She is
an accomplished mariner, spending years as a sailing vessel captain in
the Pacific and continues to participate in scientific and legal expeditions
globally.
Dimitrios Dalaklis joined the World Maritime University (WMU) in
2014, upon completion of a twenty-six years distinguished career with
the Hellenic Navy, and currently holds a Professorial position. His exper-
tise revolves around the interrelated maritime safety and security domains.
He is an Associate Fellow of the Nautical Institute (NI) and a Member
of the International Association of Maritime Economists (IAME). With
a Bachelor’s from the Hellenic Naval Academy, his postgraduate studies
took place in the Naval Postgraduate School of the United States (M.Sc.
in Information Technology Management, with distinction & M.Sc. in
Defense Analysis). He then conducted his Ph.D. research at the Univer-
sity of the Aegean, Department of Shipping, Trade and Transport.
He is the author/co-author of many peer-reviewed articles, books, and
studies in both the Greek and English languages, with a strong research
focus on issues related to the implementation of the SOLAS Conven-
tion and especially electronic equipment/systems supporting the safety of
navigation.
Jonatan Echebarria Fernández is an Honorary Lecturer at The City Law
School (City, University of London) and a Spanish qualified lawyer. He
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

holds a Ph.D. in Law from the Copenhagen Business School (CBS) and
he is a member of a variety of associations related to his main teaching
and research interests, spanning from Maritime & Commercial Law to
Public & Private International Law, as well as Environmental Law. Dr.
Echebarria has served as an Associate Professor of Law in 2021 and 2022
at BI Norwegian Business School. His previous professional experience
includes working at Copenhagen Business School, the Permanent Repre-
sentation of Spain to the EU, the European Investment Bank, the Spanish
Embassy in Brussels, the Luxembourg Maritime Administration, and the
Bilbao Port Authority.
Mr. Matti K. Eronen has an LL.M. degree in maritime law from the
Turku University in 1988. He also has run Oslo University Nordic
Maritime Institute in 1986. He did court training in 1990–1991 and
Helsinki University EU-expert training in 1994. He published research
on EU Market Protection Mechanisms at Finnish Lawyers’ Association,
1994. He did national expert professional training (NEPT) at EMSA in
2012. Since 2015 he has been a Turku University post graduate doctoral
student on subject “VTS liability issues”. He is specialized to transport
and maritime legislation and has in-depth experience in handling interna-
tional administrative matters for more than 30 years. His employment
history includes working at private shipping companies as forwarding
agent, P&I- and H&M insurance specialist, and maritime lawyer. Since
1989 he has worked at the administration, Finnish Maritime Adminis-
tration as Secretary for international affairs, Deputy director and Chief
of legal department. Since 2010 he has worked as legal counsel at the
Finnish Transport Infrastructure Agency. He has represented Finland
at committees and subcommittees of IMO since 1989. He regularly
represents Finland at the Legal Advisory Panel (LaP) of IALA.
Johanna Hjalmarsson is the Informa Associate Professor in Maritime
and Commercial Law at the University of Southampton and a member
of the Institute of Maritime Law. She is an editor of Lloyd’s Law Reports
and Lloyd’s Law Reporter. She also co-edits Lloyd’s Shipping & Trade Law
and The Ratification of Maritime Conventions. Johanna’s research covers
maritime and commercial law, insurance law, and dispute resolution with
recent publications in Lloyd’s Maritime and Commercial Law Quarterly,
Journal of International Maritime Law, and Civil Justice Quarterly and
has edited and contributed to a number of books. At Southampton, she
teaches shipping and insurance-related subjects.
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Even Ambros Holte is currently working as a Research Scientist for the

research institute SINTEF Ocean. Holding a Master’s degree in Logis-
tics Management from the University of Sydney (Institute of Transport
Studies), he has been performing research, development, and research-
based advisory services within the marine and maritime sectors since
2006. With a particular interest for developing sustainable transport solu-
tions and innovative practices for the maritime industry, he has been
heavily engaged in the development of autonomous transport solutions
for the past 3–4 years. He has also been involved in several reports
focusing on industry analysis. Living in Trondheim, Norway, Even has
considerable experience as a project manager, and has authored and
co-authored several publications.
Tafsir Matin Johansson is an Assistant Professor at the World Maritime
University-Sasakawa Global Ocean Institute (GOI) in Malmö, Sweden.
Tafsir is a techno-policy analyst with a Ph.D. in Maritime Affairs from
the World Maritime University, and an LL.M. in Maritime Law from
the University of Lund, Sweden. His duties at the GOI include ocean
governance and policy research, teaching, and developing innovative
policy models to better assess drivers and indicators relevant to ocean
research agenda. Tafsir has published extensively on maritime and ocean
issues including techno-regulatory dynamic governance, Arctic gover-
nance, vessels of concern, corporate social responsibility, marine pollu-
tion, climate change, conflict management and trust ecosystem, and
Brexit and fisheries. Tafsir has worked on or led a number of multi-
disciplinary projects, including regulatory development projects funded
by Transport Canada (Government of Canada) since 2014, as well as
those funded under the Canadian Government’s Oceans Protection Plan
covering numerous topics critical to the maritime and ocean domain.
Currently Tafsir serves as a CO-PI in a European Union Horizon 2020
Programme funded project titled “Overcoming Regulatory Barriers for
Service Robotics in an Ocean Industry Context”.
Stig O. Johnsen is a Senior Researcher at SINTEF in Norway. He has
a Ph.D. from NTNU in Norway with a focus on resilience in complex
socio-technical systems and has a Master’s in Technology Management
from MIT/NTNU. He is chairing the Human Factors in Control
network (HFC) in Norway to strengthen the Human Factors focus
during development and implementation of safety critical technology. His
research interest has been meaningful human control to support safety
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

