Electrical Systems 2: From Diagnosis to

Prognosis Hubert Razik

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/electrical-systems-2-from-diagnosis-to-prognosis-hub
ert-razik/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Electrical Systems 1 From Diagnosis to Prognosis Hubert

Razik

https://ebookmass.com/product/electrical-systems-1-from-
diagnosis-to-prognosis-hubert-razik/

Electrical and Mechanical Fault Diagnosis in Wind

Energy Conversion Systems Monia Ben Khader Bouzid

https://ebookmass.com/product/electrical-and-mechanical-fault-
diagnosis-in-wind-energy-conversion-systems-monia-ben-khader-
bouzid/

Voltage Stability in Electrical Power Systems 1st

Edition Farid Karbalaei

https://ebookmass.com/product/voltage-stability-in-electrical-
power-systems-1st-edition-farid-karbalaei/

GATE Electrical Engineering Topic-wise Practice Tests -

Trishna Knowledge Systems

https://ebookmass.com/product/gate-electrical-engineering-topic-
wise-practice-tests-trishna-knowledge-systems/
System Architecture and Complexity Vol. 2: Contribution
of Systems of Systems to Systems Thinking Printz

https://ebookmass.com/product/system-architecture-and-complexity-
vol-2-contribution-of-systems-of-systems-to-systems-thinking-
printz/

Introduction to Computing Systems: From Bits & Gates to

C & Beyond 3rd Edition Yale Patt

https://ebookmass.com/product/introduction-to-computing-systems-
from-bits-gates-to-c-beyond-3rd-edition-yale-patt/

Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems 4th ed Edition

Sherwood

https://ebookmass.com/product/human-physiology-from-cells-to-
systems-4th-ed-edition-sherwood/

GATE 2019 Electrical Engineering Previous Years' Solved

Question Papers Trishna Knowledge Systems

https://ebookmass.com/product/gate-2019-electrical-engineering-
previous-years-solved-question-papers-trishna-knowledge-systems/

Ferroic materials for smart systems from fundamentals

to device applications Dai

https://ebookmass.com/product/ferroic-materials-for-smart-
systems-from-fundamentals-to-device-applications-dai/
Electrical Systems 2
Electrical Systems 2

From Diagnosis to Prognosis

Edited by

Abdenour Soualhi
Hubert Razik
First published 2020 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2020

The rights of Abdenour Soualhi and Hubert Razik to be identified as the authors of this work have been
asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019956924

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-608-1
 Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Chapter 1. Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by

External Field Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Remus PUSCA, Eric LEFEVRE, David MERCIER, Raphael ROMARY and
Miftah IRHOUMAH
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Extracting indicators from the external magnetic field . . . . . . 3
1.2.1. External field classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2. Attenuation of the transverse field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3. Measurement of the transverse field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4. Modeling a healthy machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5. Modeling a faulty machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.6. Effect of the load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3. Information fusion to detect the inter-turn
short-circuit faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.1. Belief function theory: basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.2. Fault detection with the fusion method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.3. Calculation example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4. Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.1. Presentation of rotating electrical machines . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.2. Presentation of experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
vi Electrical Systems 2

Chapter 2. Signal Processing Techniques for

Transient Fault Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
José Alfonso Antonino DAVIU and Roque Alfredo Osornio RIOS
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 37
2.2. Fault detection via motor current analysis . . . . . . . . . . . ... 41
2.2.1. Classical tools (MCSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 41
2.2.2. New techniques based on transient analysis (ATCSA) .. 45
2.3. Signal processing tools for transient analysis . . . . . . . . . ... 47
2.3.1. Example of a discrete tool: the DWT . . . . . . . . . . . ... 48
2.3.2. Example of a continuous tool: the HHT . . . . . . . . . . ... 54
2.4. Application of transient-based tools for electric motor
fault detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 67
2.4.1. Application of the DWT for the detection of
rotor damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 68
2.4.2. Application of the HHT for the detection of
rotor damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 70
2.5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 71
2.6. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 72

Chapter 3. Accurate Stator Fault Detection in an Induction

Motor Using the Symmetrical Current Components . . . . . . . 77
Monia BOUZID and Gérard CHAMPENOIS
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 77
3.2. Study of the SCCs behavior in an IM under different
stator faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 79
3.2.1. Simulation study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 79
3.2.2. Analytical study of the SCCs in an IM under
different stator faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 86
3.3. Extracting stator fault indicators from an IM . . . . . . . ..... 97
3.4. Automatic and accurate detection and diagnosis of
stator faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 98
3.4.1. Description of the monitoring system of the
IM operating state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 98
3.4.2. Improving the accuracy of incipient stator
fault detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4.3. Automatic incipient stator fault diagnosis in an IM . . . . . 114
3.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.6. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
 Contents vii

Chapter 4. Bearing Fault Diagnosis in Rotating Machines . . 123

Claude DELPHA, Demba DIALLO, Jinane HARMOUCHE,
Mohamed BENBOUZID, Yassine AMIRAT and Elhoussin ELBOUCHIKHI
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.1.1. Bearing fault detection and diagnosis overview . . . . . . . . 124
4.1.2. Problem statement and proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.2. Method description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.1. The global spectral analysis description . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.2. Discrimination of faults in the bearing balls using LDA . . 133
4.3. Experimental data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.1. Experimental test bed description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.2. Time-domain detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.4. Global spectra bearing diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4.1. Data preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4.2. Global spectra results with PCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.4.3. Global spectra results with LDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.6. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Chapter 5. Diagnosis and Prognosis of Proton Exchange

