Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.

33 Page 1 of 12

Problem 2.33
Determine the transmission coefficient for a rectangular barrier (same as Equation 2.148, only
with V (x) = +V0 > 0 in the region −a < x < a). Treat separately the three cases E < V0 ,
E = V0 , and E > V0 (note that the wave function inside the barrier is different in the three cases).
Partial answer: for E < V0 ,52

V02
 
−1 2 2a
p
T =1+ sinh 2m(V0 − E) .
4E(V0 − E) ~

Solution

The governing equation for the wave function Ψ(x, t) is the Schrödinger equation.

∂Ψ ~2 ∂ 2 Ψ
i~ =− + V (x, t)Ψ(x, t), −∞ < x < ∞, t > 0
∂t 2m ∂x2
For a rectangular barrier,

0
 if x < −a
V (x, t) = V (x) = V0 if − a ≤ x ≤ a ,

0 if x > a


which means the PDE becomes

∂Ψ ~2 ∂ 2 Ψ
i~ =− + V (x)Ψ(x, t).
∂t 2m ∂x2
Since information about the eigenstates and their corresponding energies is desired, the method of
separation of variables is opted for. This method works because Schrödinger’s equation and its
associated boundary conditions (Ψ and its derivatives tend to zero as x → ±∞) are linear and
homogeneous. Assume a product solution of the form Ψ(x, t) = ψ(x)φ(t) and plug it into the
PDE.
∂ ~2 ∂ 2
i~ [ψ(x)φ(t)] = − [ψ(x)φ(t)] + V (x)[ψ(x)φ(t)]
∂t 2m ∂x2
Evaluate the derivatives.
~2 00
i~ψ(x)φ0 (t) = − ψ (x)φ(t) + V (x)ψ(x)φ(t)
2m
Divide both sides by ψ(x)φ(t) in order to separate variables.

φ0 (t) ~2 ψ 00 (x)
i~ =− + V (x)
φ(t) 2m ψ(x)

The only way a function of t can be equal to a function of x is if both are equal to a constant E.

φ0 (t) ~2 ψ 00 (x)
i~ =− + V (x) = E
φ(t) 2m ψ(x)
52
This is a good example of tunneling—classically the particle would bounce back.

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 2 of 12

As a result of using the method of separation of variables, the Schrödinger equation has reduced
to two ODEs, one in x and one in t.

φ0 (t)

i~ = E

φ(t) 
~2 ψ 00 (x) 
− + V (x) = E 
2m ψ(x)

Values of E for which the boundary conditions are satisfied are called the eigenvalues (or
eigenenergies in this context), and the nontrivial solutions associated with them are called the
eigenfunctions (or eigenstates in this context). The ODE in x is known as the time-independent
Schrödinger equation (TISE) and can be written as

d2 ψ 2m
2
= 2 [V (x) − E]ψ.
dx ~
Split up the ODE over the intervals that V (x) is defined on.

d2 ψ 2m d2 ψ 2m
2
= 2 (−E)ψ, |x| > a 2
= 2 (V0 − E)ψ, −a ≤ x ≤ a
dx ~ dx ~
The solution for ψ on the interval −a ≤ x ≤ a depends on whether V0 − E > 0, V0 − E = 0, or
V0 − E < 0. Each of these cases will be examined in turn.

Note that scattering states correspond to E > 0. In each case, the aim is to determine the
reflection and transmission coefficients.

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 3 of 12

Case I: V0 − E > 0

d2 ψ 2mE d2 ψ 2m
2
= − 2 ψ, |x| > a 2
= 2 (V0 − E)ψ, −a ≤ x ≤ a
dx ~ dx ~
In this case, the general solution on −a ≤ x ≤ a can be written in terms of hyperbolic sine and
hyperbolic cosine. 
ikx −ikx if x < −a
Ae + Be

ψ(x) = C cosh `x + D sinh `x if − a ≤ x ≤ a

F e + Ge−ikx
 ikx
if x > a
Here √ p
2mE 2m(V0 − E)
k= and ` = .
~ ~
Solving the ODE in t yields φ(t) = e−iEt/~ , which means the product solution is a linear
combination of waves travelling to the left and to the right (on x < −a and x > a).