and resilience during automation and digitalization. Chair of Accident

and Incident Modelling—European Safety and Reliability Association
(ESRA).
Maria Katsivela joined the common law program in French at the
University of Ottawa in 2010. She is currently teaching maritime law (in
French and English) and common law torts-civil law extra-contractual
liability at the Programme de Droit Canadien (bijural program) of the
University of Ottawa. Her research lies in the areas of transportation law
(Ph.D. thesis topic), comparative maritime law, and comparative tort law.
Pr. Katsivela has published articles in comparative tort law and compar-
ative maritime law. She is currently working on regulatory and ethical
issues present with respect to unmanned vessels. Throughout the years
she has received different grants to support her research interests and
publications. Pr. Katsivela worked as an attorney in New York for three
years before pursuing an academic career. She is a member of the bars of
New York, Greece (Piraeus), and Ontario (Canada). Before joining the
University of Ottawa Pr. Katsivela taught at the College of the Bahamas
Department of Law in Nassau (Bahamas) for four years.
Klimanthia Kontaxaki is a lawyer, a graduate of the Faculty of Law at
the University of Athens. Having a particular interest in the fields of the
Law of the Sea and International Shipping Law, she is a holder of an
LL.M. degree in International Public Law from the University of Athens
with thesis on Maritime Spatial Planning and an LL.M. degree in Inter-
national Shipping Law from the Queen Mary University of London with
a thesis on Marine Insurance Law, under a scholarship awarded by the
Centre of Commercial Law Studies (CCLS) at Queen Mary University
of London. She also holds a Certificate in “Ocean Management and
Maritime Law” from the Tulane University, New Orleans, USA, having
successfully attended the latter’s summer courses program under a full
scholarship awarded by the Aegean Institute of the Law of the Sea &
Maritime Law. Her legal practice mainly engages in shipping, contract,
business, and corporate law. She has contributed as co-author in published
articles and book chapters mainly related to the environmental sustain-
ability issue in shipping and ports, with most relevant to the theme of the
present book the article on “Maritime remote inspection technology in
hull survey & inspection: A synopsis of liability issues from a European
Union context”, Journal of International Maritime Safety, Environmental
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Affairs, and Shipping Volume 5, 2021—Issue 4. She speaks fluently

English, German, Spanish, French, and elementary Italian.
Proshanto Kumar Mukherjee is Professor of Law and Foreign Expert
at Dalian Maritime University and Emeritus Professor of Maritime
Law and Policy at World Maritime University (WMU). He was previ-
ously Vice President (Research) and Director, Doctoral Programmes at
WMU; Director of LL.M. and Ph.D. Programmes in Maritime Law,
Lund University; IMO Legal Adviser for the Caribbean Region; Senior
Adviser, Maritime Policy and International Affairs, Canadian Hydro-
graphic Service, Senior Deputy Director and Professor of Maritime Law,
IMO International Maritime Law Institute, Malta. He is a member of
the Canadian Maritime Law Association and the CMI Working Group on
Fair Treatment of Seafarers. He is author of Maritime Legislation and
Mukherjee on Maritime Legislation, lead author of Farthing on Inter-
national Shipping, Fourth Edition, Lead Editor of Maritime Law in
Motion, and Editor of Maritime Law Perspectives Old and New Volume I
(under publication). He has numerous other publications to his credit on
virtually every aspect of maritime affairs and maritime law.
Thor Myklebust is a Senior Researcher at SINTEF Digital, Norway
(Cand. Scient. Physics and). He attended a two and a half years course
at university level in Economy, Innovation, Psychology, Statistics, and
Artificial intelligence. He has experience in certification of products
and systems since 1987. Myklebust has participated in several interna-
tional committees since 1988. Member of safety (IEC 65), IEC 61508
committee, and railway (CENELEC/TC 9). He was Vice-chairman and
Chairman of NB-rail October 2013–October 2015. Myklebust is involved
in large industry-oriented research and development projects addressing
the implementation and effect of agile methods for developing safety
systems that will undergo certification according to functional safety stan-
dards (IEC61508, EN5012X, ISO 26262, UL4600) and relevant security
standards (IEC 62443, ISO/SAE 21434, ETSI 303 645, EN TS 50701).
He is co-founder of SafeScrum. In addition, he has co-authored three
Springer books.
Dag Atle Nesheim is a Research Scientist at SINTEF Ocean, Norway.
He received a Master’s degree in Information Systems from the Univer-
sity of Agder in 2003. Prior to joining SINTEF Ocean, Dag Atle worked
as a business analyst at LogIT Systems, focusing on implementation of
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

software solutions related to multimodal transport chain management. At

SINTEF Ocean, Dag Atle works within a wide field of research related to
HSEQ performance management, standardization, cyber security and in
the later years, maritime digitalization and autonomous shipping. Dag
Atle’s latest publications include “Validation methodology for assess-
ment of new eNav services”; “The Need for Collaborative Business
Models in Autonomous Vessel Ecosystems”; “Autonomous ship concept
evaluation—Quantification of competitiveness and societal impact”; and
“Assessing cyber threats for storyless systems”. Dag Atle has been a
member of the Baltic and International Maritime Council’s Shipping KPI
Expert Group since 2015.
Anil Ozturk is a recent Ph.D. graduate at Maynooth University School
of Law and Criminology. He has completed his undergraduate educa-
tion in law at Bilkent University (Turkey), graduating with a B.A. in
2016, where his interests stemmed from the evolving nature of legal
theory. Then, Anil has received an LL.M. degree in International and
Comparative Law from Trinity College Dublin in 2017. His Master’s
thesis explored how pre-contractual liability is conceptualized in different
legal systems and how it is addressed under European Private Inter-
national Law. His current research focuses on intersection of law and
robotics, including autonomous driving, robotics and privacy, and liability
for personal robots.
Aspasia Pastra has been appointed as a Post-Doc Fellow and Maritime
Policy Analyst at the World Maritime University-Sasakawa Global Ocean
Institute (GOI) in Malmö, Sweden. To date, she has been involved in a
number of State-of-the-Art Regulatory Projects in maritime policy, ocean
technology, environmental protection, port governance, and gender
diversity in the maritime sector. Dr. Pastra has published extensively in
the field of maritime policy and governance, maritime robotics & techno-
regulatory advancements, global environmental change, team dynamics,
and leadership. She has been a lecturer in UK institutions in the field
of business and maritime administration. She has extensive experience in
shipping as she worked for many years in large shipping companies. She
has also participated in the Marine Environment Protection Committee
(MEPC) and Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) of the International
Maritime Organisation (IMO), as a member of the Greek Delegation. Dr.
Pastra holds a BSc degree in Public Administration from Panteion Univer-
sity of Social and Political Sciences in Greece, an M.B.A. from Cardiff
xviii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