Membrane Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Zhongliang LI, Zhixue ZHENG and Fei GAO
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.2. PEMFC functioning principle and development status . . . . . . 154
5.2.1. From a PEMFC to a PEMFC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.2.2. Current status of the PEMFC technology . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3. Faults and degradation of PEMFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.3.1. Degradation related to the aging effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.3.2. Degradation related to system operations . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.3.3. Variables used for PEMFC degradation evaluation . . . . . 161
5.4. PEMFC diagnostic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.4.1. Model-based diagnostic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.4.2. Data-driven diagnostic methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.4.3. Case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.5. Prognosis of PEMFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.5.1. Health index and EoL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.5.2. Model-based prognostic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.5.3. Data-driven and hybrid prognostic methods . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.5.4. Case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.6. Remaining challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.7. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
viii Electrical Systems 2

List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Summary of Volume 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

 Introduction

The diagnosis and prognosis of electrical systems is still a relevant field

of research. The research that has been carried out over the years has made
it possible to acquire enough knowledge, to build a base from which we can
delve further into this field of research. This study is a new challenge that
estimates the remaining lifetime of the analyzed process. Many studies have
been carried out to establish a diagnosis of the state of health of an electric
motor, for example. However, making a diagnosis is like giving binary
information: the condition is either healthy or defective. Of course, this
may seem simplistic, but detecting a failure requires the use of suitable
sensors that provide signals. These will be processed to monitor health
indicators (features) for defects. Then, we witnessed a multitude of research
activities around classification. It was indeed appropriate to distinguish the
operating states, to differentiate them from one another and to inform
the operator of the level of severity of a failure or even of the type of failure
among a predefined panel. A major effort has been made to estimate the
remaining lifetime or even the lifetime consumed. This is a challenge that
many researchers are still trying to meet.

This book, which has been divided into two volumes, informs readers
about the theoretical approaches and results obtained in different laboratories
in France and also in other countries such as Spain, and so on. To this end,
many researchers from the scientific community have contributed to this
book by sharing their research results.

Introduction written by Abdenour SOUALHI and Hubert RAZIK.

x Electrical Systems 2

Chapter 1, Volume 1, “Diagnostic Methods for the Health Monitoring of

Gearboxes”, by A. Soualhi and H. Razik, presents state-of-the-art diagnostic
methods used to analyze the defects present in gearboxes. First of all, there is
a bibliographical presentation regarding different types of gears and their
defects. We conclude that gear defects represent the predominant defect at
this level, thus justifying the interest in detecting and diagnosing them. Then,
we present various gear analyses and monitoring techniques proposed as part
of the condition-based maintenance and propose a diagnostic method. Thus,
we show the three main phases of diagnosis: First, the analysis presented as a
set of technical processes ensuring control of the representative quantities of
operation; then the monitoring that exploits the fault indicators for detection;
finally, the diagnosis which is the identification of the detected defect.

Chapter 2, Volume 1, “Techniques for Predicting Defects in Bearings and

Gears”, by A. Soualhi and H. Razik, deals with strategies based on features
characterizing the health status of the system to predict the appearance of
possible failures. The prognosis of faults in a system means the prediction of
the failure imminence and/or the estimation of its remaining life. It is in this
context that we propose, in this chapter, the three methods of prognosis. In
the first method, the degradation process of each system is modeled by a
hidden Markov model (HMM). In a measured sequence of observations, the
solution consists of identifying among the HMMs the one that best
represents this sequence which allows predicting the imminence of the next
degradation state and thus the defect of the studied system. In the second
method (evolutionary Markov model), the computation of the probability
that a sequence of observations arrives at a degradation state at the moment
t+1, given the HMM modeled from the same sequence of observations, also
allows us to predict the imminence of a defect. The third method predicts the
imminence of a fault not by modeling the degradation process of the system,
but by modeling each degradation state.

Chapter 3, Volume 1, “Electrical Signatures Analysis for Condition

Monitoring of Gears in Complex Electromechanical Systems,” written by
S. Hedayati Kia and M. Hoseintabar Marzebali, deals with a review of their
most remarkable research, which has been carried out in the last 10 years. A
particular emphasis has been placed on the topic of noninvasive fault
detection in gears using electrical signatures analysis. The main aim is to
utilize the electrical machine as a sensor for the identification of gear
defects. In this regard, a universal approach is developed for the first time by
the authors which allows evaluating the efficacy of noninvasive techniques
in the diagnosis of torsional vibration induced by the faulty gear located
 Introduction xi

within the drive train. This technique can be considered an upstream phase
for studying the feasibility of gear fault detection using noninvasive
measurement in any complex electromechanical system.

Chapter 4, Volume 1, “Modal Decomposition for Bearing Fault

Detection”, by Y. Amirat, Z. Elbouchikri, C. Delpha, M. Benbouzid and D.
Diallo, deals with induction machine bearing faults detection based on modal
decomposition approaches combined to a statistical tool. In particular, a
comparative study of a notch filter based on modal decomposition, through
an ensemble empirical mode decomposition and a variational mode
decomposition, is proposed. The validation of these two approaches is based
on simulations and experiments. The achieved simulation and experimental
results clearly show that, in terms of fault detection criterion, the variational
mode decomposition outperforms the ensemble empirical mode
decomposition.