i(kx−Et/~) + Be−i(kx+Et/~) if x < −a
Ae

ψ(x)φ(t) = Ce −iEt/~ cosh `x + De −iEt/~ sinh `x if − a ≤ x ≤ a

 i(kx−Et/~)
Fe + Ge −i(kx+Et/~) if x > a

Assuming there’s a plane wave incident from the left, G = 0, and the reflection and transmission
coefficients are R = |B/A|2 and T = |F/A|2 , respectively. Require the wave function [and
consequently ψ(x)] to be continuous at x = −a and x = a to determine two of the constants.

lim ψ(x) = lim ψ(x) : Ae−ika + Beika = C cosh `a − D sinh `a

x→−a− x→−a+

lim ψ(x) = lim ψ(x) : C cosh `a + D sinh `a = F eika + Ge−ika

x→+a− x→+a+

Integrate both sides of the TISE with respect to x from −a −  to −a + , where  is a really small
positive number, to determine one more constant.
ˆ −a+ 2 ˆ −a+
d ψ 2m
2
dx = 2
[V (x) − E]ψ(x) dx
−a− dx −a− ~
ˆ −a ˆ −a+
dψ −a+ 2m 2m
= 2
(−E)ψ(x) dx + (V0 − E)ψ(x) dx
dx −a− −a− ~ −a ~2
ˆ −a ˆ −a+
2mE 2m
= − 2 ψ(−a) dx + 2 (V0 − E)ψ(−a) dx
~ −a− ~ −a
2mE 2m
= − 2 ψ(−a) + 2 (V0 − E)ψ(−a)
~ ~
Take the limit as  → 0.
−a+
dψ
=0
dx −a−

It turns out that ∂Ψ/∂x is continuous at x = −a as well.

dψ dψ
lim = lim : ik(Ae−ika − Beika ) = `(−C sinh `a + D cosh `a)
x→−a− dx x→−a+ dx

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 4 of 12

Integrate both sides of the TISE with respect to x from a −  to a +  to determine one more
constant.
ˆ a+ 2 ˆ a+
d ψ 2m
2
dx = 2
[V (x) − E]ψ(x) dx
a− dx a− ~
ˆ a ˆ a+
dψ a+ 2m 2m
= 2
(V0 − E)ψ(x) dx + (−E)ψ(x) dx
dx a− a− ~ a ~2
ˆ a ˆ a+
2m 2mE
= 2 (V0 − E)ψ(a) dx − 2 ψ(a) dx
~ a− ~ a
2m(V0 − E) 2mE
= ψ(a) − 2 ψ(a)
~2 ~
Take the limit as  → 0.
a+
dψ
=0
dx a−
∂Ψ/∂x also happens to be continuous at x = a.

dψ dψ
lim = lim : `(C sinh `a + D cosh `a) = ik(F eika − Ge−ika )
x→a− dx x→a+ dx

To summarize, there are four equations involving A, B, C, D, and F . G is set equal to zero.
 −ika
 Ae
 + Beika = C cosh `a − D sinh `a

 C cosh `a + D sinh `a = F eika




 ik(Ae−ika − Beika ) = `(−C sinh `a + D cosh `a)

`(C sinh `a + D cosh `a) = ik(F eika )


Solve the second and fourth equations for C and D. To get C, multiply both sides of the second
by cosh `a and multiply both sides of the fourth by (sinh `a)/`.

 C cosh2 `a + D sinh `a cosh `a = F eika cosh `a



 C sinh2 `a + D sinh `a cosh `a = ik F eika sinh `a

`
Subtract the respective sides to eliminate D.
 
ik
C(cosh2 `a − sinh2 `a) = F eika cosh `a − sinh `a
`

Use the fact that cosh2 `a − sinh2 `a = 1.

 
ika ik
C = Fe cosh `a − sinh `a
`

To get D, multiply both sides of the second by sinh `a and multiply both sides of the fourth by
(cosh `a)/`.
 C sinh `a cosh `a + D sinh2 `a = F eika sinh `a


 C sinh `a cosh `a + D cosh2 `a = ik F eika cosh `a

`

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 5 of 12

Subtract the respective sides to eliminate C.

 
2 2 ik
ika
D(cosh `a − sinh `a) = F e cosh `a − sinh `a
`
 
ika ik
D = Fe cosh `a − sinh `a
`
Substitute these formulas for C and D into the first equation.