University in the UK, and an M.Sc. in Maritime Administration from the

World Maritime University. She was awarded her Ph.D. in the area of
corporate governance from Brunel University in London.
Raul Pedrozo (Captain, USN, Ret.) is the Howard S. Levie Professor
on the Law of Armed Conflict, US Naval War College, Stockton Center
for International Law. Prior to his retirement from active duty after 34
years of service, he served in numerous positions advising senior military
and civilian Defense officials, including as Special Assistant to the Under
Secretary of Defense for Policy and senior legal advisor to Commander,
US Pacific Command. He also served as the Director of the Navy’s Inter-
national and Operational Law Department in the Pentagon. Professor
Pedrozo has lectured extensively at military and civilian academic insti-
tutions, has written extensively on maritime security, naval warfare, and
South China Sea issues, and has authored three books. He has an LL.M.
(International & Comparative Law), Georgetown University Law Center
and JD (Law), The Ohio State University College of Law.
Anna Petrig holds the Chair of International Law and Public Law at the
University of Basel in Switzerland. She has a Ph.D. in the field of the law
of the sea and human rights law and an LL.M. from Harvard Law School.
Anna is a member of the Bar of the Canton of Berne (Switzerland) and
the New York State Bar (USA). Her broad legal experience includes work
in private practice, the courts, and the Legal Division of the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). She has provided expert advice
and legal counsel on maritime-related matters to the Swiss Government,
NGOs, and international organizations and is involved in the Interna-
tional Maritime Organization’s efforts to regulate autonomous ships.
Anna has served as Judge ad hoc for Switzerland on the International
Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in Cases 27 and 29.
Andrei Polejack (he/his) is a senior advisor for the Brazilian Ministry
of Science, Technology and Innovation, with a Ph.D. in Maritime Affairs
from the WMU-Sasakawa Global Ocean Institute of the World Maritime
University. In Brazil, he used to coordinate the national ocean and polar
research programs, providing technical advice to governance, formulating
and implementing public policies, and negotiating international agree-
ments, among many other duties. As a transdisciplinary researcher, Andrei
is interested in Ocean Science Diplomacy as a field of study, seeking
to understand the role of science and scientists in international ocean
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xix

affairs, along with the political sphere of power dynamics and interests
in the marine realm. Theoretically passionate about post- and de-colonial
reasoning applied to international relations and its many ways of linking
with ocean science. A Latino soul, proud father of three of the best
humans, and a lover of dogs, cats, sea puffins, beer, and fikas.
Sean T. Pribyl, Esq. is a business attorney in Holland & Knight’s
Washington, DC, office. He focuses his practice on regulatory compli-
ance, marine casualties, international trade, autonomous transportation,
sanctions, and white collar criminal law. He has decades of experience
in the transportation sector as a former deck officer, US Coast Guard
lawyer, and international protection and indemnity (P&I) club lawyer. Mr.
Pribyl is a Member of the National Academy of Sciences Marine Board
and serves as a Senior Advisor to the World Maritime University Over-
coming Regulatory Barriers for Service Robotics in an Ocean Industry
Context (BUGWRIGHT2). He is a Proctor in Admiralty with the US
Maritime Law Association. Mr. Pribyl holds an M.A. from the US Naval
War College, a JD from Washburn University School of Law, and a BS
from the US Merchant Marine Academy. He is pursuing his LL.M. in
International Business and Economic Law from Georgetown Law.
Marilia Ramos is a Research Scientist at the B. John Garrick Insti-
tute for the Risk Sciences at the University of California Los Angeles
(GIRS-UCLA), where she manages and conducts research projects on
complex systems modeling, risk assessment, and human reliability. Before
her current position, she was a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow at the
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway,
where she conducted research on autonomous vessels risk assessment and
human-system interaction modeling. She holds a Ph.D. (2017) in Chem-
ical Engineering from the Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE),
Brazil. Her research interests lie in risk assessment and human-system
interaction on highly automated and autonomous systems.
Agathe Rialland is a Researcher from SINTEF Ocean, department
of Energy and Transport. Graduated from EM Lyon Business School,
France (2002) and BI Norwegian Business School, Norway (2006),
she has 15 years of experience in applied research for the maritime
industry, dedicated to energy efficiency and emission reductions from
ships and shipping operations. Her work includes techno-economic
xx NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

feasibility studies, development of decision-support systems, and contri-

bution to policy development. She has co-authored several publications
on measures and pathways towards shipping decarbonization in a.o.
Transportation Research Part D, Ocean Engineering, SNAME Maritime
Convention.
Ørnulf Jan Rødseth has an M.Sc. in cybernetics and electronic engi-
neering from the Norwegian Institute of Technology (now NTNU)
in 1983. He is a well-known researcher in maritime information and
communication technology and has worked in the area for more than
25 years. This has mostly been in research institutes, but he has also four
years’ experience from maritime electronics industry. Since 2011, he has
worked mainly with autonomous ship technology, but is still active in
digitalization onboard the ships, and in communication between ships
and shore. He is a senior scientist at SINTEF Ocean, a not-for-profit
and independent research institute in Trondheim, Norway. He is also
general manager in Norwegian Forum for Autonomous Ships (NFAS)
and is coordinator for the International Network for Autonomous Ships
(INAS). He spends significant time on standardization and is a member
of ISO TC8 and IEC TC80. He regularly meets at IMO as observer for
ISO.
Jon A. Skinner is a retired Commander, US Navy, and a long time
Alaskan resident. His PhD from the University of Alaska Fairbanks is
Interdisciplinary—Polar Geography and Strategic Studies. His disserta-
tion explored scenario futures for Russian capacity as a Great State by
assessing its ability to succeed and expand its frontier energy sector—
Russian Capacity to Develop Its Offshore Hydrocarbons in the Kara Sea:
Arctic and Global Implications. He also holds an M.S. (Intelligence)
and an M.A. (Strategic Planning) from the Naval Postgraduate School,
Monterey California. He currently serves as an Adjunct with MatSu
College, University of Alaska Anchorage and as a Course Instructor with
the Global College of PME, Air University. His research focuses on the
Polar regions from an energy and maritime perspective with the belief that
the Arctic can be envisioned as a “geographic” laboratory with less actors
and therefore less variables to account for.
Øyvind Smogeli received his Ph.D. in Marine Technology from the
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in 2006. He
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Na₂HPO₄ Weight of Mg₂P₂O₇ in Weight of P₂O₅ Salt
cubic twenty-five cubic Mg₂P₂O₇ in absorbed removed
centimeters centimeters of the filtrate. by 100 per cent.
filtrate solution. grams
taken. soil.
(a) 25 0.1368 gram 0.0962
gram
(b) 25 0.0963 „ 0.2589 29.6
gram