Chapter 5, Volume 1, “Methods for Lifespan Modeling in Electrical

Engineering”, by A. Picot, M. Chabert and P. Maussion, deals with the
statistical methods for electrical device lifespan modeling from small-sized
training sets. Reliability has become an important issue in electrical
engineering because the most critical industries, such as urban transports,
energy, aeronautics or space, are moving toward more electrical-based
systems to replace mechanical- and pneumatic-based ones. In this
framework, increasing constraints such as voltage and operating frequencies
enhance the risk of degradation, particularly due to partial discharges (PDs)
in the electrical machine insulation systems. This chapter focuses on
different methods to model the lifespan of electrical devices under
accelerated stresses. First, parametric methods such as design of experiments
(DoE) and surface responses (SR) are suggested. Although these methods
require different experiments to organize in a certain way, they reduce the
experimental cost. In the case of nonorganized experiments, multilinear
regression can help estimate the lifespan. In the second part, the
nonparametric regression tree method is presented and discussed, resulting
in the proposal of a new hybrid methodology that takes advantages of both
parametric and nonparametric modeling. For illustration purpose, these
different methods are evaluated on experimental data from insulation
materials and organic light-emitting diodes.

Chapter 1, Volume 2, “Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by External

Field Measurement”, by R. Pusca, E. Lefevre, D. Mercier, R. Romary and
M. Irhoumah, presents a diagnostic method that exploits the information
xii Electrical Systems 2

delivered by external flux sensors placed in the vicinity of rotating electrical

machines in order to detect a stator inter-turn short circuit. The external
magnetic field measured by the flux sensors originates from the airgap flux
density and from the end winding currents, attenuated by the magnetic parts
of the machine. In the faulty case, an internal magnetic dissymmetry occurs,
which can be found again in the external magnetic field. Sensitive harmonics
are extracted from the signals delivered by a pair of flux sensors placed at
180° from each other around the machine, and the data obtained for several
sensor positions are analyzed by fusion techniques using the belief function
theory. The diagnosis method is applied on induction and synchronous
machines with artificial stator faults. It is shown that the probability of
detecting the fault using the proposed fusion technique on various series of
measurements is high.

Chapter 2, Volume 2, “Signal Processing Techniques for Transient Fault

Diagnosis”, by J.A. Daviu and R.A.O. Rios, revises the most relevant signal
processing tools employed for condition monitoring of electric motors. First,
the importance of the predictive maintenance area of the electric motors due to
the extensive use of these machines in many industrial applications is pointed
out. In this context, the most important predictive maintenance techniques are
revised, showing the advantages such as the simplicity, remote monitoring
capability and broad fault coverage of motor current analysis methods. In this
regard, two basic approaches based on current analysis are explained: the
classical methods, relying on the Fourier transform of steady-state current
(motor current signature analysis – MCSA), and novel methods based on the
analysis of startup currents (advanced transient current signature
analysis – ATCSA). In the chapter, the most significant signal processing tools
employed for MCSA and ATCSA are explained and revised. For MCSA, the
basic problems derived from the application of the Fourier transform as well
as other constraints of the methodology are explained. For ATCSA, the most
suitable signal processing techniques are described, classifying them into
continuous and discrete transforms. One representative of each group is
accurately described (the discrete wavelet transform for discrete tools and the
Hilbert-Huang transform for continuous tools), accompanying the explanation
with illustrative examples. Finally, we discussed several examples of the
application of each tool to electric motor fault diagnosis.

Chapter 3, Volume 2, “Accurate Stator Fault Detection in an Induction

Motor Using the Symmetrical Current Components”, by M. Bouzid and
G. Champenois, deals with the accurate detection of stator faults such as
inter-turns short circuit, phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground faults of the
 Introduction xiii

induction motor, using the symmetrical current components. The detection

method is based on the monitoring of the behavior of the negative and zero
sequence stator currents of the machine. This chapter also develops
analytical expressions of these components obtained using the coupled
inductance model of the machine. However, despite its efficiency, the
negative sequence current-based method has its own limitations to detect
accurate incipient stator faults in an induction motor. This limit can be
explained by the fact that the negative sequence current generated in a faulty
motor does represent not only the asymmetry introduced by the fault, but
also by other superposed asymmetries, such as the voltage imbalance, the
inherent asymmetry in the machine and the inaccuracy of the sensors. This
aspect can generate false alarm and make the achievement of accurate
incipient stator fault detection very difficult. Thus, to increase the accuracy
of the fault detection and the sensitivity of the negative sequence current
under different disturbances, this chapter proposes an efficient method able
to compensate the effect of the different considered disturbances using
experimental techniques having the originality to isolate the negative
sequence current of each disturbance. The efficiency of all these proposed
methods is validated experimentally on a 1.1-kW motor under different
stator faults. Moreover, an original monitoring system, based on neural
networks, is also presented and described to automatically detect and
diagnose incipient stator faults.

Chapter 4, Volume 2, “Bearing Fault Diagnosis in Rotating Machines”,

by C. Delpha, D. Diallo, J. Harmouche, M. Benbouzid, Y. Amirat and E.
Elbouchikhi, is focused on detection, estimation and diagnosis of mechanical
faults in electrical machines. Nowadays, it is necessary to rapidly assess the
structural health of a system without disassembling its elements. For this in
situ diagnosis purpose, the use of experimental data is very imperative.
Moreover, the monitoring and maintenance costs must be reduced while
ensuring satisfactory security performances. In this chapter, we focus on
vibration-based signals combined with statistical techniques for bearing fault
evaluation. Based on a four-step diagnosis process (modeling, preprocessing,
feature extraction and feature analysis), the combination of several
techniques such as principal components analysis and linear discriminant
analysis in a global approach is explored to monitor the condition of
vibration-based bearings. The main advantage of this approach is that prior
knowledge on the bearing characteristics is not required. A particularly
reduced frequency analysis has led to efficiently differentiate the bearing
fault types and evaluate the bearing fault severities.
xiv Electrical Systems 2

Chapter 5, Volume 2, “Diagnosis and Prognosis of Proton Exchange

Membrane Fuel Cells”, by Z. Li, Z. Zheng and F. Gao, deals with the
diagnostic and prognostic issues of fuel cell systems, especially the proton
exchange membrane (PEMFC) type. First, the basic functioning principle of
PEMFCs and their current development and application status are presented.
Their high cost, low reliability and durability make them unfit for
commercialization. In the following sections, degradation mechanisms
related to both the aging effect and the system operations are analyzed. In
addition, typical variables and characterization tools, such as polarization
curve, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, linear sweep voltammetry
and cyclic voltammetry, are introduced for the evaluation of PEMFC
degradation. Various diagnostic and prognostic methods in the literature are
further classified based on their input-to-output process model of the system,
namely model-based, data-driven and hybrid methods. Finally, two case
studies for diagnosis and prognosis are given at the end of each part to give
the readers a general and clearer illustration of these two issues.
 1

Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by

External Field Measurement

1.1. Introduction

Rotating electrical machines are found in all areas of modern domestic

and industrial life [TAV 08]. They are the main electromechanical energy
conversion devices in all industrial processes and have been widely used in
different industrial applications for several decades. They account for
approximately 70% of all electricity consumed on the grid and 80% of
industrial engines involved in manufacturing processes. Regardless of the
size of these units, from 1 kilowatt to several megawatts, the production
losses due to a shutdown relating to an engine failure are greater than those
induced by the actual engine efficiency. The failure of the machines,
therefore, reduces the production rate and increases production and
maintenance costs. It is then important to reduce maintenance costs and
avoid unplanned downtime for these machines. Electrical machines must be
monitored during the production process to improve their reliability and
reduce their downtime [STO 04, ESE 17, NOR 93]. Monitoring of rotating
electrical machines is still an essential part to increase reliability and
operational safety of electrical systems and has been the subject of much
research in recent decades [STO 04, HAN 10, PET 17].

Electric motors encounter a wide range of mechanical problems common

to most machines, such as imbalance, misalignment, bearing faults and
resonance [FOU 15, HAM 15, KAT 16]. But electric motors also encounter

Chapter written by Remus PUSCA, Eric LEFEVRE, David MERCIER, Raphael ROMARY and
Miftah IRHOUMAH.

Electrical Systems 2: From Diagnosis to Prognosis,

First Edition. Edited by Abdenour Soualhi and Hubert Razik.
© ISTE Ltd 2020. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 Electrical Systems 2

their specific problems, which are the result of electromagnetic phenomena.

The methods conventionally used for the diagnosis of electrical machines are
based on measurements of current, voltage, vibration and noise. Although
their effectiveness has been demonstrated, the generalization of these
methods in the industrial environment remains limited on account of their
relatively important cost.

Other methods based on magnetic field measurements outside the

machine are interesting because they are inexpensive and easy to implement.
Thus, monitoring devices based on the information provided by the magnetic
flux produced by the imbalances in the magnetic or electrical circuit of the
motors can be effectively used in addition to, or as an alternative to the
current monitoring more conventionally used. Thus, many recent methods,
used for the diagnosis of electrical machines, are based on the analysis of
combining measurements of current and magnetic flux, where, on the basis
of an evaluation of many tests, the stator current and the external leakage
flux were selected as the most practical signals containing the information
needed to detect broken bars and short circuit between turns of the stator
winding [CEB 12a, YAZ 10].

The methods presented in this chapter propose solutions to improve the

detection of stator inter-turn short-circuit fault by external field analysis
[CEB 12b]. For this, it uses the processing of data obtained by several field
sensors and fusion methods suitable for applications in signal processing.
In this area, the information fusion must take into account the specificities
of the data in considered process [DAS 01]. In our case, information fusion
tools use the belief function theory [SHA 76, PUS 12, IRH 18]. This theory
is a mathematical framework that offers modeling and fusion tools, and it
also enables a relatively natural integration of the data imperfections in the
analysis. For implementation of the proposed method, the measurements of
the external magnetic field are exploited in order to construct two specific
pieces of information: the difference of variation and the ratio of the
amplitudes. In order to make a more relevant decision, a fusion process is
applied to merge these two pieces of information by transforming them
into belief functions. After their fusion, a decision can be made.

The method proposed in this chapter is fully noninvasive and can be

implemented for asynchronous (AM) and synchronous machines (SM). Its
main advantage is that it does not require the knowledge of the healthy state
of the machine. In the analysis, it exploits the load variation of sensitive
spectral lines instead of their magnitude. The sensitive lines are chosen
 Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by External Field Measurement 3

considering the AM or SM specificity as presented in the following

section.

1.2. Extracting indicators from the external magnetic field

One of the main issues for exploiting the external magnetic field is to
define reliable indicators from it. This requires a good knowledge of the
electromagnetic behavior of the machine in the faulty condition. Here, we
present an analytical modeling of an electrical machine with a stator inter-
turn short circuit fault, associated with a simplified decomposition of the
external magnetic field.

1.2.1. External field classification

From a physical point of view, an external magnetic field appears in the

vicinity of an electrical machine because the internal magnetic field is not
perfectly channeled by the ferromagnetic parts of the machine. This external
magnetic field can be decomposed in transverse and axial components. The
axial field is in a plane that contains the machine axis. It is generated by the
winding overhang effects. The transverse field is located in a perpendicular
plane to the machine axis. It is an image of the airgap flux density b which is
attenuated by the stator magnetic circuit. Figure 1.1 shows a simplified
representation of both fields.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.1. (a) Axial field. (b) Radial field
4 Electrical Systems 2

Using a simple wound sensor, it is possible to discriminate the transverse

component from the axial component. Figure 1.2 shows different positions
of a wound sensor around the machine.

In position A, only the axial field is measured. Position E, although defined

as being a position for measuring the transverse field, can also embrace a part
of the axial field depending on whether the sensor is more or less distant from
the end coils. Position D is described as “pure radial” since, in theory, no axial
line field can cross the section of the sensor in this position. It should be
pointed out that the amplitude of the signal delivered by the sensor in positions
B and D are generally lower. Actually, in these positions, the sensor is further
away from the motor compared to position E where the sensor is pressed
against the external frame. It is, therefore, possible to define the ideal position
of the sensor that it is placed against the motor, in the center to limit the end
coil effect, and when possible at design, between the stator sheets and the
external frame. In this position, the sensor mainly measures the transverse
field. However, practically, the sensor setting depends on the construction of
the machine, its environment and the accessibility places.

Figure 1.2. Different sensor positions

In the following sections, only the transverse field will be considered and
particularly its normal component that requires us to define an attenuation
coefficient that affects the airgap flux density.
 Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by External Field Measurement 5

1.2.2. Attenuation of the transverse field

Let us define the airgap flux density as the following double sum
expression:

b bK ,H , [1.1]
K ,H

where bK,H is an elementary flux density component defined as

bK , H bˆK , H cos( K t H s
K ,H ) [1.2]

with K being the frequency rank and H the pole pair number of the
component.

Figure 1.3 shows a simplified representation of an electrical machine,

with smooth airgap, where the main dimensions are presented. The external
transverse field can be itself decomposed in a normal component bn and a
tangential component bt. An elementary component generated in the airgap
of the machine is attenuated across the stator yoke and is found in the air
outside the machine and can be measured by a coil flux sensor.

 M
Bx  x
B M
bn
bt s s
0
sy
Rint ds
0

sy
Rext

Figure 1.3. Simplified geometry of the machine

6 Electrical Systems 2

An attenuation coefficient CH is defined as the ratio between the

magnitude of the normal component of the transverse filed at the level of the
external periphery of the stator and the magnitude of the component in the
airgap. This attenuation coefficient depends on the inner and the outer radii
s s
of the stator laminations, respectively, denoted by Rint and Rext , and the
magnetic permeability r [ROM 09]. It has been shown that CH can be
expressed as

2
CH H 1
. [1.3]
s
r (( R / R )
int
s
ext
s
( Rint s
/ Rext ) H 1)

s
Figure 1.4 shows the evolution of CH versus H for Rint 82.5mm,
s
R 121mm and r = 1,000. We can observe that the more H increases, the
ext
more the components are attenuated.

CH

Figure 1.4. CH versus H

1.2.3. Measurement of the transverse field

We will assume that the measurement is performed with a wound flux

sensor placed very closely to the stator core such that only the CH attenuation
coefficient will be considered. Let bx denotes the normal transverse flux
s
density at radius x Rext . Here bx is defined by

bx CH bˆK , H cos( K t H s
K ,H ). [1.4]
K ,H
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 TURBOT À LA CRÊME.

Raise carefully from the bones the flesh of a cold turbot, and clear
it from the dark skin; cut it into small squares, and put it into an
exceedingly clean stewpan or saucepan; then make and pour upon it
the cream sauce of Chapter V., or make as much as may be
required for the fish by the same receipt, with equal proportions of
milk and cream and a little additional flour. Heat the turbot slowly in
the sauce, but do not allow it to boil, and send it very hot to table.
The white skin of the fish is not usually added to this dish, and it is of
better appearance without it; but for a family dinner, it may be left on
the flesh, when it is much liked. No acid must be stirred to the sauce
until the whole is ready for table.
 TURBOT AU BÉCHAMEL, OR, IN BÉCHAMEL SAUCE.

Prepare the cold turbot as for the preceding receipt, but leave no
portion of the skin with it. Heat it in a rich bechamel sauce, and serve
it in a vol-au-vent, or in a deep dish with a border of fried bread cut in
an elegant form, and made with one dark and one light sippet,
placed alternately. The surface may be covered with a half-inch layer
of delicately fried bread-crumbs, perfectly well drained and dried; or
they may be spread over the fish without being fried, then moistened
with clarified butter, and browned with a salamander.
For Mould of Cold Turbot with Shrimp Chatney, see
Chapter VI.
 TO BOIL A JOHN DORY.

[In best season from Michaelmas to Christmas, but good all the
year.]
The John Dory, though of uninviting
appearance, is considered by some
persons as the most delicious fish that
appears at table; in the general estimation,
however, it ranks next to the turbot, but it is
far less abundant in our markets, and is not
commonly to be procured of sufficient size
for a handsome dish, except in some few
parts of our coast which are celebrated for
John Dory. it. It may easily be known by its yellow gray
colour, its one large dark spot on either
side, the long filaments on the back, a
general thickness of form, and its very ugly head. It is dressed in the
same manner, and served usually with the same sauces as a turbot,
but requires less time to boil it. The fins should be cut off before it is
cooked.
 SMALL JOHN DORIES BAKED.

(Author’s Receipt—good.)
We have found these fish when they were too small to be worth
cooking in the usual way, excellent when quite simply baked in the
following manner, the flesh being remarkably sweet and tender,
much more so than it becomes by frying or broiling. After they have
been cleaned, dry them in a cloth, season the insides slightly with
fine salt, dredge a little flour on the fish, and stick a few very small
bits of butter on them, but only just sufficient to prevent their
becoming dry in the oven; lay them singly on a flat dish, and bake
them very gently from fourteen to sixteen minutes. Serve them with
the same sauce as baked soles.
When extremely fresh, as it usually is in the markets of the coast,
fish thus simply dressed au four is preferable to that more
elaborately prepared by adding various condiments to it after it is
placed in a deep dish, and covering it with a thick layer of bread-
crumbs, moistened with clarified butter.
The appearance of the John Dories is improved by taking off the
heads, and cutting away not only the fins but the filaments of the
back.
 TO BOIL A BRILL.

A fresh and full-sized brill always ranks high in the list of fish, as it
is of good appearance, and the flesh is sweet and delicate. It
requires less cooking than the turbot, even when it is of equal size;
but otherwise may be dressed and served in a similar manner. It has
not the same rich glutinous skin as that fish, nor are the fins
esteemed. They must be cut off when the brill is cleaned; and it may
be put into nearly boiling water, unless it be very large. Simmer it
gently, and drain it well upon the fish-plate when it is lifted out; dish it
on a napkin, and send lobster, anchovy, crab, or shrimp sauce to
table with it. Lobster coral, rubbed through a sieve, is commonly
sprinkled over it for a formal dinner. The most usual garnish for
boiled flat fish is curled parsley placed round it in light tufts; how far it
is appropriate, individual taste must decide.
Brill, moderate-sized, about 20 minutes; large, 30 minutes.
Obs.—The precise time which a fish will require to be boiled
cannot be given: it must be watched, and not allowed to remain in
the water after it begins to crack.
 TO BOIL SALMON.

[In full season from May to August: may be had much earlier, but is
scarce and dear.]
To preserve the fine colour of this fish, and to set the curd when it
is quite freshly caught, it is usual to put it into boiling, instead of into
cold water. Scale, empty, and wash it with the greatest nicety, and be
especially careful to cleanse all the blood from the inside. Stir into
the fish-kettle eight ounces of common salt to the gallon of water, let
it boil quickly for a minute or two, take off all the scum, put in the
salmon and boil it moderately fast, if it be small, but more gently
should it be very thick; and assure yourself that it is quite sufficiently
done before it is sent to table, for nothing can be more distasteful,
even to the eye, than fish which is under dressed.
From two to three pounds of the thick part of a fine salmon will
require half an hour to boil it, but eight or ten pounds will be done
enough in little more than double that time; less in proportion to its
weight should be allowed for a small fish, or for the thin end of a
large one. Do not allow the salmon to remain in the water after it is
ready to serve, or both its flavour and appearance will be injured.
Dish it on a hot napkin, and send dressed cucumber, and anchovy,
shrimp, or lobster sauce, and a tureen of plain melted butter to table
with it.
To each gallon water, 8 oz. salt. Salmon, 2 to 3 lbs. (thick), 1/2
hour; 8 to 10 lbs., 1-1/4 hour; small, or thin fish, less time.
 SALMON À LA GENEVESE.

A fashionable mode of serving salmon at the present day is to

divide the larger portion of the body into three equal parts; to boil
them in water, or in a marinade; and to serve them dished in a line,
but not close together, and covered with a rich Genevese sauce (for
which see Chapter V.) It appears to us that the skin should be
stripped from any fish over which the sauce is poured, but in this
case it is not customary.
 CRIMPED SALMON.

Cut into slices an inch and a half, or two inches thick, the body of a
salmon quite newly caught; throw them into strong salt and water as
they are done, but do not let them soak in it; wash them well, lay
them on a fish-plate, and put them into fast boiling water, salted and
well skimmed. In from ten to fifteen minutes they will be done. Dish
them on a napkin, and send them very hot to table with lobster
sauce, and plain melted butter; or with the caper fish-sauce of
Chapter V. The water should be salted as for salmon boiled in the
ordinary way, and the scum should be cleared off with great care
after the fish is in.
In boiling water, 10 to 15 minutes.
 SALMON À LA ST. MARCEL.

Separate some cold boiled salmon into flakes, and free them
entirely from the skin; break the bones, and boil them in a pint of
water for half an hour. Strain off the liquor, put it into a clean
saucepan and stir into it by degrees when it begins to boil quickly,
two ounces of butter mixed with a large teaspoonful of flour, and
when the whole has boiled for two or three minutes add a
teaspoonful of essence of anchovies, one of good mushroom catsup,
half as much lemon-juice or chili vinegar, a half saltspoonful of
pounded mace, some cayenne, and a very little salt. Shell from half
to a whole pint of shrimps, add them to the salmon, and heat the fish
very slowly in the sauce by the side of the fire, but do not allow it
boil. When it is very hot, dish and send it quickly to table. French
cooks, when they re-dress fish or meat of any kind, prepare the flesh
with great nicety, and then put it into a stewpan, and pour the sauce
upon it, which is, we think, better than the more usual English mode
of laying it into the boiling sauce. The cold salmon may also be re-
heated in the cream sauce of V., or in the Mâitre d’Hôtel sauce which
follows it; and will be found excellent with either. This receipt is for a
moderate sized dish.
 SALMON BAKED OVER MASHED POTATOES.

We are informed by a person who has been a resident in Ireland,

that the middle of a salmon is there often baked over mashed
potatoes, from which it is raised by means of a wire stand, as meat is
in England. We have not been able to have it tried, but an ingenious
cook will be at no loss for the proper method of preparing, and the
time of cooking it. The potatoes are sometimes merely pared and
halved; the fish is then laid upon them.
 SALMON PUDDING, TO BE SERVED HOT OR COLD.

(A Scotch Receipt—Good.)
Pound or chop small, or rub through a sieve one pound of cold
boiled salmon freed entirely from bone and skin; and blend it lightly
but thoroughly with half a pound of fine bread-crumbs a teaspoonful
of essence of anchovies, a quarter of a pint of cream, a seasoning of
fine salt and cayenne, and four well whisked eggs. Press the mixture
closely and evenly into a deep dish or mould, buttered in every part,
and bake it for one hour in a moderate oven.
Salmon, 1 lb.; bread-crumbs, 1/2 lb.; essence of anchovies, 1
teaspoonful; cream, 1/4 pint; eggs, 4; salt and cayenne; baked 1
hour.
 TO BOIL COD FISH.

[In highest season from October to the beginning of February; in

perfection about Christmas.]
When this fish is large the head and shoulders are sufficient for a
handsome dish, and they contain all the choicer portion of it, though
not so much substantial eating as the middle of the body, which, in
consequence, is generally preferred to them by the frugal
housekeeper. Wash the fish, and cleanse the inside, and the back-
bone in particular, with the most scrupulous care; lay it into the fish-
kettle and cover it well with cold water mixed with five ounces of salt
to the gallon, and about a quarter of an ounce of saltpetre to the
whole. Place it over a moderate fire, clear off the scum perfectly, and
let the fish boil gently until it is done. Drain it well[46] and dish it
carefully upon a very hot napkin with the liver and the roe as a
garnish. To these are usually added tufts of lightly scraped
horseradish round the edge. Serve well-made oyster sauce and plain
melted butter with it; or anchovy sauce, when oysters cannot be
procured. The cream sauce of Chapter V., is also an appropriate one
for this fish.
46. This should be done by setting the fish plate across the kettle for a minute or
two.

Moderate size, 20 to 30 minutes. Large, 1/2 to 3/4 hour.

 SLICES OF COD FISH FRIED.

Cut the middle or tail of the fish into slices nearly an inch thick,
season them with salt and white pepper or cayenne, flour them well,
and fry them of a clear equal brown on both sides; drain them on a
sieve before the fire, and serve them on a well-heated napkin, with
plenty of crisped parsley round them. Or, dip them into beaten egg,
and then into fine crumbs mixed with a seasoning of salt and pepper
(some cooks add one of minced herbs also), before they are fried.
Send melted butter and anchovy sauce to table with them. 8 to 12
minutes.
Obs.—This is a much better way of dressing the thin part of the
fish than boiling it, and as it is generally cheap, it makes thus an
economical, as well as a very good dish: if the slices are lifted from
the frying-pan into a good curried gravy, and left in it by the side of
the fire for a few minutes before they are sent to table, they will be
found excellent.
 STEWED COD.

Put into boiling water, salted as usual, about three pounds of fresh
cod fish cut into slices an inch and a half thick, and boil them gently
for five minutes; lift them out, and let them drain. Have ready heated
in a wide stewpan nearly a pint of veal gravy or of very good broth,
lay in the fish, and stew it for five minutes, then add four
tablespoonsful of extremely fine bread-crumbs, and simmer it for
three minutes longer. Stir well into the sauce a large teaspoonful of
arrow-root quite free from lumps, a fourth part as much of mace,
something less of cayenne, and a tablespoonful of essence of
anchovies, mixed with a glass of white wine and a dessertspoonful of
lemon juice. Boil the whole for a couple of minutes, lift out the fish
carefully with a slice, pour the sauce over, and serve it quickly.
Cod fish, 3 lbs.: boiled 5 minutes. Gravy, or strong broth, nearly 1
pint: 5 minutes. Bread-crumbs, 4 tablespoonsful: 3 minutes. Arrow-
root, 1 large teaspoonful; mace, 1/4 teaspoonful; less of cayenne;
essence of anchovies, 1 tablespoonful; lemon-juice, 1
dessertspoonful; sherry or Maidera, 1 wineglassful: 2 minutes.
Obs.—A dozen or two of oysters, bearded, and added with their
strained liquor to this dish two or three minutes before it is served,
will to many tastes vary it very agreeably.
 STEWED COD FISH, IN BROWN SAUCE.

Slice the fish, take off the skin, flour it well, and fry it quickly a fine
brown; lift it out and drain it on the back of a sieve, arrange it in a
clean stewpan, and pour in as much good boiling brown gravy as will
nearly cover it; add from one to two glasses of port wine, or rather
more of claret, a dessertspoonful of Chili vinegar, or the juice of half
a lemon, and some cayenne, with as much salt as may be needed.
Stew the fish very softly until it just begins to break, lift it carefully
with a slice into a very hot dish, stir into the gravy an ounce and a
half of butter smoothly kneaded with a large teaspoonful of flour, and
a little pounded mace, give the sauce a minute’s boil, pour it over the
fish, and serve it immediately. The wine may be omitted, good shin
of beef stock substituted for the gravy, and a teaspoonful of soy, one
of essence of anchovies, and two tablespoonsful of Harvey’s sauce
added to flavour it.
 TO BOIL SALT FISH.

When very salt and dry, this must be long soaked before it is
boiled, but it is generally supplied by the fishmongers nearly or quite
ready to dress. When it is not so, lay it for a night into a large
quantity of cold water, then let it lie exposed to the air for some time,
then again put it into water, and continue thus until it is well softened.
Brush it very clean, wash it thoroughly, and put it with abundance of
cold water into the fish kettle, place it near the fire and let it heat very
slowly indeed. Keep it just on the point of simmering, without
allowing it ever to boil (which would render it hard), from three
quarters of an hour to a full hour, according to its weight; should it be
quite small and thin, less time will be sufficient for it; but by following
these directions, the fish will be almost as good as if it were fresh.
The scum should be cleared off with great care from the beginning.
Egg sauce and boiled parsneps are the usual accompaniment to salt
fish, which should be dished upon a hot napkin, and which is
sometimes also thickly strewed with chopped eggs.
 SALT FISH, À LA MÂITRE D’HÔTEL.

Boil the fish by the foregoing receipt, or take the remains of that
which has been served at table, flake it off clear from the bones, and
strip away every morsel of the skin; then lay it into a very clean
saucepan or stewpan, and pour upon it the sharp Mâitre d’Hôtel
sauce of Chapter IV.; or dissolve gently two or three ounces of butter
with four or five spoonsful of water, and a half-teaspoonful of flour;
add some pepper or cayenne, very little salt, and a dessertspoonful
or more of minced parsley. Heat the fish slowly quite through in
either of these sauces, and toss or stir it until the whole is well
mixed; if the second be used, add the juice of half a lemon, or a
small quantity of Chili vinegar just before it is taken from the fire. The
fish thus prepared may be served in a deep dish, with a border of
mashed parsneps or potatoes.
 TO BOIL CODS’ SOUNDS.

Should they be highly salted, soak them for a night, and on the
following day rub off entirely the discoloured skin; wash them well,
lay them into plenty of cold milk and water, and boil them gently from
thirty to forty minutes, or longer should they not be quite tender.
Clear off the scum as it rises with great care, or it will sink and
adhere to the sounds, of which the appearance will then be spoiled.
Drain them well, dish them on a napkin, and send egg sauce and
plain melted butter to table with them.
 TO FRY CODS’ SOUNDS IN BATTER.

Boil them as directed above until they are nearly done, then lift
them out, lay them on to a drainer, and let them remain till they are
cold; cut them across in strips of an inch deep, curl them round, dip
them into a good French or English batter, fry them of a fine pale
brown, drain and dry them well, dish them on a hot napkin, and
garnish them with crisped parsley.
 TO FRY SOLES.

[In season all the year.]

All fish to fry well must be not only fresh but perfectly free from
moisture, particularly when they are to be dressed with egg and
bread-crumbs, as these will not otherwise adhere to them. Empty,
skin, and wash the soles with extreme nicety, from one to two hours
before they are wanted for table; and after having cleansed and
wiped them very dry both inside and out, replace the roes, fold and
press them gently in a soft clean cloth, and leave them wrapped in it
until it is time to fry them; or suspend them singly upon hooks in a
current of cool air, which is, perhaps, the better method of
proceeding when it can be done conveniently. Cover them equally in
every part, first with some beaten egg, and then with fine dry crumbs
of bread, mixed with a very little flour to make them adhere with
more certainty: a small teaspoonful will be sufficient for two large
soles. Melt in a large and exceedingly clean frying pan over a brisk
and clear fire, as much very pure-flavoured lard as will float the fish,
and let it be sufficiently hot before they are laid in to brown them
quickly; for if this be neglected it will be impossible to render them
crisp or dry. When the fat ceases to bubble, throw in a small bit of
bread, and if it takes a good colour immediately the soles may be put
in without delay. An experienced cook will know, without this test,
when it is at the proper point; but the learner will do better to avail
herself of it until practice and observation shall have rendered it
unnecessary to her. Before the fish are laid into the pan, take them
by the head and shake the loose crumbs from them. When they are
firm, and of a fine amber-colour on one side, turn them with care,
passing a slice under them and a fork through the heads, and brown
them on the other. Lift them out, and either dry them well on a soft
cloth laid upon a sieve reversed, before the fire, turning them often,
or press them lightly in hot white blotting paper. Dish them on a
drainer covered with a hot napkin and send them to table without
delay with shrimp or anchovy sauce, and plain melted butter.
Very small soles will be done in six minutes, and large ones in
about ten. They may be floured and fried, without being egged and