Ae−ika + Beika = C cosh `a − D sinh `a

   
ika ik ika ik
= Fe cosh `a − sinh `a cosh `a − F e cosh `a − sinh `a sinh `a
` `
 
2ik
= F eika cosh2 `a − sinh `a cosh `a + sinh2 `a
`
 
ika ik
= Fe cosh 2`a − sinh 2`a
`

Substitute these formulas for C and D into the third equation.

ik
(Ae−ika − Beika ) = −C sinh `a + D cosh `a
`    
ika ik ika ik
= −F e cosh `a − sinh `a sinh `a + F e cosh `a − sinh `a cosh `a
` `
 
ika ik 2 2
= Fe −2 sinh `a cosh `a + (sinh `a + cosh `a)
`
 
ik
= F eika − sinh 2`a + cosh 2`a
`

Consequently, the first and third equations become

 
ik

−ika ika ika

 Ae + Be = F e cosh 2`a − sinh 2`a
 `
 .
 −ika ika ika `
 Ae
 − Be = F e cosh 2`a − sinh 2`a
ik

Subtract the respective sides to eliminate A.

 
ika ika ik `
2Be = F e − sinh 2`a + sinh 2`a
` ik
 2 2 2

ika −i k + `
= Fe sinh 2`a
ik`
 2
k + `2

= F eika sinh 2`a
ik`

Solve for B.
k 2 + `2
 
B=F sinh 2`a
2ik`

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 6 of 12

Add the respective sides to eliminate B.

   
−ika ika ik `
2Ae = Fe 2 cosh 2`a − + sinh 2`a
` ik
i2 k 2 + `2
 
= F eika 2 cosh 2`a − sinh 2`a
ik`
k − `2
2
 
ika
= Fe 2 cosh 2`a + sinh 2`a
ik`
k 2 − `2
 
ika
= Fe 2 cosh 2`a − i sinh 2`a
k`

Solve for F .
e−2ika A
F = 2−` 2
cosh 2`a − i k 2k` sinh 2`a
The transmission coefficient can now be determined.
   ∗ " #" #
F 2 F F e−2ika e2ika
T = = = 2 −`2 2 −`2
A A A cosh 2`a − i k 2k` sinh 2`a cosh 2`a + i k 2k` sinh 2`a
1
= (k2 −`2 )2
2
cosh 2`a + 4k2 `2 sinh2 2`a

Invert both sides and then plug in the formulas for k and `.

(k 2 − `2 )2
T −1 = cosh2 2`a + sinh2 2`a
4k 2 `2
p p
2a 2m(V0 − E)
2 (V0 − 2E)2 2 2a 2m(V0 − E)
= cosh + sinh
~ 4E(V0 − E) ~
p p
2 2a 2m(V0 − E) V02 − 4EV0 + 4E 2 2 2a 2m(V0 − E)
= cosh + sinh
~ 4E(V0 − E) ~
p p p
2 2a 2m(V0 − E) V02 2 2a 2m(V0 − E) 4EV0 − 2 2m(V0 − E)

4E

2 2a
= cosh + sinh −  sinh
~ 4E(V0 − E) ~ 4E(V
 
0 − E) ~

Therefore, the transmission coefficient for the case that V0 − E > 0 is

p
V02 2a 2m(V0 − E)
T −1 =1+ sinh2 .
4E(V0 − E) ~

Combine the formulas for B and F .

 
k2 +`2

k2+ `2

e−2ika A

k2+ `2
 e−2ika A 2k` sinh 2`a
B=F sinh 2`a = 2−` 2 sinh 2`a = k2 −`2
2ik` cosh 2`a − i k 2k` sinh 2`a 2ik` i cosh 2`a + 2k` sinh 2`a

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 7 of 12

Now the reflection coefficient can be determined.