Mean 0.0963 „

KCl cubic Weight of K₂PtCl₆ in Weight of K₂O Salt

centimeters twenty-five cubic K₂PtCl₆. absorbed removed
filtrate centimeters of solution. by 100 per cent.
taken. grams
soil.
(a) 25 0.6154 gram 0.4505
gram
(b) 25 0.4540 „ 0.3161 26.5
gram

Mean 0.4523 „

K₂SO₄ Weight of K₂PtCl₆ in Weight of K₂O Salt

cubic twenty-five cubic K₂PtCl₆. absorbed removed
centimeters centimeters of solution. by 100 per cent.
filtrate grams
taken. soil.
(a) 25 0.6113 gram 0.4426
gram
(b) 25 0.4371 „ 0.3324 28.0
gram

Mean 0.4399 „

(NH₄)₂SO₄ Number cubic Half normal N Salt

cubic centimeters one-half acid absorbed absorbed
centimeters normal acid neutralized neutralized. by 100 per cent.
 filtrate by fifty cubic centimeters grams
taken. of solution. soil.
(a) 50 10.00 7.25 grams
(b) 50 7.25 „ 0.0964 27.5
gram

Mean 7.25 „

NaNO₃ Number cubic Cubic N Salt

cubic centimeters N₂O₂ centimeter absorbed absorbed
centimeters afforded by ten cubic N₂O₂ at 0° by 100 per cent.
filtrate centimeters of solution at and 1000 grams
taken. 0° and 1000 millimeters millimeters. soil.
pressure.
(a) 10 16.63 16.77 grams
(b) 10 16.70 „ none 00.00

Mean 16.73 „

Upon comparing the figures it will be found that the absorption,

passing from the greatest to the least, is as follows: phosphoric acid
(P₂O₆), potassium sulfate, ammonium sulfate, potassium chlorid
and sodium nitrate.
It will be seen that there was no absorption in the case of the
nitrate, while with each of the other salts there was quite a marked
absorption. It will also be noticed that the percentages of absorption
are not very different, and especially is this true of the potassium and
ammonium salts, the P₂O₅ being somewhat higher. Whether this
fact is merely an accidental occurrence or is due to the law of
combination by equivalents could hardly be predicted from the single
soil experimented upon; but taking into consideration the possibility
of difference in solubility of the resulting compounds in the saline
solutions used, and of other varying conditions, the percentages are
evidently not far enough apart to exclude the possibility of the bases
uniting in equivalent proportions.
138. Preparation of Salts for Absorption.—The salts
employed in the foregoing determinations are conveniently
prepared, in fractional normal strength.
 In grams per liter the following quantities in grams are
recommended, viz., 5.35 g NH₄Cl; 10.11 g KNO₃; 16.40 g Ca(NO₃)₂;
24.60 g MgSO₄ + 7H₂O; 23.4 g CaH₄(PO₄)₂, etc.
The ammonium chlorid, potassium nitrate and magnesium sulfate
can be weighed as chemically pure salts and the standard solution be
directly made up. Calcium nitrate is so hygroscopic that a stronger
solution must be made up, the calcium determined and the proper
volume taken and diluted to one liter.
Monocalcium phosphate is prepared as follows:
A solution of sodium phosphate is treated with glacial acetic acid
and precipitated with a solution of calcium chlorid. It is then washed
with water until all chlorin is removed. The fresh precipitate is
saturated with pure, cold phosphoric acid of known strength. After
filtering the solution is placed in a warm room and left for two or
three weeks until crystallization takes place.
The crystals are pressed between blotting papers and finally dried
over sulfuric acid and washed with water-free ether, and again dried.
Since this salt is decomposed in strong solutions it should be used
only in one hundredth normal strength, viz., 2.34 grams per liter.
 POROSITY AND ITS RELATIONS TO
MOISTURE.

