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EDUCATION,
SUSTAINABILITY
AND THE ECOLOGICAL
SOCIAL IMAGINARY
CONNECTIVE EDUCATION AND GLOBAL CHANGE

JEFF BUCKLES
Education, Sustainability and the Ecological
Social Imaginary
 Jeff Buckles

Education,
Sustainability and
the Ecological Social
Imaginary
Connective Education
and Global Change
Jeff Buckles
York St John University
York, UK

ISBN 978-3-319-74441-4    ISBN 978-3-319-74442-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74442-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018940524

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: Front cover image © Tom Merton / Getty

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer International
Publishing AG part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 To Liz, Julia and Peter for their love and support.
To Pet and Tom for the raw material, and to Mike Bottery and Julian Stern
for their help and support in shaping it.
 Preface

What do the Pope, Paris, ppm and population all have in common?
Apart from the letter p?
The answer is they all acknowledge global change.

• In May 2015 The Pope released the encyclical letter Laudato Si, On
Care for our Common Home (Pope Francis 2015), highlighting the
harmful impact humankind were having upon the Earth, and what
needs to be done to ameliorate that impact.
• In September 2016 it was reported (Betts et al. 2016) that the annual
mean atmospheric CO2 concentrate at Mauna Loa, Hawaii for 2015
was 400.9 parts per million (ppm), the first time this level had been
breached in 4 million years. By February 2018 it had risen to 408ppm
(Scripps 2018). It was likely to stay at or above that level, and was
caused by ‘anthropogenic emissions arising from fossil fuel burning,
deforestation and cement production’ (Betts et al. 2016: 806).
• In November 2016 the Paris Agreement was adopted by the United
Nations Climate Change Conference, the purpose being to limit to
less than 2°C the effects of global warming compared to pre-industrial
levels. So far 197 countries have signed the treaty and 146 ratified it
(UNFCCC 2017).
• According to the United Nations (UN 2017) the World’s population
will have surpassed 7.6 billion people in 2018, with the United Nations
vii
viii Preface

projecting a population of 8.5 billion on 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050 and

11.2 billion in 2100. In 1960 it was 3 billion (US Census 2016). The
World Bank (2015b) noted that the rural population had reduced to
46% of world population, down from 66% in 1960. All of this has
resource implications on land, water, food and biodiversity.

The four examples given are a mixture of hope and despair. Hope, because
as the Pope and Paris suggest, there is growing understanding of the
effects of human activity upon the Earth, and of a willingness to map out
answers. Despair in that human activity appears to be harming the planet
in a way that is threatening to all life, and there may be limited time to
react to this. This book aims to build upon the hope, suggesting that by
changing how humankind views its place upon the Earth, despair can be
overcome. This requires two things to happen. Firstly, for humankind to
recognise and act upon the foundational truth that all life upon Earth
(including human beings) is dependent upon the living and non-living
processes of the Earth. Secondly, that by asking a key ethical question,
‘what kind of planet do we wish to pass on to our children and all living
and non-living things?’ we (that is humankind), can refocus how we live,
so that the planet that we live and depend upon can flourish.

York, UK Jeff Buckles

References
Betts RA, Jones CD, Knight JR, Keeling RF, Kennedy JJ (2016) El Niño and a
Record CO2 Rise Nature Climate Change (6) p806–810. http://www.nature.
com/natureclimatechange. Accessed 1 Oct 2016
Pope Francis (2015) Laudato Si’: On Care for Our Common Home [Encyclical].
http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-
francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html. Accessed 26 May 2015
Scripps (2018) Scripps Institution of Oceanography The Keeling Curve. https://
scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/. Accessed 20 Feb 2018
UN (United Nations) (2017) Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division. World Population Prospects 2017. https://esa.un.org/
unpd/wpp/DataQuery/. Accessed 20 Feb 2018
 Preface
   ix

UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) (2017)

The Paris Agreement. http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php.
Accessed 15 May 2017
US Census (2016) International Data Base World Population: 1950–2050.
https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldpopgraph.
php. Accessed 10 Mar 2017
World Bank (2015b) Rural Population (% of Total Population). http://data.
worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS. Accessed 25 May 2016
 Contents

1 Introduction   1

2 Setting the Scene: Domains, Challenges and the Social

Imaginary  13

3 The Modern Social Imaginary  25

4 Education in the Modern Social Imaginary  51

5 The Major Challenges of the 21st Century?  77

6 The Challenges of the 21st Century and the Modern

Social Imaginary 105

7 The Ecological Social Imaginary 121

8 Education in the Ecological Social Imaginary 145

9 Conclusion 181

xi
xii Contents

R
 eferences 189

Index 207
 Terms and Conventions

Abiotic The non-living parts in an ecosystem, such as soil,

water, wind and temperature.
Biotic The living parts of an ecosystem, such as animals,
plants, algae and fungi.
GHGs Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, which can trap heat in the atmosphere,
leading to temperature rises.
Humankind Referring to the collective name for human beings,
people or persons.
Eco-commons The life sustaining processes upon which all life depends.
Social Imaginary/
social imaginary
(use of capitals) The upper case use refers to a specific social imagi-
nary, the lower case to the concept: the Modern
Social Imaginary is the dominant social imaginary.
Domains Everything exists within the domains of space, time
and matter, with a domain being the highest ranking.

xiii
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Nested worlds 18

Fig. 2.2 Impact of human activity 20
Fig. 3.1 Williams’ model of cultural change 31
Fig. 3.2 Domains and values of the modern social imaginary 39
Fig. 5.1 Elements of global change 98
Fig. 7.1 The values of the Ecological Social Imaginary 132
Fig. 8.1 Hierarchy of nested systems. (Adapted from Salthe 1985,
Bánáthy 1991, and Sterling 2001) 146
Fig. 8.2 Determinants and constituents of well-being
(Alcamo 2003) 152
Fig. 8.3 Ecological literacy. (Adapted from Berkowitz et al. 2005;
Capra 2002; Nichols 2011; Kensler 2012; and Baum 2013) 161
Fig. 8.4 Overview of core values, vision and core educational ideas
in the Ecological social imaginary (ESI) 169
Fig. 8.5 Connective education vision and image metaphor—heart,
hands, head and spirit linked by the web 176
Fig. 8.6 Connective education 177
Fig. 9.1 Overview of the ecological social imaginary and connective
education185

xv
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Root metaphor of the modern social imaginary and values 37
Table 3.2 Domains and values of the Modern Social Imaginary 46
Table 4.1 Root and educational metaphors 54
Table 4.2 Enlightenment epistemology and education values in the
Modern Social Imaginary 56
Table 5.1 The impact of human activity during the Great
Acceleration (Steffen et al. 2004: 132–3) 80
Table 5.2a Population change in the 21st Century—location (a taken
from UN 2017. b–e taken from UN 2013. All figures
billions unless stated) 83
Table 5.2b Projected populations of the four largest economies
(developed from UN 2017, except third column and
cumulated % UN 2015. All figures billions unless stated) 83
Table 5.3 Temperature rise and decarbonisation (PWC 2012a, b: 9) 88
Table 8.1 Root and educational metaphors 149
Table 8.2 Core ESI values and core educational ideas 171
Table 8.3 Image metaphor—the heart 173
Table 8.4 Image metaphor—the hands 174
Table 8.5 Image metaphor—the head 174
Table 8.6 Image metaphor—the spirit 175

xvii
 1
Introduction

1.1 Locating the Argument

This book takes a ‘what if ’ approach; it is utopian; it is unashamedly aca-
demic; and it has a specific position.
This book sets out a ‘What if ’ approach. It looks at what education
might look like if we perceive it from an ecological perspective. At the
end of Chap. 6 I identify five responses to the environmental challenges
humankind might be facing: despair, ignore, reject, adapt and transform.
The adapt response tends to lead towards a technocentric perspective,
and this has been discussed at length (The Royal Society 2009; Brand
2009; Thornes et al. 2014). I wanted to take the transform path, and ask
What might it be like? In this way I am looking at some basic questions –
Where are we now, where do we want to go to, how will we get there? I build
my premise upon analysing where are we now? and from there move to
where do we want to go to? It is this that I explore and develop in the sec-
ond half of the book. There is very little discussion of how will we get
there, because I see that as a practical outcome of the discussion about
where we want to go to. It is this latter question, and the discussion
around it that fascinated me, and my hope is that this book may stimu-
late the discussion around this theme.

© The Author(s) 2018 1

J. Buckles, Education, Sustainability and the Ecological Social Imaginary,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74442-1_1
2 J. Buckles

Chapters 3 and 4 take us from the past into the present, by looking at
how humankind’s thinking has changed over the last three hundred and
fifty years, and the part that education has played in this. Chapters 5 and 6
look at the present and begin to look towards the future by examining the
evidence for global change, and the different ways in which humankind
can respond to those. Chapters 7 and 8 begin the journey into the future,
by asking how humans need to change their thinking if they are to avert
some of the possible dangers outlined in Chap. 5, and also what educa-
tion might look like if humankind can change the relationship it has with
the planet upon which it lives and depends.
This book is utopian, in the way that Bussey and Inayatullah (2008: 3)
identify utopias as alternative futures, so that humankind can then choose
different futures (deGeus 2002), rather than just be swept along by forces
seemingly beyond their control. Wright (2010: 25) locates utopias within
‘emancipatory social science’, what he defines as ‘a theory of a journey
from the present to a possible future’. This has three elements: a ‘diagno-
sis and critique of society’ which identifies why humankind would want
to leave their current world; a ‘theory of alternatives’, which identifies
where they would want to go; and ‘a theory of transformation’, which tells
them how to get from the current to the transformed world (Wright
2010: 25). This book is located within the first two elements that Wright
identifies, with Chaps. 3, 4, 5, and 6 consisting of diagnosis and critique,
and Chaps. 7 and 8 outlining an alternative.
For Levitas (2013: 84), models of utopia ‘are explicitly holistic, imagi-
nary, critical, normative, prescriptive and (often) future-orientated.’ They
have three modes: archaeological, which critiques ‘images of the good
society’ in current policy (Levitas 2013: 153); ontological, which looks at
the type of person that will be developed; and architectural, which is
about ‘the imagination of potential alternative scenarios for the future’
(Levitas 2013: 153). This book focuses upon the architectural, with
aspects of the ontological. The former is about imagining ‘alternative
ways of life that would be ecologically and socially sustainable and enable
deeper and wider human happiness than is now possible’ (Levitas 2013:
153). In this way, by identifying the key aspects of a utopian model, they
are ‘open to scrutiny and to public critique’ (Levitas 2013: xvii).
 Introduction 3

This book is academic, not in the sense of being obscure or using jar-
gon, but in the sense that it is fully referenced. This is for three reasons.
Firstly, in a ‘post-truth’ world, which is just a euphemism for lying
(Levitin 2017), it is important that readers can see where my arguments
and data are from, and what I have done to them to arrive at the conclu-
sions that I do. Secondly, when there is a concerted political resistance to
the application of science to climate change (Lawson 2006; Hansen
2009), it is important that the reader can see where my data has come
from, who I have read, and how I have used their arguments; and thirdly,
by fully referencing I acknowledge my debt to those who have made this
journey before, and it enables those who wish to continue the journey, or
to veer off, to see where they may go.

Positionality This book engages with what Macy (2007: 140) terms The
Great Turning, ‘the epochal shift from the industrial growth society to a
life-sustaining society’. This turning, she argues, can happen in different
dimensions. The first is what she terms ‘holding actions’ (Macy 2007:
143), where consciousness is raised by activism and protest, such as anti-­
fracking, or ‘keep it in the ground’ (Guardian 2016), advocating fossil
fuel divestment. The second dimension is ‘structural change’ (Macy 2007:
144) whereby understanding of power, and the constructing of alterna-
tives occur, ‘from local currencies to consumer cooperatives, from eco-­
villages to community-supported agriculture’ (Macy 2007: 145). This
book, however, does not engage with these dimensions, but locates itself
firmly in the third dimension, of ‘shift in consciousness’ (Macy 2007:
145), one that requires ‘a profound change in our perception of reality’.

This engagement locates this book as being about a shift of conscious-

ness that Sterling (1996: 29) terms as ‘radical ecologic’. This foregrounds
the argument put forward in this book that it is paramount that human-
kind shifts from its current consciousness to a new one, which is mapped
out in Chap. 7. For Sterling (1996: 29) the radical ecologic necessitates
seeing the Earth as a system, that human activity can affect that system,
that there is only one Earth, and through ecological design humankind
can engage in personal and species transformation.
4 J. Buckles

Finally, a mention about education. How humans arrange education

(the how, what, when, why and where of learning), reflects the type of
society they live within. Education within this book is seen as forming,
legitimating and perpetuating a particular society, so that societal change
(Macy’s shift in consciousness) occurs before educational change: society
changes education, education rarely changes society. Education thus
becomes important for three reasons. Firstly it is how societal change is
reinforced and enacted. Secondly, developing Barth (1990: 158) who
states that a ‘school is four walls surrounding a future’, it is education that
enables that future, whatever it may be. Thirdly, it is through education
that particular types of persons are developed (Pring 1984), ones able to
form, legitimate and perpetuate a particular way of life.

1.2 Developing the Argument

The main focus of this book is an examination of the growing concern by
writers such as Princen (2005, 2010), Sim (2010) and Speth (2005,
2008) of the possible tensions between humankind’s current way of life
and the ability of the planet to sustain this. Their concern is based upon
the notion that for the last 350 years humankind has had a view of the
world which put themselves at the centre of the world, that looked only
at the present, and could look no further than the nation-state. For many
(Heinberg 2010) that was a way of perceiving the world that was very
successful. It brought health, wealth and material riches for many. It was
not a tale of greed, or of humans being inherently materialistic, it was
because of a particular way of perceiving or constructing reality. How
humankind perceive and construct their view of reality will be explored
through the idea of the social imaginary (Taylor 2007).
Many writers (Goldsmith 1996; Hamilton 2003; Jackson 2009) claim
this way of life is only sustainable when the riches go to a few. When
everyone wants to have the same resources as the richest, then the argu-
ment is that there are not enough Earths to sustain this (Chambers et al.
2000; Wackernagel et al. 2006). This way of life also has implications for
all of the life sustaining processes on Earth.
 Introduction 5

What may be needed, it is suggested, is a different way of perceiving

and interpreting reality, one that focuses upon all life, which looks to the
future, and takes in the Earth. This would have implications upon the
whole way of life of humankind, and particularly the function of educa-
tors and education systems.
Bottery (2006: 16) argues that educators need to develop ‘a greater
‘ecological’ role in providing others with an understanding of the world
in which they live’. In this context ‘ecological’ means being aware of the
wider macro aspects of an educators role, rather than a concentration
upon the micro aspects. But ecological also has another meaning, in that
it is ‘the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms
and the interactions that determine distribution and abundance’ (Begon
et al. 2006: xi). In this book ecological will be used in both senses, sug-
gesting that educators should be aware of their world, and that the key
aspect of this awareness needs to be about the environmental future
(Bottery 2016). From this discussion emerges the main focus of the book.

1.3 Chapter Outlines

Chapter 2: Setting the Scene: Domains, Challenges
and the Social Imaginary

This chapter sets out the key ideas that are explored within the book: the
examination of the idea of a social imaginary; that a social imaginary can
be organised around three key domains; and that social imaginaries are
responses to challenges faced by societies. Taylor (2007) argues that all
societies live within a social imaginary, which describes and guides how
people view the world. It is the implicit background that shapes people’s
thoughts and actions, that explains their reality. Initially three domains
will be explored to distinguish different social imaginaries; the temporal,
spatial and ontological. This will be re-visited and developed in Chaps. 3
and 7. Finally, there will be an outline of some of the probable challenges
facing humankind in the 21st Century. These challenges will tend to
centre on the effect human activity is having upon the Earth, and will be
briefly outlined, being developed at length in Chap. 5.
6 J. Buckles

Chapter 3: The Modern Social Imaginary

This chapter will open with further exposition of social imaginaries, espe-
cially the distinction between social imaginaries and ideologies. A model
of how social imaginaries change will then be developed based around an
adaptation of Williams’ (1973) idea of residual, dominant and emergent
cultures. The Pre-Modern Social Imaginary was based around transcen-
dent time, community and hierarchy. In the 18th Century, it will be
argued, a new social imaginary emerged, the Modern Social Imaginary.
This is based around a contempocentric (Speth 2008) view of time, the
Nation-State, and humankind as being the centre of reality. This, it is
suggested, is the dominant social imaginary, the one that explains current
perceptions of reality. Central to the Modern Social Imaginary is the idea
of progress through the use of reason and control of the environment for
humankind’s benefit (Sim 2010). The main values of the Modern Social
Imaginary will be mapped out.

Chapter 4: Education in the Modern Social Imaginary

There will be a brief analysis of education in the Pre-Modern Social

Imaginary, which was very local, based within the community, depen-
dent upon social status and heavily influenced by religious teaching
(Green 1990; Meyer et al. 1992; Anderson-Levitt 2005). With the ideas
of the Enlightenment spreading, and the growth of the nation-state, the
Pre-Modern Social Imaginary was replaced as the dominant social imagi-
nary by the Modern Social Imaginary, and this led to a different approach
to education. Education moved from educating an elite, to mass and then
universal education (Trow 1973). The role of education in the nation-­
state varied in purpose. Therefore some of the arguments to be developed
are that education was used to assimilate the working class into a national
culture and to be loyal to the state; in some societies to assimilate
­immigrants; to focus upon preparing people for an industrial rather than
an agricultural life; to give primacy to economic growth over other pur-
poses of education; and to provide professionals to run the state. In this
way the education system became the key mechanism for forming, legiti-
 Introduction 7

mating and perpetuating the nation-state (Green 1990; Meyer et al.

1992; Anderson-Levitt 2005).
In form, a common organization developed, of schools, curricular
based upon subjects, tests as credentials, age-based groupings and trained
state-sanctioned teachers (Hornberg 2009). Curricular content was based
around the national language, history and literature, often with a strong
humanist and secular focus.

Chapter 5: The Major Challenges of the 21st Century?

It is important to discuss and suggest the challenges of the 21st Century,

as these will be the ones that children born today will live through.
There will be a critical examination of the evidence that suggests that
the human population will grow beyond the current 7 billion, and that
this growth, allied to growing enrichment and aspiration, will impact
upon natural resources and Earth processes. This could also then lead to
accelerated climate change and reduction in biodiversity. If this is the
case, then this has implications for the life processes of the Earth, which
all living and non-living things rely upon. The evidence that the Earth is
undergoing some form of global change, and that this may be due to
human activity will be examined; what is known as the Anthropocene
(Harris 2012).
If these events are the key challenges of the 21st Century, then human-
ity will need to meet these challenges. It may be that human ingenuity
through the use of technology will enable them to ameliorate some of the
challenges (The Royal Society 2009), but it would appear to be doubtful
that all of the effects could be overcome by technology (Gardiner 2011).
The inter-connectedness of these challenges and the limitations upon
current knowledge as to the point when the combination of these may
lead to unintended consequences (Thiele 2011) will also be examined,
which means that treating a planet of finite resources as if it was infinite
is problematic.
These challenges, it will be argued, are global, they will impact the
future, and they are ecocentric, affecting all life. It is the probable impact
of these events upon the life processes of the planet that suggest that a
new social imaginary is needed to protect the living and non-living pro-
cesses that sustain the Earth as it is.
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