   
−2ika k2 +`2 sinh 2`a 2ika k2 +`2 sinh 2`a
  
B 2    ∗
B B e 2k` e 2k`
R= = = 2 2
 2 2

A A A i cosh 2`a + k −` sinh 2`a
2k` −i cosh 2`a + k −` sinh 2`a 2k`

(k2 +`2 )2 (k2 +`2 )2

4k2 `2
sinh2 2`a 4k2 `2
sinh2 2`a
= =
2
cosh2 2`a + (k4k−`
2 )2
2 `2 sinh2 2`a T −1
√
V02 2 2a 2m(V0 −E)
4E(V0 −E) sinh ~ 1
= √ = √
V02 2 2a 2m(V0 −E) 4E(V0 −E) 2 2a 2m(V0 −E)
1+ 4E(V0 −E) sinh ~ V02
csch ~ +1

Therefore, the reflection coefficient for the case that V0 − E > 0 is

p
−1 4E(V0 − E) 2a 2m(V0 − E)
R =1+ 2 csch2 .
V0 ~

Note that R√+ T = 1. Below are plots of y = T (E) (in blue) and y = R(E) (in red) versus E for
m = ~, a = ~, and various magnitudes of V0 .

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 8 of 12

Case II: V0 − E = 0

d2 ψ 2mV0 d2 ψ
2
= − 2 ψ, |x| > a = 0, −a ≤ x ≤ a
dx ~ dx2
In this case, the general solution on −a ≤ x ≤ a is a straight line.

ikx −ikx if x < −a
Ae + Be

ψ(x) = Cx + D if − a ≤ x ≤ a

 ikx
F e + Ge −ikx if x > a

Here √
2mV0
k= .
~
Solving the ODE in t yields φ(t) = e−iEt/~ , which means the product solution is a linear
combination of waves travelling to the left and to the right (on x < −a and x > a).

i(kx−Et/~) + Be−i(kx+Et/~) if x < −a
Ae

ψ(x)φ(t) = Ce−iEt/~ x + De−iEt/~ if − a ≤ x ≤ a

 i(kx−Et/~)
Fe + Ge −i(kx+Et/~) if x > a

Assuming there’s a plane wave incident from the left, G = 0, and the reflection and transmission
coefficients are R = |B/A|2 and T = |F/A|2 , respectively. Require the wave function [and
consequently ψ(x)] to be continuous at x = −a and x = a to determine two of the constants.

lim ψ(x) = lim ψ(x) : Ae−ika + Beika = −Ca + D

x→−a− x→−a+

lim ψ(x) = lim ψ(x) : Ca + D = F eika + Ge−ika

x→+a− x→+a+

Integrate both sides of the TISE with respect to x from −a −  to −a + , where  is a really small
positive number, to determine one more constant.
ˆ −a+ 2 ˆ −a+
d ψ 2m
2
dx = 2
[V (x) − E]ψ(x) dx
−a− dx −a− ~
ˆ −a ˆ −a+
dψ −a+ 2m 2m
= 2
(−E)ψ(x) dx + (V0 − E)ψ(x) dx
dx −a− −a− ~ −a ~2
ˆ −a
2mV0
= − 2 ψ(−a) dx
~ −a−
2mV0
= − 2 ψ(−a)
~
Take the limit as  → 0.
−a+
dψ
=0
dx −a−

It turns out that ∂Ψ/∂x is continuous at x = −a as well.

dψ dψ
lim = lim : ik(Ae−ika − Beika ) = C
x→−a− dx x→−a+ dx

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 9 of 12

Integrate both sides of the TISE with respect to x from a −  to a +  to determine one more
constant.
ˆ a+ 2 ˆ a+
d ψ 2m
2
dx = 2
[V (x) − E]ψ(x) dx
a− dx a− ~
ˆ a ˆ a+
dψ a+ 2m 2m
= 2
(V0 − E)ψ(x) dx + (−E)ψ(x) dx
dx a− a− ~ a ~2
ˆ a+
2mV0
= − 2 ψ(a) dx
~ a
2mV0
= − 2 ψ(a)
~
Take the limit as  → 0.
a+
dψ
=0
dx a−
∂Ψ/∂x also happens to be continuous at x = a.

dψ dψ
lim = lim : C = ik(F eika − Ge−ika )
x→a− dx x→a dx
+

To summarize, there are four equations involving A, B, C, D, and F . G is set equal to zero.
 −ika

 Ae + Beika = −Ca + D

 Ca + D = F eika


 ik(Ae−ika − Beika ) = C



C = ik(F eika )


Solve the second and fourth equations for C and D.

C = ikF eika
D = F eika (1 − ika)

Substitute these results into the first and third equations.

( −ika
Ae + Beika = F eika (1 − 2ika)
Ae−ika − Beika = F eika

Subtract the respective sides to get B.