139. Porosity.—The porosity of a soil depends upon the state of

divisibility and arrangement of its particles, and upon the amount of
interstitial space within the soil. If a soil be cemented together into a
homogeneous mass, its porosity sinks to a minimum; if it be
composed, however, of numerous fine particles, each preserving its
own physical condition, the porosity of the soil will rise to a
maximum. The porosity of a soil may be judged very closely by the
percentage of fine particles it yields by the process of silt analysis to
be described further on. In general, the more finely divided the
particles of a soil, the greater its fertility. This arises from various
causes; in the first place, such a soil has a high capacity for absorbing
moisture and holding it; thus the dangers of excessive rain-falls are
diminished, and the evil effects of prolonged drought mitigated. In
the second place, a porous soil permits a freer circulation of the gases
found in the soil. The influence of lime in securing the proper degree
of porosity of a soil is very great, especially in alluvial deposits and
other stiff soils. It prevents the impaction which will necessarily
follow in a soil which is too finely divided. In general, the porosity of
the soil may be said to depend on three factors, viz.: 1. Upon the state
of divisibility or the number of particles per unit volume; 2. Upon the
nature and arrangement of these particles; 3. Upon how much
interstitial space there is in the soil.
140. Influence of Drainage.—Good underdrainage increases
the porosity of a soil by removing the excess of water during wet
seasons and rendering the soil more suitable to capillary attraction
which will supply moisture during dry seasons. The influence of tile
drainage on the production of floods has been carefully studied by
Kedzie,[100] who shows that surface ditching in conjunction with
deforesting may increase floods and contribute to droughts, and that
tile-draining may increase flood at the break-up in spring, when the
water accumulated in the surface soil by the joint action of frost and
soil capillarity during the winter, and the surface accumulations in
the form of snow are suddenly set free by a rapid thaw.
He also points out that during the warm months tile-draining
tends to prevent flood by enabling the soil to take up the excessive
rain-fall and hold it in capillary form, keeping back the sudden flow
that would pass over the surface of the soil if not absorbed by it, and
it mitigates summer drought by increased capacity of the soil to hold
water in capillary form and to draw upon the subsoil water supply.
141. Soil Moisture.—The capacity of a soil to absorb moisture
and retain it depends on its porosity and is an important
characteristic in relation to its agricultural value.
The following general principles relating to soil moisture are
adapted from Stockbridge:[101]
During dry weather plants require a soil which is absorptive and
retentive of atmospheric moisture. The amount of this retention is
generally in direct ratio to two factors, viz., the amount of organic
matter and its state of division. The capillary water of the soil is very
closely related to its percolating power, since all waters in the soil are
governed in their movements by what is known as capillary force.
Liebenberg has shown that this movement may be either upwards or
downwards, according as the atmosphere is dry or supplies soil-
saturating rain. The water absorbed by the roots passes into the plant
circulation, and the greater part is evaporated from the leaves.
Where the supply of water is insufficient, the plant wilts, and if the
evaporation long continue in excess of the supply obtained from the
soil, the plant must die. The experiments of Hellriegel have shown
that any soil can supply plants with all the water they need, and as
fast as they need it, so long as the moisture within the soil is not
reduced below one-third of the whole amount that it can hold. The
quantity of water required and evaporated by different agricultural
plants during the period of growth has been found to be as follows:
 One acre of wheat exhales 409,832 pounds of water.
„ „ „ clover „ 1,096,234 „ „ „
„ „ „ sunflowers „ 12,585,994 „ „ „
„ „ „ cabbage „ 5,049,194 „ „ „
„ „ „ grape-vines „ 730,733 „ „ „
„ „ „ hops „ 4,445,021 „ „ „

Dietrich estimates the amount of water exhaled by the foliage of

plants to be from 250 to 400 times the weight of dry organic matter
formed during the same time. Cultivation conserves soil moisture. It
must be remembered that this water contains soil ingredients in
solution. Hoffmann has estimated that the quantity of matter
dissolved from the soil by water varies from 0.242 to 0.0205 per cent
of the dried earth. The experiments of Humphrey and Abbott have
shown that about one-sixth of the total sediment of the Mississippi
river is soluble in water.
142. Determination of the Porosity of the Soil.—The
porosity of the soil is fixed by the relative volume of the solid
particles as compared with the interstitial space. It is most easily
determined by dividing the apparent by the real specific gravity.
Let the real specific gravity of a soil be 2.5445 and the apparent
specific gravity of the same soil be 1.0990.
The porosity is then calculated according to the following ratios,
viz.:
2.5445 : 1.099 = 100 : X
Whence X = 43.2 = per cent volume occupied by the solid particles
of the soil.
The per cent volume occupied by the interstitial space is therefore
56.8.
143. Method of Whitney.—The total volume of interstitial space
within the soil, in which water and air can enter, is best determined
by calculation from the specific gravity and the weight of a known
volume of soil. To determine this in the soil in its natural position in
the field, a sample is taken in the following way: A brass tube, about
two inches in diameter and nine inches long, has a clock spring
securely soldered into one end, and this end turned off in a lathe to
give a good cutting edge of steel. The area enclosed by this steel edge
is accurately determined, and a mark is placed on the side of the tube
exactly six inches from the cutting edge. A steel cap fits on top of the
brass cylinder to receive the blows of a heavy hammer or wooden
mallet. The cylinder is driven into the ground until the six-inch mark
is just level with the surface. The whole is then dug out, care being
taken to slip a broad piece of steel under the cylinder before it is
removed, so as to prevent the soil which it contains from falling out.
The cylinder is then carefully laid over on its side, and the soil is cut
off flush with the cutting edge of steel. The soil is then removed from
the cylinder, carried to the laboratory and properly dried and
weighed. The object of the steel inserted in one end of the cylinder is
to reduce the friction on the inside of the tube to a minimum, and
thus prevent the soil inside the cylinder being forced down below the
level of the surrounding earth. The volume of the soil removed with
this sampler can readily be determined by calculation, as the area of
the end of the tube is known and the sample is six inches deep. In a
sampler, such as described here, this volume is about 300 cubic
centimeters. From the weight of soil and the volume of the sample,
the volume of interstitial space may be found by the following
formula:

S is the per cent by volume of interstitial space, V is the volume of

the tube in cubic centimeters, W is the weight of soil in grams, and ω
is the specific gravity of the soil. The specific gravity can be
determined for each soil, or the factor 2.65 can be used, which is
sufficiently accurate for most work.
The per cent by volume of interstitial space in the undisturbed
subsoil is found to range from about thirty-five for sandy land, to
sixty-five or seventy for stiff clay lands.
For the determination of the amount of water an air-dried soil will
hold, if all the space within it is completely filled with water, an
eight-inch straight argand lamp chimney, with a diameter of about
two inches, can be conveniently used. A mark is placed on the side of
the tube, six inches from one end, and the volume of the tube up to
this mark is found by covering the end with a piece of thin rubber
cloth, or by pressing the chimney down firmly on a glass plate, and
making a water-tight joint with paraffin or wax. Water is then poured
into the tube up to the six-inch mark, and the weight or volume of
water determined. The tube can then be dried, a piece of muslin tied
tightly over the top and the whole then weighed. Soil is carefully
poured in and the tube gently tapped on a soft support until the soil
is six inches deep in the tube, and has the desired degree of
compactness. The weight and volume of the soil can thus be
determined, and the volume of the interstitial space from the
formula already given. This can also be determined directly by
introducing water from above, or by immersing the cylinder of soil
up to the six-inch mark in water, and allowing the water to enter the
soil from below. With such a short depth of soil, very little water will
flow out when the cylinder is suspended in the air. The amount
which will flow out when the cylinder is thus suspended, will depend
both upon the texture and the depth of soil. It is impossible,
however, by this method, to completely remove the air or to
completely fill the space within the soil with water; for as the water
enters the soil, a considerable amount of air becomes entangled in
the capillary spaces, and this could not be removed except by boiling
and vigorous stirring, which would altogether change the texture of
the soil. The amount of water held by the soil, or the amount of space
within the soil into which water and air can enter, will evidently
depend upon the compactness of the soil, and this is best expressed
in per cent by volume of space.
144. Capacity of the Fine Soil for Holding Moisture.—The
soil, as it is taken from the field, may have quite a different water
coefficient from the same soil after it has been passed through a fine
sieve or been dried at air temperatures or at 100° or 110°. The
method of determination which depends upon adding excess of
water to a given weight of fine earth, and afterwards eliminating the
excess by percolation or filtration, is apt to give misleading results.
If, however, the results are obtained by working on the same weight
of soil, and in the same conditions, they may have value in a
comparative way. The comparison between soils must be made with
equal weights, in like apparatus and with the same manipulation, to
have any value. These determinations, however, cannot have the
same practical value as those made in the samples in a natural
condition as has just been described.
145. Method of Wolff Modified by Wahnschaffe.[102]—A
cylindrical zinc tube (Fig. 17), sixteen centimeters long and four
centimeters internal diameter, is used, the cubical capacity of which
is 200 cubic centimeters.
The cylinder is graduated by placing the moist linen disk on the
gauze and tying a piece of rubber cloth over the bottom. Water is
now poured in until the level is even with the gauze bottom. Add
then exactly 200 cubic centimeters of water, mark its surface on the
zinc, throw out the water, and file the zinc down to the mark.
The bottom of the tube is closed with a fine nickel-wire gauze.
Below this a piece of zinc tubing, of the size of the main tube, is
soldered; pierced laterally with a number of holes.
Before using, the gauze bottom of the cylinder is covered with a
moist, close fitting linen disk, and the whole apparatus weighed. It is
then filled with the fine earth, little by little, jolting the cylinder on a
soft substance after each addition of soil to secure an even filling.
When filled even full the whole is weighed, the increase in weight
giving the weight of soil taken.
 Figure 17.

Capacity of the Fine Soil for Holding Moisture. Method of

Wolff Modified by Wahnschaffe.

A large number of cylinders can be filled at once and placed in a

large glass crystallizing dish containing water and covered with a bell
jar (Fig. 17). The water should cover the gauze bottoms of the
cylinders to the depth of five to ten millimeters. More water should
be added from time to time as absorption takes place. The cylinders
should be left in the water until when weighed at intervals of an hour
no appreciable increase in weight takes place. The temperature and
barometer reading should be noted in connection with each
determination. With increasing temperature the water coefficient is
diminished.
The method of Wolff, as practiced in the laboratory of the
Chemical Division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has given
very concordant results. Five determinations were made on a sample
of vegetable soil with the Wolff cylinders, which were weighed at
intervals of ten, twenty, and thirty days, with the following results:

No. 1. Water absorbed after ten days 106.25 per cent

„ 2. „ „ „ „ „ 105.68 „ „
„ 3. „ „ „ „ „ 105.86 „ „
„ 4. „ „ „ „ „ 106.11 „ „
„ 5. „ „ „ „ „ 105.83 „ „

Mean 105.95 „ „

No. 1. Water absorbed after twenty days 106.44 per cent

„ 2. „ „ „ „ „ 105.98 „ „
„ 3. „ „ „ „ „ 106.56 „ „
„ 4. „ „ „ „ „ 106.52 „ „
„ 5. „ „ „ „ „ 106.38 „ „

Mean 106.38 „ „

No. 1. Water absorbed after thirty days 108.35 per cent

„ 2. „ „ „ „ „ 107.60 „ „
„ 3. „ „ „ „ „ 108.32 „ „
„ 4. „ „ „ „ „ 107.86 „ „
„ 5. „ „ „ „ „ 107.87 „ „

Mean 108.00 „ „

The data obtained show that there was a very slight increase in the
amount of moisture absorbed after the tenth day.
As will be seen, however, from the following data, the soil within
the cylinder does not contain in all parts the same percentage of
moisture, the lower portions of the cylinder containing notably larger
proportions than the upper parts. The cylindrical soil column was
divided into four equal parts and the moisture determined in each
part. Beginning with the top quarter the percentages of moisture
were as follows:
 First quarter 97.52 per cent
Second „ 105.91 „ „
Third „ 112.83 „ „
Fourth „ 116.48 „ „

146. Method of Petermann.[103]—The method of Wolff as

practiced by the Belgian Experiment Station, at Gembloux, is
essentially the same as described above.
Petermann recommends the use of tared cylinders twenty to
twenty-five centimeters long and six to eight centimeters in
diameter. The cylinder is to be filled with the fine earth, little by
little, with gentle tapping after each addition. The bottom of the
cylinder is closed with a perforated rubber stopper on which is
spread a moistened disk of linen. The cylinder, thus prepared and
filled, is weighed and afterwards placed in a vessel containing
distilled water, to such a depth as to secure a water level about two
centimeters above the lower surface of the soil in the cylinder. The
level of the water is kept constant as the contents of the cylinder are
moistened by capillarity. When the earth appears to be thoroughly
moistened, as can be told by the appearance of the upper surface,
maintain the contact with water for about five or six hours.
The cylinder is then removed, the upper surface covered to avoid
evaporation, allowed to drain for a few hours, wiped and weighed.
The cylinder is again placed in water to see if any increase in weight
takes place. The weight of the fine earth and of the absorbed water
being known, the percentage of absorption is easily calculated.
147. Method of A. Mayer.[104]—A glass tube, one and seven-
tenths centimeters in diameter, composed of two pieces, seventy-five
centimeters and twenty-five centimeters in length, is united by a
piece of rubber tubing. The lower free end of the seventy-five
centimeter piece is closed with a piece of linen. The tube is filled,
with gentle jolting, to the depth of one meter with fine earth, the
earth column thus extending twenty-five centimeters above the point
of union of the two pieces. Thus prepared, a quantity of water is
poured into the upper tube sufficient to temporarily saturate the
whole of the soil.
 During the sinking of the water in the tube there is thus effected a
moistening of the material before it is wholly filled with water. After
waiting until the water poured on top has disappeared the tube is
separated at the rubber tube connection and a sample of the moist
soil taken at that point. This is at once weighed and then dried at
100°. The loss in weight gives the water absorbed.
The number thus obtained is calculated to the standard by volume,
by use of the number representing the apparent specific gravity of
the fine earth.
For sand of different degrees of fineness the following numbers
were found:

Degree of fineness 2 3 4
Per cent water absorbed 7.0 13.7 44.6

The numbers thus obtained are taken to represent the absolute

water capacity of a mineral substance in powder.
The full water capacity, i. e., the power of holding water when the
powder is immersed in water, the excess of which is then allowed to
flow away is much greater than the absolute number.
This difference is shown in the following data:

Quartz, size three. Clay, size three.