2Beika = F eika (−2ika)

B = −ikaF
Add the respective sides to get A.

2Ae−ika = F eika (2 − 2ika)

e−2ika A
F =
1 − ika

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 10 of 12

The transmission coefficient can now be found.

   ∗  −2ika   2ika 
F 2 F F e e 1 1
T = = = = 2 2
= 2
A A A 1 − ika 1 + ika 1+k a 1 + ~20 a
2mV

Therefore, the transmission coefficient for the case that V0 − E = 0 is

~2
T = .
~2 + 2ma2 V0

Now combine the formulas for B and F .

e−2ika A
B = −ikaF = −ika
1 − ika
The reflection coefficient is
   ∗  2mV0 a2
B 2 e−2ika e2ika k 2 a2
 
B B ~2
R= = = −ika ika = = 2mV0 a2
.
A A A 1 − ika 1 + ika 1 + k 2 a2 1 + ~2

Therefore, the reflection coefficient for the case that V0 − E = 0 is

2ma2 V0
R= .
~2 + 2ma2 V0

Note that R + T√= 1. Below are plots of y = T (V0 ) (in blue) and y = R(V0 ) (in red) versus V0 for
m = ~ and a = ~.

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 11 of 12

Case III: V0 − E < 0

d2 ψ 2mE d2 ψ 2m
2
= − 2 ψ, |x| > a 2
= − 2 (E − V0 )ψ, −a ≤ x ≤ a
dx ~ dx ~
In this case, the general solution on −a ≤ x ≤ a can be written in terms of sine and cosine.

ikx −ikx if x < −a
Ae + Be

ψ(x) = C0 sin lx + D0 cos lx if − a ≤ x ≤ a

F e + Ge−ikx
 ikx
if x > a

Here √ p
2mE 2m(E − V0 )
k= and l = .
~ ~
This scattering state was analyzed in Problem 2.32, so the same formulas for R and T in terms of
k and l can be used. Plug in these new formulas for k and l.

(k 2 + l2 )2
T −1 = cos2 2la + sin2 2la
4k 2 l2 p
(2E − V )2 2a 2m(E − V0 )
0
= cos2 2la + sin2
4E(E − V0 ) ~
p
4E 2 − 4EV + V 2 2a 2m(E − V0 )
0
= cos2 2la + 0
sin2
4E(E − V0 ) ~
p
4E 2 − V02 2m(E − V0 )

2 4EV
 0 2a
= cos 2la + sin2 2la + sin2
 − V0 )
4E(E 4E(E − V0 )

 ~

Therefore, the transmission coefficient for the case that V0 − E < 0 is

p
−1 V02 2 2a 2m(E − V0 )
T =1+ sin .
4E(E − V0 ) ~

(l2 − k 2 )2 sin2 2la

R=
4k 2 l2 T −1 √
V02 2a 2m(E−V0 )
4E(E−V0 ) sin2 ~
= √
V02 2 2a 2m(E−V0 )
1+ 4E(E−V0 ) sin ~
1
= √
4E(E−V0 ) 2a 2m(E−V0 )
V02
csc2 ~ +1

Therefore, the reflection coefficient for the case that V0 − E < 0 is

p
−1 4E(E − V0 ) 2 2a 2m(E − V0 )
R =1+ csc .
V02 ~

Note that R + T = 1.

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Griffiths Quantum Mechanics 3e: Problem 2.33 Page 12 of 12

√
Below are plots of y = T (E) (in blue) and y = R(E) (in red) versus E for m = ~, a = ~, and
various magnitudes of V0 .

In conclusion, for a rectangular barrier,

 p
4E(V0 − E) 2 2a 2m(V0 − E)
1+ csch if E < V0


V02



 ~

 ~2 + 2ma2 V

0
R−1 = 2V
if E = V0

 2ma 0

 p
4E(E − V0 ) 2a 2m(E − V0 )



1 + 2
 csc if E > V0
V02 ~
p
V02

2a 2m(V0 − E)
1 + sinh2 if E < V0

−



 4E(V 0 E) ~

 2
~ + 2ma2 V0

T −1 = if E = V0 .

 ~2

 p
V02 2a 2m(E − V0 )



1 + 2
 sin if E > V0
4E(E − V0 ) ~

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