Full water capacity 49.0 per cent 46.8 per cent
Absolute water capacity 13.7 „„ 24.5 „„

In general the absolute is markedly inferior to the full water

capacity. Only in the finest dust do the two numbers approach each
other.
148. Volumetric Determination.—A convenient apparatus for
this determination has been devised by Mr. J. L. Fuelling, of the
Chemical Division, Department of Agriculture. It is shown in Fig. 18.
It consists of an ordinary percolator the diameter of which
decreases slightly towards the lower end, a thick-wall rubber tube
and an ordinary burette, divided in tenths. A rubber stopper is fitted
to the mouth of the percolator and perforated twice—in the middle
and at the side, the former for a small tube provided with pinch-cock
and the latter for the neck of a small funnel. The whole is supported
on a convenient stand, the clamp holding the percolator being placed
above that supporting the burette, both clamps arranged to slide on
the stand-rod.
The method is as follows:
A mark is placed upon the projecting
tube at the lower end of the percolator,
and the tube at this point may be drawn
out sufficiently to decrease the width of
meniscus to one-eighth inch. Into the
percolator is first introduced a small disk
of wire gauze or perforated porcelain,
with heavy wire pendant in the tube.
Through the rubber stopper a small glass
tube is passed and its lower end pressed
firmly upon the wire or porcelain disk,
its upper end being curved and supplied
with a pinch-cock. Into the percolator is
now poured one inch of fine shot (No.
20) and then one inch of fine sand which
has been previously digested with
hydrochloric acid and well cleaned of
dust by washing.
The zero.—After the shot and sand
have been shaken even, the burette is
filled with water and raised above the
level of the sand, wetting the percolator
for four inches of its length. The burette
is lowered and the shot and sand bed
allowed to drain by opening the pinch-
cock of the inner tube. The burette is
raised and the shot-sand flooded
Figure 18.
repeatedly until, by lowering the burette
Fuelling’s Apparatus. until the zero mark of the percolator
tube is reached, a uniform reading on
the burette is secured. Thus the shot-
sand bed is completely charged with water. The water level is now
made zero on the percolator stem, the burette filled to its zero mark
and the apparatus is prepared for introduction of the soil.
The Determination.—From 100 to 200 grams of soil, previously
dried free of moisture, are weighed, the burette raised until the water
level is three inches above the sand, and the soil gently dropped
through a funnel into the water. When the soil has been introduced
and wetted completely the water level is raised above the soil and
allowed to remain thus two hours. The burette is then lowered and
the water allowed to drain from the wetted soil. Four to six hours are
usually given the draining, the reading taken on the burette after
establishing the zero on the percolator stem, the volume of absorbed
water thus ascertained and divided by the weight of soil multiplied
by 100; the result expresses the water absorbed per hundred of soil.
Example:

Water required to saturate disk, etc. 0.50 cubic centimeter.

Weight of air-dried soil taken 20.00 grams.
Moisture at 105° therein 14.25 per cent.
Weight water in soil 2.85 grams.
Reading of burette after saturation 10.75 cubic centimeters.
Less water required for disk, etc 9.25 „„
Temperature 20°.00
Weight of 9.25 cubic centimeters H₂O at 20° 9.22 grams.
Total weight of water retained by soil 12.07 „
Per cent water retained by soil 60.35 per cent.

For general analytical work the correction for variations in the

weight of water for different temperatures is of no practical
importance.
149. Accuracy of Results.—A sample of soil from the beet sugar
station, in Nebraska, gave the following duplicate results:

First trial 45.75 per cent water.

Second trial 44.85 „ „ „

Muck soils from Florida, containing varying proportions of sand,

gave the following numbers:
 Soil number one, 144.85 per cent, and 145.43 per cent; soil number two, 109.13
per cent, and 107.93 per cent; soil number three (very sandy), 46.86 per cent, and
46.51 per cent.

150. Method of Wollny.[105]—A zinc tube, ninety centimeters

long and four centimeters internal diameter, carries at each end, at
right angles to the axis, a flattened rim 1.5 centimeters broad. The
lower end of the tube is closed with a strong piece of coarse linen.
The soil to be examined is then filled in little by little, with gentle
tamping.
On the upper end two glass tubes are placed, each ten centimeters
long and four centimeters internal diameter. These tubes are
furnished at each end with cemented brass cylinders which are
expanded to a circular, evenly ground rim, 1.5 centimeters wide, also
at right angles to the axis of the main tube. These rims are greased
and placed together, one on the other, and held together by wooden
clamps.
The glass tube in immediate connection with the zinc tube is also
firmly filled with the soil sample, while the second tube is only partly
filled, so that any settling which may take place in the soil on the
addition of water may still find the first glass tube full of the sample.
The empty part of the upper glass tube is now filled with water and
additional quantities of water are added from time to time until the
soil is saturated. In order to be able to observe when this takes place
there is a slit at the lower end of the zinc tube which is closed with a
piece of glass. This slit should be about two centimeters broad and
ten centimeters long. The lower end of the zinc tube is set on a glass
plate to prevent evaporation.
As soon as the water shows itself at the lower end of the zinc tube,
the excess of water in the upper glass tube is at once removed by a
pipette and a stopper inserted through which a glass tube passes
drawn out into a fine point above. The object of this is to avoid
evaporation on the upper surface. The apparatus is then left at rest
for thirty-six hours.
At the end of this time the clamps are removed and the column of
moist earth cut with a piece of platinum foil, and the two ends of the
glass tube, next to the zinc tube, covered with glass plates. It is then
weighed and the weight of moist earth determined by deducting the
weight of the tube and its glass covers. The moist earth is carefully
removed to a large porcelain dish and dried at 100°. Before weighing
it is allowed to stand twenty-four hours in the air. The data obtained
are used to calculate the water content to volume per cent.
The volume of the glass tubes should be determined by careful
calibration.
151. Method of Heinrich.[106]—The soil to the depth turned by
the plow is dug out and in the hole a lead vessel without bottom,
twenty centimeters in diameter and forty centimeters high, is placed.
The soil is then thrown back around and outside the lead vessel until
the latter appears buried in the fragments.
The rest of the soil is passed into the lead vessel, through a sieve
having four meshes to the centimeter, using for this purpose enough
water to thoroughly moisten it. Care should be taken not to use
enough water to cause any separation of the fine from the coarse
particles.
By this process all coarse stones, sticks, etc., are separated. In
sandy soils the flask is left for a few hours while in clay soils a much
longer time is necessary. When the excess of water has disappeared
the lead cylinder is removed, and a piece cut out of the center of it
placed in a weighed drying flask and dried at 100°.
152. Effect of Pressure on Water Capacity.[107]—The
increasing capacity of soil to hold water developed by shaking or
pressure, is determined by Henrici in the following way:
Into a glass cylinder of twenty millimeters internal diameter are
poured twenty cubic centimeters of water. A given quantity of soil is
next added, and after standing until thoroughly saturated, the
residual water is measured by pouring off, or better, by graduations
on the side of the tube. The increase in the volume of the clear water
is also measured, after shaking, in the same way. The data of a
determination made as above described follow:
 Water in cylinder 30 cubic centimeters.
Water and saturated soil 40 „ „
Volume of unsaturated soil = e = 10 „ „
Volume of saturated soil = e + w = 20.5 „ „
Water contained therein = w = 10.5 „ „

By repeated shaking the volume of e + w, the content of w therein,

and the relative values of we were found to be as follows:

Cubic Cubic Cubic Cubic

centimeters. centimeters. centimeters. centimeters.
e+w 20.5 16.0 15.7 15.0
w 10.5 6.0 5.7 5.0
w 1.05 0.60 0.57 0.50
e

If e′ represent the volume of the saturated soil then e′ = e + w, and

this gives the relation to the volume of dry earth represented by the
equation e′e = 1 + we . This indicates that the relative volume of the
saturated soil is equal to unity increased by the relative content of
water.
153. Coefficient of Evaporation.—At an ordinary room
temperature in the shade, samples of soil, if they are subjected to
experiment in tolerably thin layers have nearly an equal coefficient of
evaporation. That is, the absolute quantity of water evaporated in a
given time is almost entirely conditioned upon the magnitude of the
surface exposed and the temperature of the surrounding air. Only
when exposed in conditions as nearly as possible natural in thin
layers to the action of the sunlight and shade do the soils show their
peculiarities in respect of the evaporation of moisture. In order to see
these peculiarities, samples of soil which have been previously
examined must be subjected to examination at the same time with
the soil whose properties are to be determined.
The zinc box, before described, should be protected with a well
fitting cover of thick paper, and the different samples of soil which
are to be tested placed therein. This should now be placed in a
wooden box, the top of which is exactly even with the top of the zinc
vessel. This box containing the vessel should be exposed to the
sunlight. After twenty-four hours the zinc boxes can be taken away
from position and their loss in moisture determined, and these
weighings, according to the condition of the atmosphere, can be
continued from fourteen days to three weeks, the temperature of the
air of course being carefully determined at each time. At first, all the
different soils being saturated with moisture, it will be observed that
the loss of moisture is proportionately the same for all. Soon,
however, the rapidity of the evaporation in the samples of soil rich in
humus and clay will be decreased as compared with the sandy soils,
and in general, those which possess a high capillary power capable of
bringing the moisture rapidly from the deeper layers to the surface.
There soon comes a point when the difference in evaporation is at its
greatest; and then there will be a gradual diminution until the
samples lose no further moisture. This point, for the different soils,
can be determined by frequent weighings of the vessel.
154. Determination of Capillary Attraction.—Long glass
tubes graduated in centimeters may be used for this determination,
or plain tubes so arranged as to admit of easy measurements with a
rule. The tubes may be from one to two centimeters internal
diameter and about one meter long. The fine earth should be evenly
filled in little by little, with gentle jolting. The lower end of each tube,
before filling, is closed with a piece of linen.
The tubes, after filling, are supported in an upright position by a
frame AE, Fig. 19, in a vessel B containing water in which the linen
covered ends D dip to the depth of two centimeters. The height of the
water in the several tubes should be read or measured at stated
intervals. The water contained in the supply vessel should be kept at
a constant height by a Mariotte bottle.
 The observations may be
discontinued after one hundred
and twenty hours, but even then
the water will not have reached
its maximum height.
It is recommended by some
experimenters to cut the tubes,
after the above determination is
completed, into pieces ten
centimeters in length, and to
determine the per cent of water
in each portion.
155. Statement of Results.
—The following table illustrates
a convenient method of
tabulating the observed data as
given by König.[108]
Figure 19.

Apparatus to show Capillary Attraction of Soils

for Water.

Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6
sample
24 hours. 27.3 38.0 16.7 36.4 8.0 28.8 centimeters.
48 „ 35.9 50.8 24.5 49.2 11.9 40.5 „
Height of moisture
72 „ 41.5 59.5 30.0 57.9 15.2 49.1 „
column after:
96 „ 44.4 66.2 33.5 63.8 17.5 55.2 „
120 „ 46.7 70.0 36.3 68.5 19.2 60.5 „

156. Inverse Capillarity.—In tubes filled with fine earth, as described in

paragraph 154, water is quickly poured, the same quantity into each tube of the
same diameter, or such quantities in tubes of different diameters as would form a
water column of the same depth over the surface of the sample. The rate at which
the water column descends in each tube, the time of the disappearance of the
water at the surface and the final depth to which it reaches, are the data to be
entered.
157. Statement of Results.—The points to be observed in the determination
of inverse capillarity are the number of hours required for the total absorption of
a column of water of a given height, the depth of the moisture column at that
moment, and the total depth to which the moisture column finally reaches. The
data of observations with six samples with a water column four centimeters high
are given by König[109] as follows: