Airport Planning and Design by sunil khyaju sir

Airport Planning and Design
Prepared by:
sunil KHYAJU
Assistant Professor
Nepal Engineering College
Pokhara University
2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures...................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Tables....................................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter One: Airport Planning............................................................................................................. 8
1.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 8
1.2 Aircraft Component parts...................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Aircraft Characteristics Related to Airport Planning and Design ..............................................12
1.4 Airport Master Plan..............................................................................................................14
1.4.1. FAA recommendations..................................................................................................15
1.4.2. ICAO recommendation:.................................................................................................15
1.4.3. Regional Planning .........................................................................................................15
1.5 Airport site selection............................................................................................................16
1.6 ICAO airport classification ....................................................................................................17
1.7 Estimation of future air traffic needs.....................................................................................18
1.7.1 Conventional methods of forecasting .............................................................................18
1.7.2 Analytical forecasting method .......................................................................................19
1.7.3. Microanalysis of Air Travel ............................................................................................20
Chapter Two: Design of Taxiway.........................................................................................................23
2.1 General ...............................................................................................................................23
2.2 Factors controlling taxiway layout.........................................................................................24
2.3 Design criteria for taxiway ....................................................................................................25
2.3.1 Turning Radius of Taxiways ..................................................................................................26
2.3.2 Fillets...........................................................................................................................27
2.3.3 Exit Taxiway .................................................................................................................28
2.3.4 Design of exit taxiways connecting runway and parallel taxiway system ..........................29
2.3.5 Separation Clearance ....................................................................................................30
2.3.6 Apron, Holding bay and Turnaround ..............................................................................32
Chapter Three: Runway Design...........................................................................................................35
3.1 General.....................................................................................................................................35
3.2 Airport Layout and its components.............................................................................................35
3.3 Runway Configurations ..............................................................................................................36
3.4 Factors affecting runway orientation ..........................................................................................37
3.5 Wind rose diagram ....................................................................................................................38
3.5.1 Wind rose diagram method .................................................................................................39
3.6 Basic runway length...................................................................................................................43
Airport Planning and Design/snlkhyaju@gmail.com Page 1

3.7 Correction for Elevation, Temperature and Gradient ...................................................................44
Chapter Four: Airport pavement design..............................................................................................46
4.1 General.....................................................................................................................................46
4.2 Various design factors ...............................................................................................................47
4.2.1. Design wheel load ..............................................................................................................47
4.2.2 Sub-grade supporting capacity .............................................................................................49
4.2.3. Strength of material used ...................................................................................................49
4.3 Effect of Frost on Soil Strength ...................................................................................................49
4.4. Philosophy of Airfield pavement design .....................................................................................50
4.4.1 Aircraft considerations ........................................................................................................51
4.4.2 Determination of design aircraft ..........................................................................................51
4.4.3 Determination of equivalent annual departures by the design aircraft ...................................51
4.5. Example on Flexible Pavement Design .......................................................................................52
4.6 Example on Rigid Pavement Design ............................................................................................55
Chapter Five: Maintenance And Rehabilitation Of Airfield Pavements .................................................57
5.1 (ICAO) ACN/PCN Pavement Strength Rating System ....................................................................57
5.1.1 Determination of Aircraft Classification Number (ACN)..........................................................57
5.1.2 Determination of Pavement Classification Number (PCN) ......................................................60
5.1.3 Discussion on ACN-PCN .......................................................................................................62
5.2 Pavement Distresses..................................................................................................................62
5.2.1 Flexible Pavement Distresses. ..............................................................................................62
5.2.2 Rigid Pavement Distresses. ..................................................................................................67
5.3 Maintenance and rehabilitation of airfield pavement ..................................................................71
5.3.1 Flexible Airfield Pavements ..................................................................................................72
5.3.2 Airfield rigid pavement........................................................................................................72
5.3.3 Snow and Ice Control ..........................................................................................................74
5.3.4 FOD Control Program ..........................................................................................................75
5.3.5 Bird hazard management ....................................................................................................76
5.4 Evaluation of airfield Pavement..................................................................................................77
5.4.1 Functional evaluation ..........................................................................................................77
5.4.2 Structural evaluation of airfield pavement............................................................................79
5.5 Strengthening Of Airfield Pavements ..........................................................................................82
5.5.1 Objectives...........................................................................................................................82
5.5.2 Overlay Design....................................................................................................................82
Chapter six: Terminal Design ..............................................................................................................85

6.1 General.....................................................................................................................................85
6.2 Defining the Terminal Complex ..................................................................................................85
6.2.1 Airside Terminal Facilities ....................................................................................................86
6.2.2 Terminal Building Facilities ..................................................................................................87
6.2.3 Landside Terminal Facilities .................................................................................................88
6.3 Terminal design concepts ..........................................................................................................89
6.3.1 Centralized Terminal Facilities..............................................................................................90
6.3.2 Decentralized Terminal Facilities ..........................................................................................90
6.3.3 Basic Plan Configurations.....................................................................................................91
6.4 Level of service standards for terminal space ..............................................................................94
6.5 Flow Sequences.........................................................................................................................95
6.5.1 Passenger flow....................................................................................................................95
6.6 Parking Facility Requirements ....................................................................................................96
6.7 Hangar......................................................................................................................................96
6.7.1 Hangar site location ............................................................................................................96
Chapter seven: Air Traffic Control .......................................................................................................97
7.1 General.....................................................................................................................................97
7.2 Primary functions of air traffic control ........................................................................................97
7.3 Air Traffic Control Network ........................................................................................................97
7.3.1 Control within Terminal Area...............................................................................................98
7.3.2 Control over Airways ...........................................................................................................98
7.3.3 Air Communication .............................................................................................................98
7.4 Landing aids..............................................................................................................................99
7.4.1 Instrument landing System (ILS) ...........................................................................................99
7.4.2 Precision approach radar (PAR) .......................................................................................... 100
7.4.3 Airports surveillance radar (ASR) ........................................................................................ 100
7.4.4 Airports surface detection equipment (ASDE) ..................................................................... 101
7.4.5 Approach-Light Systems .................................................................................................... 101
Chapter eight: visual aids ................................................................................................................. 103
Solutions ......................................................................................................................................... 104
References....................................................................................................................................... 111

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Aircraft Components ....................................................................................................... 8

Figure 2 Aircraft Components ....................................................................................................... 9
Figure 3 Principle of Jet Engine .................................................................................................. 10
Figure 4 Ram Jet ........................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 5 Three Controls ............................................................................................................... 11
Figure 6 Tricycle under carriage ................................................................................................. 12
Figure 7 Size of Aircraft ............................................................................................................... 12
Figure 8 Minimum Turning Radius ............................................................................................ 13
Figure 9 Trend Analysis ............................................................................................................... 20
Figure 10 Airport Infrastructure ................................................................................................ 22
Figure 11 Airport layout showing taxiway ................................................................................. 23
Figure 12 Taxiway on Apron ....................................................................................................... 24
Figure 13 Path of main gear on path........................................................................................... 26
Figure 14 Fillet Radii .................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 15 Typical Runway and Taxiway Fillets for Large Airport ......................................... 28
Figure 16 Radius of Curvature for Exit Taxiway ...................................................................... 29
Figure 17 Typical exit configuration ........................................................................................... 30
Figure 18 Separation Clearance for Parallel Taxiways............................................................. 30
Figure 19 Apron ............................................................................................................................ 32
Figure 20 Holding bays ................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 21 Typical Taxiway turnaround...................................................................................... 34
Figure 22 Typical layout of airport ............................................................................................. 36
Figure 23 Single Runway @ Biratnagar Airport ....................................................................... 36
Figure 24 Parallel Runway @ Manila ......................................................................................... 36
Figure 25 Intersecting Runway at Zurich Airport .................................................................... 37
Figure 26 Intersecting and Open-V Runway at Vancouver...................................................... 37
Figure 27 Cross Wind Component .............................................................................................. 38
Figure 28 Wind rose Diagram Method-I................................................................................ 39
Figure 29 Wind rose diagram solution........................................................................................ 41
Figure 30 Wind rose diagram II .................................................................................................. 41
Figure 31 Solution by Wind rose diagram II.............................................................................. 42
Figure 32 Declared runway distance ........................................................................................... 43
Figure 33 Typical plan and cross section for airfield pavement. .............................................. 46
Figure 34 Types of wheel configuration ...................................................................................... 47
Figure 35 Load distribution on dual wheel assembly ................................................................ 48
Figure 36 Dual wheel load in tande m assembly ......................................................................... 48
Figure 37 Computation of Equivalent Single Wheel Load ....................................................... 49
Figure 38 the process of ice segregation (http:// www.pave mentinteractive.org). .................. 50
Figure 39 Traffic for pavement design........................................................................................ 51
Figure 40 Flexible pavement design curves for critical areas, dual wheel gear ...................... 53
Figure 41Minimum base course require ment ............................................................................ 54
Figure 42 Rigid pavement design curves - dual tande m gear ................................................... 55
Figure 43 Effect of stabilized s ub-base on subgrade modulus .................................................. 56
Figure 44 ACN Flexible Pave ment Conve rsion Chart .............................................................. 58
Figure 45 Flexible Pave ment Require ments 10,000 coverages ................................................. 58
Figure 46 Reference pavement thickness for rigid pavement................................................... 59
Figure 47 ACN Rigid Pave ment Conve rsion Chart................................................................... 60
Figure 48 Alligator Fatigue Cracking ......................................................................................... 63

Figure 49 Tire Marks Evident In High-Severity Bleeding ........................................................ 63
Figure 50 High-Severity Block Cracking.................................................................................... 63
Figure 51 Corrugation .................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 52 Depression in Pave ment .............................................................................................. 64
Figure 53 Joint Reflection Cracking From PCC ....................................................................... 64
Figure 54 High-Severity Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking ............................................ 64
Figure 55 Oil spillage .................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 56 High-Severity Patch..................................................................................................... 65
Figure 57 Polished Aggregate ...................................................................................................... 65
Figure 58 High-Severity Raveling And Weathering .................................................................. 65
Figure 59 Rutting in a Pavement ................................................................................................. 65
Figure 60 Shoving in a Pavement ................................................................................................ 66
Figure 61 Severe Slippage Cracking ........................................................................................... 66
Figure 62 Swell Distress................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 63 Jet-Blast Erosion .......................................................................................................... 66
Figure 64 Blowup in a Pavement ................................................................................................. 67
Figure 65 Corner Break ............................................................................................................... 67
Figure 66 longitudinal and transverse cracking ........................................................................ 67
Figure 67 High-Severity D Cracking........................................................................................... 68
Figure 68 Joint Seal Damage ....................................................................................................... 68
Figure 69 Small Patch Distress .................................................................................................... 68
Figure 70 Large Patch Distress.................................................................................................... 68
Figure 71 Popout Distress ............................................................................................................ 69
Figure 72 Water Bleeding and Pumping .................................................................................... 69
Figure 73 Scaling and Map Cracking ......................................................................................... 69
Figure 74 Faulting of Transverse Cracks ................................................................................... 70
Figure 75 Shattered Slab Condition ............................................................................................ 70
Figure 76 Shrinkage Crack .......................................................................................................... 70
Figure 77 Joint Spalling at a Transverse Joint .......................................................................... 71
Figure 78 Corner Spalling ............................................................................................................ 71
Figure 79 Typical Pavement Life Cycle Curve .......................................................................... 71
Figure 80 Preservative Techniques ............................................................................................. 73
Figure 81 Micro surfacing ............................................................................................................ 74
Figure 82 Snow and Ice on exposed airfield ............................................................................... 74
Figure 83 Snow and Ice Control .................................................................................................. 75
Figure 84 Air France crashed on 25 July 2000........................................................................... 76
Figure 85 Bird Hazard.................................................................................................................. 76
Figure 86 Quarter-Car Model Used as the Basis of the International Roughness Index,...... 78
Figure 87 Sche matic vie w of griptester....................................................................................... 78
Figure 88 Contactless sensor........................................................................................................ 79
Figure 89 Plate Load Bearing Test.............................................................................................. 80
Figure 90 Subgrade strength test................................................................................................ 81
Figure 91 Principle of the falling weight deflectometer ............................................................ 82
Figure 92 Terminal Complex ....................................................................................................... 85
Figure 93 Terminal Building showing passenger and baggage flow ........................................ 88
Figure 94 Centralized terminal building .................................................................................... 90
Figure 95 Decentralize d planning approach .............................................................................. 91
Figure 96 Simple and Expanded linear terminal configuration. .............................................. 91
Figure 97 Pier and Multi-pier concourse configuration............................................................ 92
Figure 98 Satellite concourse configuration. .............................................................................. 92
Figure 99 Single-level terminal with dual curbs ........................................................................ 93
Figure 100 Transporter concourse configuration ...................................................................... 93

Figure 101 Multiple-spine automated people mover. ................................................................ 93
Figure 102 Spine automated people move r. ............................................................................... 94
Figure 103 One-way or two-way loop automated people movers............................................. 95
Figure 104 Passenger flow diagram for domestic and inte rnational ....................................... 95
Figure 105 Signal for Traffic ope ration ...................................................................................... 99
Figure 106 Sche matic diagram of Instrume nt Landing System ............................................. 100
Figure 107 Barrette type with capacitor discharge (sequential flashing lights).................... 101
Figure 108 PAPI light s............................................................................................................... 102

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Minimum Turning Radii for Typical Passenger Aircraft ........................................... 13

Table 2 Airport Classification as per ICAO ............................................................................... 17
Table 3 Enplanement Data for Airport Demand Forecast ....................................................... 20
Table 4 Comparision between wind rose diagrams ................................................................... 40
Table 5 Wind data for wind rose ................................................................................................. 40
Table 6 Wind data for wind rose ................................................................................................. 41
Table 7 Conversion factors .......................................................................................................... 51
Table 8 'F' for different subgrade and subbase ......................................................................... 83
Table 9 Coefficient for design of rigid overlay ........................................................................... 84
Table 10 Examples of rule-of-thumb passenger parking*. ....................................................... 96

CHAPTER ONE: AIRPORT PLANNING
1.1General
One of the great challenges for airport planning and design is creating facilities that accommodate
a very wide variety of aircraft. Aircraft vary widely in terms of their physical dimensions and
performance characteristics, whether they be operated for commercial air service, cargo, or
general aviation activities.
There are a large number of specifications for which aircraft may be categorized. Depending on
the portion of the area of the airport, certain aircraft specifications become more critical. For
example, aircraft weight is important for determining the thickness and strengths of the runway,
taxiway, and apron pavements, and affects the takeoff and landing runway length requirements at
an airport, which in turn to a large extent influences planning of the entire airport property. The
wingspan and the fuselage length influence the size of parking aprons, which in turn influences
the configuration of the terminal buildings. Wingspan and turning radii dictate width of runways
and taxiways, the distances between these traffic ways, and affects the required turning radius on
pavement curves. An aircraft‘s passenger capacity has an important bearing on facilities within
and adjacent to the terminal building.
1.2Aircraft Component parts
The schematic diagram of an airplane with its various component parts is given in figure:
a. Engine
b. Fuselage
c. Wings
d. Three controls: Aileron, elevator and rudder
e. Tricycle under carriage
Figure 1 Aircraft Components

Figure 2 Aircraft Components
a. Engine
Engine is required to provide the force for propelling the aircraft through the air. According to the
method of propulsion aircraft engine can be classified as:
Piston engine: It is powered by gasoline fed reciprocating engine and is driven by
propeller or airscrew. Engine rotates a shaft with a considerable amount of torque.
Propeller is mounted on the shaft to absorb the torque. Rotating propeller attains its rated
speed, huge masses of air is hurled rearwards thereby pulling the aircraft forward and
creating lift on the wing. They are suitable to operate at low altitudes and moderate speed.
They have cooling problem also.
Jet engine: advantages of jet engine
 They are free from vibration
 Simplicity of operation (no transmission or conversion mechanism is required)
 No radiators required
 No spark plugs are required
 No carburetors
 Less consumption of lubricants
i) Turbo Jet: to start the machine, the compressor is rotated with motor. As the
compressor gains its rated speed, it sucks in air through the air intake and compresses it in
the compression chamber. The air is ignited here by fuel. The expanding gasses pass
through the fan like blades of turbine. The hot gasses escape through the tail pipe which
becomes smaller in diameter and this hot gas having velocity, give a forward thrust to the
engine.

Figure 3 Principle of Jet Engine
ii) Turbo Prop: It is similar to the turbo jet engine except that propeller is provided in it.
Turbine extracts enough power to drive both the compressor and propeller.
iii) Ram Jet: It has no moving parts. It must be operated at high speed. It requires the
assistance of other types of power plant to reach the operating speed. The heated air
expands and rushes out of the exhaust nozzle at high velocity creating jet thrust.
Figure 4 Ram Jet
Rocket engine: It produces thrust in the same way as the ram jet engine except
it does not depend upon the atmospheric oxygen. There is no limit on altitude.
An airplane can be single engine or multi engine. Single engine usually mounted at the nose of the
fuselage. In two or four engined aircraft they usually housed in the leading edge of the aircraft.
b. Fuselage:
It is main body of the aircraft and provides space for the power plant, fuel, cockpit, passenger,
cargo etc.
c. Wings:
Wings are required to support the machine in the air, when the engine has given forward speed.
d. Three controls:
There are three axes about which an aircraft in space may move to control these movements an
aircraft is provided with three principal controls:
i) Elevator: elevator consists of two flaps capable of moving up and down through an
angle of 50-60 degree. They are hinged to a fixed horizontal surface at the extreme rear
end of fuselage. It controls the pitch of the aircraft.

ii) Rudder: It consists of a flap hinged to a vertical line provided at the tail end of
fuselage. It is utilized for turning (or yawing) movement of the aircraft. It works just a
boat is steered in water.
iii) Aileron: it is hinged flap in the trailing edge of the wing. It is for rolling movement
control.
X axis: rolling movement; Y axis: Pitching; Z axis:Yawing
Figure 5 Three Controls

e. Tricycle under-carriage:
Tricycle undercarriage if for supporting the aircraft while it
is in contact with the ground. Functions:
• To absorb landing shocks
• To enable the aircraft to maneuver on the ground
Types:
• Single wheel assembly
• Dual wheel assembly
• Dual wheel assembly in Tandem
F
igure 6
Tricycle under carriage
1.3Aircraft Characteristics Related to Airport Planning and Design
a. Size of aircraft
The length of an aircraft is defined as the distance from the front tip of the fuselage, or main body
of the aircraft, to the back end of the tail section, known as the empennage. The length of an
aircraft is used to determine the length of an aircraft‘s parking area, hangars.
The wing span of an aircraft is defined as the distance from wingtip to wingtip of the aircraft‘s
main wings. The wingspan of an aircraft is used to determine the width of aircraft parking areas
and gate spacing, as well as determining the width and separations of runways and taxiways on
the airfield.
The maximum height of an aircraft is typically defined as the distance from the ground to the top
of the aircraft‘s tail section.
The wheelbase of an aircraft is defined as the distance between the center of the aircraft‘s main
landing gear and the center of its nose gear, or tail-wheel, in the case of a tail-wheel aircraft.
An aircraft‘s wheel track is defined as the distance between the outer wheels of an aircraft‘s main
landing gear.
Figure 7 Size of Aircraft

b. Minimum turning radius
The wheelbase and wheel track of an aircraft determine its minimum turning radius, which in turn
plays a large role in the design of taxiway turnoffs, intersections, and other areas on an airfield
which require an aircraft to turn. Turning radii are a function of the nose gear steering angle. The
larger the angle, the smaller the radii. From the center of rotation the distances to the various parts
of the aircraft, such as the wingtips, the nose, or the tail, result in a number of radii. The largest
radius is the most critical from the standpoint of clearance to buildings or adjacent aircraft. The
minimum turning radius corresponds to the maximum nose gear steering angle specified by the
aircraft manufacturer. The maximum angles vary from 60°to 80°, although for design purposes a
steering angle of approximately 50°is often applied.
The turning radius of an aircraft may be expressed using the following formula:
( )
where b=wheelbase of an aircraft
t =wheel track of the aircraft
b=maximum steering angle
Figure 8 Minimum Turning Radius

Table 1 Minimum Turning Radii for
Typical Passenger Aircraft
c. Minimum circling radius
There is certain minimum radius with which the aircraft can take turn in space. This radius
depends upon the type of aircraft, air traffic volume and weather conditions. The radii
recommended for the different types of aircraft are as follows:
 Small general aviation aircraft: 1.6 Km
 Two piston aircraft: 3.2 km
 Jet engine (IFR): 80 km

d. Engine type and propulsion
The size of aircraft, its circling radius, speed characteristics, weight carrying capacity, noise
nuisance etc. depend upon the type of propulsion of the aircraft. The performance characteristics
of aircrafts, which determines the basic runway length, also depend upon the type of propulsion.
That heat nuisance due to exhaust gases is characteristics of turbo jet and turbo prop engines.
e. Speed of aircraft
The speed of aircraft can be defined in two ways viz. cruising speed or ground speed and air
speed. Cruising speed is the speed of aircrafts with respect to the ground when the aircraft is
flying in air at its maximum speed. Air speed is the speed of aircraft relative to the wind. Thus, if
the aircraft is flying at a speed of 500 kph and there is a head wind of 50 kph, air speed will be
450 kph.
f. Capacity of the aircraft
The numbers of passengers, baggage, cargo and fuel that can be accommodated in the aircrafts
depend upon the capacity of aircraft. The capacity of aircraft using an airport has an important
effect on the capacity of runway systems as well as that of the passenger processing terminal
facilities.
g. Aircraft weight & wheel configuration
Weight of the aircraft directly influence the length of the runway as well as the structural
requirements i.e. the thickness of the runway, taxiway, apron and hangers. It depends not only on
the weight of the passenger baggage, cargo and fuel it is carrying and its structural weigt, but also
on the fuel which is continuously decreasing during the course of the flight.
h. Jet Blast
At relatively high velocities the aircraft eject hot exhaust gases. It may affect the bituminous
pavement, cause discomfort to the passenger. Jet Blast deflector or fences could be constructed.
The effect of the jet blast should also be considered for determining the position, size and location
of gates.
i. Fuel spillage
At loading aprons and hangers, it is difficult to avoid spillage completely, but effort should be
made to bring it within minimum limit.
j. Noise
Noise affects to the surrounding communities.
1.4 Airport Master Plan
The planner's idealized concept of the form and structure of the ultimate development of the
airport is contained in the airport master plan. This plan is not only the physical form of the
ultimate development plan but a description of the staging of development and both the
financial implications and fiscal strategies involved. Master Planning applies to the construction
of new airport as well as to the significant expansion of existing facilities. An airport master plan
provides recommendations for the future development of an airport, often over a 20-year horizon.
The master plan serves as a blueprint that guides the development strategy and direction for an
airport and as a ready reference for the airport community and other stakeholders. As stated by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO): An airport master plan presents the planner’s
conception of the ultimate development of a specific airport.

Specific objectives of airport Master Plan:
 To provide a graphic representation of existing airport features, future airport development
and anticipated land use.
 To establish a realistic schedule for implementation of the proposed development
 To identify an realistic financial plan to support the development
 To validate the plan technically and procedurally through investigation of concepts and
alternatives on technical, economic and environmental grounds.
 To prepare and present a plan to the public that adequately addresses all relevant issues
and satisfies local, state and federal regulations.
 To establish a framework for a continuous planning process.
1.4.1. FAA recommendations
 Organization and preplanning

 Inventory of existing conditions and issues
 Aviation demand forecasting
 Requirement analysis and concept development
 Airport site selection
 Environmental procedure and analysis
 Simulation
 Airport plans
 Plan implementation
1.4.2. ICAO recommendation:
 Prepare a master work plan

 Inventory and document of existing conditions
 Forecast the future air traffic demand
 Determine scale and time phasing of facilities
 Evaluate existing and potential constraints
 Determine the relative importance of constraints and other considerations.
 Develop a number of master plan options
 Evaluate and screen all plan options
 Select the most acceptable and appropriate option, refining and modifying it in response to
the evaluation process
 Prepare master plan documents in final form.
1.4.3. Regional Planning
The planning of an airport should be done considering the air traffic needs of the nation as a
whole rather than an individual locality. Airport planning including the airport administration, if
not done on a regional basis, would seriously impair the effective air traffic cervices of the
country. It may further result in surplus or shortage of airport facilities on regional basis.
The regional plan usually provides the following information:
 Approximate locations of the airports in national map
 Classification of airports
 Location of air strips
 Routes of air travel
The following data is collected for a scientific and sound planning on regional basis.
Traffic data
 Route and city pair specific data, including origin/destination flows.
 Airport specific data
 Traffic by other modes especially in short haul situations.
Demand characteristics
 Origin destination demand
 Trip purpose distributions for cargo demands
 Commodity classifications for cargo demands
 General aviation activity demand
Airport data
 Financial results
 Facilities inventories
 Capacity
 Temporal traffic patterns, including hourly distributions
 Airlines served
 Access traffic conditions
 Safety records
 Weather conditions
 Traffic operation patterns
Supply data
 City pair available capacity
 Schedule and fares for passengers and cargo
 Load factor prevailing
 Airline operating cost data
Socio economic data
 Economic studies for regional economic plans if available
 Population and demographic characteristics and forecasts, if available
 Income characteristics and consumption patterns
 Foreign and tourism trade patterns
1.5Airport site selection
The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under
consideration. However, if such factors as required for the selection of the largest facility are
considered, the development of the airport by stages will be made easier and economical. The
factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation:
 Consistency with Regional plan
 Operational capability: airspace considerations, obstructions, weather etc.
 Airport use: military, civil, etc.
 Proximity to other airport: minimum spacing between two airports:
o Airport for general aviation under VFR 3.2 km
o For two piston aircraft VFR: 6.4 km

o Piston engine IFR: 25.6 km
o Jet engine aircraft: 160 km.
 Ground accessibility: normally it should not exceed30 minute drive from the city. It is
desirable to locate airport adjacent to the highway.
 Topography: hill top is most suitable
 Visibility: free from fog, smoke haze etc.
 Wind: runway orientation should be: landing and takeoff is done by heading into wind.
Smoke from city and industry should not blow over the airport.
 Noise nuisance: landing and takeoff path should not pass over the residential or industrial
areas.
 Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
 Future development
 Availabilities of utilities from town
 Economic considerations
1.6 ICAO airport classification
For the purpose of stipulating geometric design standards for the various types of airports and the
functions which they serve, letter and numerical codes and other descriptors have been adopted to
classify airports. For design purposes, airports are classified based on the aircraft they
accommodate. While at any airport, a wide variety of aircraft, from small general aviation piston-
engine aircraft to heavy air transport aircraft, will use the airfield, airports are designed based on a
series of ―critical‖ or ―design‖ aircraft. These aircraft are selected from the fleet using the airport
as those most critical to airfield design.
It employs aerodrome reference code, it consists of length of runway available
 Classified using code number 1 through 4
 Aircraft wing span and outer main gear wheel span
 Classified using letters A through E
 ICAO classification based on wing span and outer main gear wheel span
Table 2 Airport Classification as per ICAO

1.7 Estimation of future air traffic needs
Plans for the development of the various components of the airport system depend to a large
extent on the activity levels which are forecast for the future. An understanding of future demand
patterns allows the planner to assess future airport performance in light of existing and improved
facilities, to evaluate the impact of various quality of service options on the airlines, travelers,
shippers, and community, to recommend development programs consistent with the overall
objectives and policies of the airport operator, to estimate the costs associated with these facility
plans, and to project the sources and level of revenues to support the capital improvement
program.
It is essential in the planning and design of an airport to have realistic estimates of the future
demand to which airports are likely to be subjected. This is a basic requirement in developing
either an airport master plan or an airport system plan. These estimates determine the future needs
for which the physical facilities are designed. To assess the characteristics of future demand, the
development of reliable predictions of airport activity is necessary. There are numerous factors
that will affect the demand and planners who are preparing forecasts of demand or updating
existing forecasts should consider local and regional socioeconomic data and characteristics,
demographics, geographic attributes, and external factors such as fuel costs and quality of service
parameters.
Over the years, certain techniques have evolved which enable airport planners and designers to
forecast future demand. The principal items for which estimates are usually needed include
 The volume and peaking characteristics of passengers, aircraft, vehicles, and cargo
 The number and types of aircraft needed to serve the above traffic
 The number of based general aviation aircraft and the number of movements generated
 The performance and operating characteristics of ground access systems
Forecasting Methods
There are several forecasting methods or techniques available to airport planners ranging from
subjective judgment to sophisticated mathematical modeling. The selection of the particular
methodology is a function of the use of the forecast, the availability of a database, the complexity
and sophistication of the techniques, the resources available, the time frame in which the forecast
is required and is to be used, and the degree of precision desirable. There are four major methods:
1.7.1 Conventional methods of forecasting
Conventionally, forecasting of future air traffic demand has been carried out at the macroscopic
scale, viewing demand as a response to the overall levels of change of one or more variables.
These very simple methods have been applied with reasonable success at the local, national, and
international levels, in cases where rates of growth of traffic have been remarkably constant over
time. Methods that have been used include judgment, surveys of expectation, trend forecasting,
and base forecasting, which we now consider in turn.
Individual Judgment: under the conditions of very limited growth, a crude but effective method
of forecasting is the judgment estimate by a forecaster who is close to the problem and is able to
integrate and balance the factors involved in the specific situations. The chances of success
diminish as the complexity of the situation increases and need for long term a forecast
predominates. Use of judgment can easily result in forecasting by feeling, a procedure that is
abhorrent to analytical planners.
The Delphi Method: In this technique a panel of experts in the field is requested to individually
make an initial forecasts. These forecasts are then made known to all panelists, who in iterative

process would adjust their previous forecast. After few iterations greater consensus is achieved.
The method is better suited to aggregate forecasts at regional or national levels.
Base Forecast Method: The method is used to forecast demand at the local level. The basic
assumption is that the proportion of the large scale activity (national or regional demand) can be
assigned to the local level that remains relatively constant over time. The following step-down
method can be used when the market area of a local airport can reasonably well defined.
Where
= domestic enplanement at local airport E.
= percent market share for airport i of scheduled domestic enplanement in region j.
= percent market share for region j of total state market s.
= percent market share of state s of total national market.
= Total scheduled enplanements in the nation.
The greatest drawback of this approach is the assumption that local, regional and national
economic rates are static. Rapidly growing areas attract more air traffic.
1.7.2 Analytical forecasting method
Market Research Method: In this approach population is stratified into homogeneous segments
according to their socio-economic characteristic. The behavior of each segment in air trip making
is separately estimated. It is assumed that trip rate of each segment remains constant over time.
Then on the basis of forecasts of each segment size, future demand (Y) is computed. The sum
gives the total forecast.
Where
Total demand of population in the horizon year.
= present size of i th population segment.
= air trip rate of segment i.
h= total number of population segments (i = 1,2, . . ., h).
The inherent weakness of this approach is that it does not take into account the possible effects of
changes in air transportation system and its service characteristics. However, it provides a
systematic approach to short term forecast when system characteristics arc perceived to remain
unchanged.
Trend forecasting: Trend forecasting analysis or extrapolation is based upon an examination of
the historical pattern of activity and assumes that those factors which determine the variation of
traffic in the past will continue to exhibit similar relationships in the future. This technique
utilizes times series type data and seeks to analyze the growth and growth rates associated with a
particular aviation activity. Statistical techniques are used to assist in defining the reliability and
the expected range in the extrapolated trend.
Example Problem The historical data shown in Table 5-1 have been collected for the annual
passenger enplanements in a region and one of the commercial service airports in this region. It is

necessary to prepare a forecast of the annual passenger enplanements at the study airport in the
design years 2010 and 2015 using a trend line analysis.
Annual Enplanements Area

Year
Regional Airport Population
1998 13,060,000 468,900 250,000
1999 14,733,000 514,300 260,000
2000 16,937,000 637,600 270,000
2001 21,896,000 758,200 280,000
2002 24,350,000 935,200 290,000
2003 28,004,000 995,500 300,000
2004 31,658,000 1,139,700 310,000
2005 37,226,000 1,360,700 320,000
2006 40,753,000 1,488,900 330,000
2007 44,018,000 1,650,600 340,000
Table 3 Enplanement Data for Airport Demand Forecast
Trend analysis
3,000
Annual passenger enplanement in 1000
2683
2,500 2548
2413
2278
2143
2,000 2008
1873
1738
1,651
1,500 1,489
1,361
1,140
1,000
935 996
758
638
500 469 514
0
1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015
Year
Figure 9 Trend Analysis
1.7.3. Microanalysis of Air Travel
Air Trip Distribution Models: The most common classification in microanalysis is origin-
destination analysis. The resulting models are known as city-pair models. The most widely used
model of trip interchanges between city pairs is of gravity type. The model celebration uses cross-
sectional data. In cross sectional calibration, the model is assumed to be applicable across all city

pairs. Data during a single time period is used to estimate the parameters. The model is of the
following form.
Where
air travel between city pair ¡ and j.
= population of the origin city E.
= population of the destination city j.
= Separate parameter of origin-destination city pair (travel time or out of pocket
travel cost).
K= a constant of proportionality.
b= impedance coefficient that is calibrated.
Several modified versions of gravity model have been developed in the past incorporating
attraction index of cities and also characteristics of air transportation system.
Air Travel Choice Models: Whenever, there are options in any aspect of the transportation system
from which travelers can choose, the demand is analyzed through choice models. Choice of
airport, airline, route and fare have been analyzed through logit model. The general form of logit
model is given below.
( )
∑ ( )
Where
Tij = total trips by all modes from i to j
Tijk = trips by mode k from I to j
α = some calibration constant
Cijk= generalized costs of travel from i to j by mode k
n = number of available modes

Figure 10 Airport Infrastructure
CHAPTER TWO: DESIGN OF TAXIWAY
2.1 General
Taxiways are defined paths on the airfield surface which are established for the taxiing of aircraft
and are intended to provide a linkage between one part of the airfield and another. The term ―dual
parallel taxiways‖ refers to two taxiways parallel to each other on which airplanes can taxi in
opposite directions. An apron taxiway is a taxiway located usually on the periphery of an apron
intended to provide a through taxi route across the apron. A taxi lane is a portion of the aircraft
parking area used for access between the taxiways and the aircraft parking positions. ICAO
defines an aircraft stand taxi lane as a portion of the apron intended to provide access to the
aircraft stands only.
The taxiway system should be designed to minimize the restriction of aircraft movement to and
from the runways and apron areas. A properly designed system should be capable of maintaining
a smooth, continuous flow of aircraft ground traffic at the maximum practical speed with a
minimum of acceleration or deceleration. This requirement ensures that the taxiway system will
operate at the highest levels of both safety and efficiency.
Figure 11 Airport layout showing taxiway

Figure 12 Taxiway on Apron
2.2 Factors controlling taxiway layout
The following considerations decide the layout of taxiway:

 Taxiways should be so arranged that the aircrafts which have just landed and are taxiing
towards the apron, do not interface with the aircraft for take-off.
 At busy airports, taxiways should be located at various points along the runway so that the
landing aircraft leaves the runway as early as possible and keeps it clear for use by other
aircraft. Such taxiways are called exit taxiways.
 Taxiway routes should connect the various aerodrome elements by the shortest distances,
thus minimizing both taxiing time and cost;
 Taxiway crossings of runways and other taxiways should be avoided whenever possible in
the interests of safety and to reduce the potential for significant taxiing delays;
 Taxiway routings should have as many one-way segments as possible to minimize aircraft
conflicts and delay.

2.3 Design criteria for taxiway
Design criteria for taxiway are given in the table below.

2.3.1 Turning Radius of Taxiways
The change of aircraft path is affected with the provision of curve along the length of taxiway.
Recommended minimum radii corresponding to the taxiing speeds of small, subsonic and
supersonic transport aircraft are 60m (200 ft.), 120 m (400ft.) and 180 m (600ft), respectively
whatever may be the speed. The curve is so designed that the aircraft can negotiate it without
significantly reducing the speed.
Figure 13 Path of main gear on path

Another recommendation on turning radius (R) is based on the exit speed of aircraft. Exit speed
refers to the speed at which the aircraft crosses the edge of runway as it enters the taxiway.
Where
V= exit speed of aircraft (kmph)
f = coefficient of friction between aircraft wheel tyre and taxiway pavement. The adopted
common value off is 0.13
According to Horonjeff, the radius of the taxiway should be so provided that the distance of the
oleo strut of the nearby main gear is not less than 6 m (20ft) from the pavement edge. The relation
between the radius of taxiway, wheel base of aircraft and the specified distance of the main gear
from the edge of the pavement is given by the following equation suggested by Horonjeff.
Where
R =Radius of taxiway radius in radius
W =wheel base of aircraft in meter
T =width of taxiway pavement in meter

S =distance between midway point of the main gears and the edge of the
taxiway pavement in meter
2.3.2 Fillets
These are provided at the junction or intersection of two or more number of traffic ways e.g.
runways, taxiway or aprons. If adequate fillets are gears of an aircraft, genera11y is likely to go
off the pavement on to shoulder. As a guide, ICAO recommends that the radius of fillet should not
be less than the width of taxiway. The recommendations of FAA for the fillet radii for small and
large are as follows.
Radii of Fillets
Small airport serving Large airport serving
angle of general aviation aircraft transport category aircraft
intersection m ft M ft
0-45 7.5 25 22.5 75
45-135 15 50 30 100
more than
135 60 200 60 200
Figure 14 Fillet Radii

Figure 15 Typical Runway and Taxiway Fillets for Large Airport
2.3.3 Exit Taxiway
The function of exit taxiway is to minimize runway occupancy time of landed aircraft. The
average runway occupancy time of landed aircraft frequently determine the capacity of the
runways system and the airport as a whole. When the angle of turn off is of the order of 30
degrees, the term ‗high speed exit‘ or ―rapid exit taxiway‖ is often used to denote its design for
higher turn off speeds of aircraft.
Location of exit taxiway depends upon the following factors
This depends upon several factors. The important ones are as follows
 Number of exit taxiways
 Exit speed
 Type of aircrafts
 Weather conditions
 Topographical features
 Pilot variability
Number of exit taxiways: The number of exit taxiways to be provided decides their location. If
there are only two exit taxiways they would naturally be provided at the runway ends. If there are
more number of exit taxiways, they are distributed along the runway length
Type of aircrafts: Different type of aircrafts land at different speed, therefore, the distance
required different aircrafts to reduce their speed to the exit speed value, varies with the type of the
aircraft. This in turn affects the location of exit taxiway
Exit speed: The maximum speed with which an aircraft can turn and enter the exit taxiway is
limited for each aircraft. The aircraft requires certain length of runway to reduce its speed from
the landing speed to the turn off speed. The latter thus affects the location of taxiways.
Weather conditions: Wind, temperature, fog etc. affect the landing speed of aircraft. This also
affects the distance required by the aircraft to slow down to the exit speed.
Topographical features: The high altitude or deep valley reduce the visibility which may affect
the landing speed. Obstruction; ¡n approach and turning zones may also Influence the landing
speed and hence affect the location of exit taxiways

Pilot variability: The rules for landing of transport category aircrafts arc quite precise. Even then
some variability amongst different pilots does occur, especially in the distance from runway
threshold to the touch down point and in is application of brakes on the runway. The pilot
variability should necessarily be considered in locating exit taxiway.
2.3.4 Design of exit taxiways connecting runway and parallel taxiway system
The following principles govern the design of taxiway.

 The most significant factor effecting the turning radius is the exit speed of aircraft.
 Slightly widened entrance of 30m in gradually tapering to the normal width of taxiway is
preferred. The widened entrance gives to the pilot more latitude in using the exit taxiway.
 Total angle of turn of 300 to 450 can be negotiated satisfactorily. The smaller angle seems
to be referable because the length of curved path is reduced.
 For smooth and comfortable turn, the turning radius should be determined from the
Equation
 A high turn-off speeds of 65 to 95 kmph (40 to 60 mph), a compound curve is necessary to

minimize the tire wear on the nose gears Therefore, the main curve radius R2 should be
preceded by a larger radius curve R1 as shown in figure. But still a compound curve is
preferred as it is relatively easier to establish it in the field and its shape is similar to that
of a spiral.
The following radius were found
experimentally suitable.
Speed Radius
kmph mph M ft
65 40 517 1724
80 50 731 2436
95 60 941 3138
Figure 16 Radius of Curvature for Exit Taxiway

 The length of larger radius curve can be roughly obtained from the following relation
( )
The value of C is 0.39.

 Sufficient distance must be provided to comfortably decelerate an aircraft after it leaves
the runway. This distance may be based on an average deceleration rate of 1m/sec 2 (3.3
ft/sec2 ). The stopping distance may be obtained from the following equation
( )
where
d is the deceleration in m/sec2 . The stopping distance should be measured from the
edge of the runway pavement along the exit taxiway.
Figure 17 Typical exit configuration
Example 2.1. Compute the turning radius of an exit with design exit speed of 80 kmph.
Following information on critical aircraft are given below.
 Wheelbase = 17.7 m
 Wheel tread = 6.62 m
 The width of taxiway is 23 m.
Example 2.2 Design a high speed exit connecting a runway and a parallel taxiway at an turn off
angle of 30 degrees. The design exit speed is 90kmph. The widths runway and taxiway are 45 m
and 23 m respectively. The separation between the runway and parallel taxiway is 225 m.
2.3.5 Separation Clearance
Figure 18 Separation Clearance for Parallel Taxiways

2.3.6 Apron, Holding bay and Turnaround
Apron:
An apron is a defined area intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading and
unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling and parking or maintenance. The apron is
generally paved but may occasionally be unpaved; for example, in some instances, a turf
parking apron may be adequate for small aircraft
Types:
Passenger apron: The passenger terminal apron is an area designed for aircraft maneuvering
and parking that is adjacent or readily accessible to passenger terminal facilities. This area is
where passengers board the aircraft from the passenger terminal. In addition to facilitating
passenger movement, the passenger terminal apron is used for aircraft fuelling and
maintenance as well as loading and unloading cargo, mail and baggage. Individual aircraft
parking positions on the passenger terminal apron are referred to as aircraft stands.
Cargo terminal apron: Aircraft that carry only freight and mail may be provided a separate
cargo terminal apron adjacent to a cargo terminal building. The separation of cargo and
passenger aircraft is desirable because of the different types of facilities each requires both on
the apron and at the terminal
Remote parking apron: In addition to the terminal apron, airports may require a separate
parking apron where aircraft can park for extended periods.
Service hanger apron: A service apron is an uncovered area adjacent to an aircraft hangar
on which aircraft maintenance can be performed, while a hangar apron is an area on which
aircraft move into and out of a storage hangar.
General aviation aircraft, used for business or personal flying, require several categories of
aprons to support different general aviation activities.
Figure 19 Apron

Holding bay:
These are also known as run-up or warm-up paid. These are located, where the aircrafts wait
for their turn to takeoff, and where they are finally checked before the takeoff. Holding
aprons are usually provided near the runway ends and are made sufficiently large so that, if
one aircraft is unable to take-off because of some defect in the machinery, another aircraft
can bypass it for the take-off. If such an arrangement is provided, she aircrafts desiring to
take-off would remain in a queue in the taxiway connecting the runway end since it would be
difficult from the crippled aircraft to reverse and return to the terminal area. The size of
holding apron depends upon the peak hour aircraft movements, the aircraft size and its
ground maneuvering characteristics. Holding apron may not be required if the volume of
traffic is small. The size of holding apron should be sufficient to accommodate two to four
aircrafts and to allow one additional aircraft to bypass without any difficulty.
Figure 20 Holding bays
Turnaround:
Many airports in the initial stages have low airport traffic and are constructed without a
parallel taxiway. As the traffic increases, the need of a parallel taxiway may be felt although
it may not always be feasible to provide it from economic consideration. As a substitute for
parallel taxiway, sometimes a turnaround or bypass taxiway is constructed which also serves
the purpose of a holding apron. In such cases, the runway is also used as a taxiway. The
arrangement is shown in Figure

Figure 21 Typical Taxiway turnaround

CHAPTER THREE: RUNWAY DESIGN
3.1 General
A runway is a rectangular area on the airport surface prepared for the takeoff and landing of
aircraft. An airport may have one runway or several runways which are sited, oriented, and
configured in a manner to provide for the safe and efficient use of the airport under a variety
of conditions. Several of the factors which affect the location, orientation, and number of
runways at an airport include local weather conditions, particularly wind distribution and
visibility, the topography of the airport and surrounding area, the type and amount of air
traffic to be serviced at the airport, aircraft performance requirements, and aircraft noise.
3.2 Airport Layout and its components
The design for each airport layout is site specific, and whereas general concepts can be
moved between sites, the individual aspects of each site will almost certainly result in slightly
different layouts. Layout of an airport is dependent upon a number of factors the most
important are:
 Number and orientation of runways
 Number of taxiways
 Size and shape of aprons
 The area and shape of land
 Topography and site soil conditions
 Obstacle to air navigation
 Required proximity of land uses within the airport boundary
 Surrounding land uses
 Timing and scale of phased development of the airport
 Meteorology
 Size and scale of airport facilities being planned
The components of airport layout are as followed as:

Air field Landing strip, consisting of a runway, shoulders and stop ways.
Taxi ways
Apron
Terminal area
Gates
Terminal building
Aircraft service facilities
Flight support area consisting of structures and facilities for air traffic control, navigational
aids, fueling the aircraft etc.

Highway
Ap
pro
ac
hR
oa
d
Vehicle
Parking
Airport Area
Terminal
Building Apron
Hanger
Apron
y a
Ta
xiw
Turf Turf Turf
xi
w
Ta
ay
Runway Runway
Figure 22 Typical layout of airport
3.3 Runway Configurations
The term ―runway configuration‖ refers to the number and relative orientations of one or
more runways on an airfield. Many runway configurations exist. Most configurations are
combinations of several basic configurations. The basic configurations are (1) single
runways, (2) parallel runways, (3) intersecting
runways, and (4) open-V runways.
Single Runway: This is the simplest of the runway
configurations and is shown in Fig. It has been
estimated that the hourly capacity of a single runway
in VFR conditions is somewhere between 50 and 100
operations per hour, while in IFR conditions this
capacity is reduced to 50 to 70 operations per hour,
depending on the composition of the aircraft mix and
navigational aids available.
Figure 23 Single Runway @ Biratnagar Airport
Parallel Runway: The capacities of parallel runway systems depend on the number of
runways and on the spacing between the runways. Two, three, and four parallel runways are
common. The spacing between parallel runways varies widely.
For the purpose of this discussion, the spacing is classified as
close, intermediate, and far, depending on the centerline
separation between two parallel runways.
Figure 24 Parallel Runway @ Manila

Intersecting Runways: Many airports have two or more runways in different directions
crossing each other. These are referred to as intersecting runways. Intersecting runways are

necessary when relatively strong winds
occur from more than one direction,
resulting in excessive crosswinds when
only one runway is provided. When the
winds are strong, only one runway of a
pair of intersecting runways can be
used, reducing the capacity of the
airfield substantially. If the winds are
relatively light, both runways can be
used simultaneously.
Figure 25 Intersecting Runway at
Zurich Airport
Open-V Runways: Runways in different directions which do not intersect are referred to as
open-V runways. This configuration like
intersecting runways, open-V runways revert to
a single runway when winds are strong from
one direction. When the winds are light, both
runways may be used simultaneously.
Figure 26 Intersecting and Open-V Runway

at Vancouver
3.4 Factors affecting runway orientation
The orientation of a runway is defined by the direction, relative to magnetic north, of the
operations performed by aircraft on the runway. Typically, but not always, runways are
oriented in such a manner that they may be used in either direction. The direction of the
runway controls the layout of the other airport facilities, such as passenger terminals,
taxis/apron configurations, circulation around, and parking facilities. The following factors
should be considered in locating and orienting a runway
 Wind
 Airspace availability
 Environmental factors (noise, air and water quality)
 Obstructions to navigation
 Air traffic control visibility
 Wildlife hazards
 Terrain and soil considerations
 Nature and mad-made obstruction

3.5 Wind rose diagram
It is the graphical representation of wind data: direction and intensity. Data should be
collected for the period of 5 to 10 years. The appropriate orientation of the runway or
runways at an airport can be determined through graphical vector analysis using a wind rose.
A standard wind rose consists of a series of concentric circles cut by radial lines using polar
coordinate graph paper. The radial lines are drawn to the scale of the wind magnitude such
that the area between each pair of successive lines is centered on the wind direction.
Generally oriented in the direction of prevailing wind
Head wind: direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and takeoff
Takeoff: head wind provides greater lift on the wings, thus shorter length of runway is
enough
Landing: Head wind provides a braking effect and aircraft comes to stop in a smaller length
of runway.
If landing and takeoff are done along the wind direction, it may require longer runway length.
Cross wind Component: It is not always possible to obtain the direction of wind along the
direction of the center line of runway, this Normal wind component is called cross wind
component. And it may interrupt the safe landing and takeoff of the aircraft. is the
Cross wind Component.
V VSin 
Vcos 
Figure 27 Cross Wind Component
 For Small aircraft: CWC < 15 kmph.
 For Mixed air traffic CWC < 25 kmph
 For Big aircraft (ICAO) CWC <35 kmph
Wind Coverage: The percentage of time in a year during which the CWC remains within the
limit is called Wind Coverage.
FAA standards for mixed air traffic wind coverage should be 95 % with the limit of 25 kmph.
CWC.
For busy airport, WC may be 98 -100 %

3.5.1 Wind rose diagram method
There are two types of wind rose diagram used for the determination of runway orientation.
Figure 28 Wind rose Diagram Method-I
Method-II

Table 4 Comparision between wind rose diagrams
Method I Method II
 Absence of wind velocity, not account for  Wind data
cross wind component  Direction, Duration, Intensity
 Not so accurate  Circle  Wind velocity
 Radial Line Wind Direction  Radial Line  Wind Direction
 Frequency of wind is marked on radial line  % of frequency  appropriate
(Scale) segment
 Plotted pt. are joined by straight line  V < 6.4kmph (4mph)  ―Calm
 The best runway longest line on wind rose Period‖
diagram  Separate Circle  Calm Period
Wind Rose type I: It is the graphical representation of wind data: direction and intensity.
Data should be collected for the period of 5 to 10 years. Wind data average of 8 years period
Table 5 Wind data for wind rose
Wind direction Duration, % Total in each direction, %
6.4-25 kmph 25 – 40 kmph 40 – 60 kmph
N 7.4 2.7 0.2 10.3
NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3 8,1

NE 2.4 0.9 0.6 3.9
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2 1.8
E 0.8 0.2 0.0 1.0

ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.4
SE 4.3 2.8 0.0 7.1
SSE 5.5 3.2 0.0 8.7

S 9.7 4.6 0.0 14.3
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5 10.0
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3 5.7

WSW 1.0 0.5 0.1 1.6
W 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.5
WNW 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3

NW 5.3 1.9 0.0 7.2
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3 5.6
Total 86.5 %

NNW N
NNE
NW
NE
WNW ENE
W E
5 10 15
WSW ESE
SW
SE
SSW SSE
S
Wind Rose
Figure 29 Wind rose diagram solution

(100-86.5) = 13.5 % of time wind intensity is less than 6.4 kmph. This period is called Calm
Period. The best orientation for the runway is N-S direction.
Wind Rose type II: In this method a transparent template is prepared for determining the
runway orientation. The wind data shown in the table are plotted on a wind rose by replacing
the percentage in the appropriate segment of graph. On the wind rose, the circles represent
wind velocity in miles per hour and the radial lines indicate wind direction. The wind rose
procedure makes use of a transparent template on which three parallel lines have been
plotted. The middle line represents the runway center line, and the distance between it and
each of the outside lines is equal to the cross wind component.
Figure 30 Wind rose diagram II

Table 6 Wind data for wind rose

Typical Wind Data
Direction 6.4-15 15-30 30-47 Total
N 3.6 - - 3.6
NNE 2.7 0.1 - 2.8
NE 6.5 1 0.3 7.8
ENE 4.3 0.7 - 5
E 6.9 3 0.4 10.3
ESE 2.1 0.1 - 2.2
SE 5.4 0.2 - 5.6
SSE 2.6 0.3 - 2.9
S 8 0.2 - 8.2
SSW 5.3 0.4 - 5.7
SW 6.1 1 0.2 7.3
WSW 4.4 0.5 - 4.9
W 3.8 0.7 0.4 4.9
WNW 6.7 0.9 - 7.6
NW 7.4 0.3 - 7.7
NNW 3.9 0.2 - 4.1
Calms Period ( 0-6.4) 9.40%
Total 100
Figure 31 Solution by Wind rose diagram II
 The best runway  EW

 Available wind coverage = 97% > 95% O.K

3.6 Basic runway length
It is the length of runway under the following conditions:

Airport altitude is at sea level
Airport temperature is 15 0 Celsius
Runway is level in longitudinal direction
No wind is blowing on runway
Aircraft is loaded to its full capacity.
Declared distances: The introduction of stop ways and clearways and the use of displaced
thresholds on runways has created a need for accurate information regarding the various
physical distances available and suitable for the landing and takeoff of airplanes.
Take-off run available (TORA): The length of runway declared available and
suitable for the ground run off an aeroplane taking off.
Take off distance available (TODA): the length of takeoff run available plus the
length of the clearway, if provided.
Accelerate stop distance available (ASDA): the length of the take-off run available
plus the length of the stopway, if provided.
Landing distance available (LDA): the length of runway which is declared available
and suitable for ground run of an aeroplane landing.
Figure 32 Declared runway distance

3.7 Correction for Elevation, Temperature and Gradient
Basic length of runway is for mean sea level, having standard atmospheric conditions. It is
necessary to carry out corrections for elevation, Temperature and Gradient
Correction for Elevation: As the elevation increases, the air density reduces. It reduces the
lift on the wing of the aircraft and aircraft requires greater ground speed before it can rise into
the air. To achieve greater speed longer length of runway is required. ICAO recommends that
the basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in elevation
above mean sea level.
Correction for temperature: The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as
that of the increase in elevation. Airport reference temperature (Tr) is defined as the monthly
mean of average daily temperature (Ta) for the hottest month of the year plus one third the
difference of this temperature (Ta) and monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature
(Tm) for the same month of the year.
ICAO recommends that the basic length of the runway after having been corrected for
elevation should be further increased at the rate of 1 % for every 1° rise of airport reference
temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature (Ts) at the elevation. The
temperature gradient of the standard atmospheric from the mean sea level to the altitude at
which temperature becomes 15°C is -0.0065°C per meter.
Check for total correction for elevation and temperature:
It the total correction (elevation and temperature) exceeds 35% the basic runway length, these
corrections should then be checked up by conducting specific studies.
Correction for Gradient: Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of energy, and
longer the runway length is required for attaining the ground speed.
ICAO does not recommend on this correction. FAA recommends that the runway length after
having been corrected for elevation and temperature should be further increased at the rate of
20% for every 1% of effective gradient.
Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in elevation between the highest and
lowest points of runway divided by the total length of runway.

Example 3.1: The monthly mean temperature of the atmosphere, at a particular site, where
an airport has to be developed are given below. Determine the airport reference temperature.
If the site is at mean sea level, determine the actual runway length. The runway is assumed to
be level
month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Mean of
average 3 15 20 25 35 40 32 30 27 22 12 6
Temperature, daily
°C Mean of
Maximum 5 17 23 32 47 50 37 35 31 28 18 9
daily
Example 3.2: The data below refers to the daily temperature for the hottest month of the year
1988 for a given airport site. Determine the airport reference temperature.
Temperature, °C Temperature, °C Temperature, °C
Date Date Date
Max Average Max Average Max Average
1 42.5 25.5 11 43.3 26.3 21 44.3 26.5

2 42.5 25.5 12 43.5 26.4 22 44.3 26.5
3 42.7 25.7 13 43.3 26.3 23 44.5 26.5
4 43 25.9 14 43.5 26.4 24 44.6 26.5
5 43 25.9 15 43.6 26.3 25 44.6 26.5
6 43 25.9 16 43.7 26.2 26 44.7 26.9
7 42.8 25.8 17 43.8 25.8 27 44.6 27
8 43 25.9 18 44 26.3 28 44.7 27
9 43 25.9 19 44.8 26.3 29 44.8 26.2
10 43.1 25 20 44.1 26.3 30 45 27.2
Example 3.3: Determine the corrected length for the following data
 Runway length required for landing at sea level in standard atmospheric conditions
2100 m
 Runway length required for take-off at a level site at sea level in standard atmospheric
conditions 1700 m
 aerodrome elevation 150 m
 aerodrome reference temperature 24°C
 temperature in the standard atmosphere for 150 m 14.025°C
 runway slope 0.5%
Example 3.4: Find out the required runway length for the airport of reference code 4D
located at 450 m above mean sea level. The runway effective gradient is 0.5%. The monthly
mean of maximum and mean daily temperatures of the hottest month of the year are 27°C and
18°C, respectively.

CHAPTER FOUR: AIRPORT PAVEMENT DESIGN
4.1 General
Airfield pavement is intended to provide a smooth and safe all weather riding surface that can
support the weights of such heavy objects as aircraft on top of the natural ground base.
Airfield pavements are typically designed in layers, with each layer designed to a sufficient
thickness to be adequate to ensure that the applied loads will not lead to distress or failure to
support its imposed loads.
The surface course consists of a mixture of bituminous material (generally asphalt) and
aggregate ranging in thickness from 2 to 12 in for flexible pavements, and a slab of PCC 8 to
24 in thick for rigid pavements. The principal function of the surface course is to provide for
smooth and safe traffic operations, to withstand the effects of applied loads and
environmental influences for some prescribed period of operation, and to distribute the
applied load to the underlying layers.
The base course may consist of treated or untreated granular material. Like the surface
course, it must be adequate to withstand the effects of load and environment and to distribute
the applied loads to the underlying layers. Untreated bases consist of crushed or uncrushed
aggregates. Treated bases consist of crushed or uncrushed aggregate that has been mixed with
a stabilizing material such as cement or bitumen.
Figure 33 Typical plan and cross section for airfield pavement.

The subbase course is also composed of treated or untreated material, typically unprocessed
pit-run material or material selected form a suitable excavation on the site. The function of
the subbase is the same as that of the base. Whether or not a subbase is required, or how
many subbase layers are required, is a function of the type of loads on the pavement, as well
as the type and quality of soil, or subgrade, on which the pavement will be resting. For most
rigid pavements, the surface course rests directly on the subbase.
The design of the thickness of each of the above layers is of primary concern to airport
pavement engineers. The two primary factors that contribute to the design thickness of
airfield pavement layers are the soil base and the volume and weight of the traffic using the
pavement. As such, the first steps in pavement analysis are an investigation of the soil on
which the pavement will be placed, and an estimation of the annual traffic volume on the
pavement.
4.2 Various design factors
The following design factors are considered in thickness determination:

 Design wheel load
 Sub-grade supporting capacity
 Strength of material used
4.2.1. Design wheel load

Modern aircrafts are equipped with a tricycle gear
arrangement, having a nose wheel instead of a tail wheel.
For this type of aircraft 95 percent of the gross weight is
considered to be borne by the main gear and 5 percent by
the nose wheel. In the case of single wheel assembly in
main gear of 45 % of load is transferred through it.
Although most of the modern aircrafts are equipped with
multi wheel landing gear, a single wheel loading is the
most convenient load unit for design purposes. Therefore,
loads on the multi wheel assemblies are converted into an
equivalent single wheel loading.
Types of wheel configuration
• One wheel: single wheel assembly
• Two wheel: dual wheel assembly
• Four wheel : Dual in Tandem assembly
Figure 34 Types of wheel configuration

Wheel load configuration is converted into equivalent single
wheel Load (ESWL) in the following process.
In case of dual wheel assembly:
• Up to depth (d2=d/2) wheel acts independently.
• Depth below 2D effects due to overlapping stresses
becomes negligible.
• Up to depth d/2 ESWL is P
• At the depth 2D, ESWL is 2P
Figure 35 Load distribution on dual wheel assembly
In case of dual wheel load in tandem assembly

 d and D are taken as in figure
 (d/2, P) and (2D, 4P) points are joined and a line is drawn for
ESWL
Figure 36 Dual wheel load in tandem assembly
The concept of a mathematically derived single wheel load has been employed in the ACN-
PCN method as a means to define the landing gear/pavement interaction without specifying
pavement thickness as an ACN parameter. This is done by equating the thickness given by the
mathematical model for an aircraft landing gear to the thickness for a single wheel at standard
tire pressure of 1.25 MPa.
Example 4.1: Compute the equivalent single wheel load for a dual wheel assembly of gross
wheel load of 36000 kg over subgrade CBR of 10% where value of d=50 cm and S=80 cm.
Here is clear distance between the tire and S is the center to center distance between lines.

Figure 37 Computation of Equivalent Single Wheel Load
4.2.2 Sub-grade supporting capacity
The thickness of the pavement is directly affected by the quality of subgrade soil. The
density, moisture content, soil texture, drainage condition at site and depth of penetration of
frost may affect the supporting value of the subgrade.
4.2.3. Strength of material used
The supporting capacity of the subgrade is considered significant in flexible pavements. In

case of rigid pavements, this value to influence the thickness requirement negligibly.
The climatic changes in respect to hourly and seasonal variations greatly affect the overall
load carrying capacity of rigid pavements. The rise and fall in atmospheric temperatures
develop the temperature gradient in cement concrete of the slabs which in turn cause i)
expansion and contraction of the slabs ii) warping of the slab iii) develop subgrade restraint.
All this phenomena induce stress consideration which are either of additive form with load
stress or otherwise.
4.3 Effect of Frost on Soil Strength
While there are a variety of soil types, the behavioral properties of any given type are
relatively similar regardless of other climatic characteristics, such as the average ambient
temperature and amount of precipitation. One factor that does significantly impact the
strength of soil, however, is the presence of frost on the surface of or within the soil, either on
a seasonal or a permanent basis. Frost action, if severe, results in non-uniform heave of
pavements during the winter because of the formation of ice lenses within the subgrade,
known as ice segregation, and in loss of supporting capacity of the subgrade during periods of
thaw. Figure 38 illustrates the process of ice segregation.

Figure 38 the process of ice segregation (http:// www.pave mentinteractive.org).
During periods of thaw, the ice lenses begin to melt, and the water which is released cannot
drain through the still-frozen soil at greater depths. Thus, lack of drainage results in loss of
strength in the subgrade. It is also possible that a reduction in stiffness will occur in subgrade
soils during the thaw period, even though ice lenses may not have formed.
Originally developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the FAA categorizes soils into
four ―frost groups.‖ Soils in frost group 1 are least susceptible to frost and associated soil
weakening, while soils in frost group 4 are most susceptible.
The design of pavements, both flexible and rigid, is modified slightly depending on the
propensity of the soil to encounter frost and the depth of the frost, known as frost penetration.
4.4. Philosophy of Airfield pavement design
The structural design of airport pavements consists of determining both the overall pavement
thickness and the thickness of the component parts of the pavement. There are a number of
factors which influence the thickness of pavement required to provide satisfactory service.
These include the magnitude and character of the aircraft loads to be supported, the volume
of traffic, the concentration of traffic in certain areas, and the quality of the subgrade soil and
materials comprising the pavement structure.

4.4.1 Aircraft considerations
Load: The pavement design method is based on the gross weight of the aircraft. For design
purposes the pavement should be designed for the maximum takeoff weight of the aircraft.
The design procedure assumes 95 per cent of the gross weight is carried by the main landing
gears and 5 per cent is carried by the nose gear. The maximum takeoff weight should be used
in calculating the pavement thickness required.
Landing gear type and geometry: The gear type and configuration dictate how the aircraft
weight is distributed to the pavement and determine pavement response to aircraft loadings.
Traffic volume: Forecasts of annual departures by aircraft type are needed for pavement
design.
4.4.2 Determination of design aircraft
The forecast of annual departures by aircraft type will result in a list of a number of different
aircraft. The design aircraft should be selected on the basis of the one requiring the greatest
pavement thickness. The aircraft type which produces the greatest pavement thickness is the
design aircraft. The design aircraft is not necessarily the heaviest aircraft in the forecast.
=
Figure 39 Traffic for pavement design
4.4.3 Determination of equivalent annual departures by the design aircraft
Since the traffic forecast is a mixture of different landing gear types and different weights, the
effect of all traffic must be accounted for in terms of the design aircraft. First, all the same
landing gear type as the landing gear type as the design aircraft. The following conversion
factors should be used to convert from one landing gear to another:
Table 7 Conversion factors
multiply departures
To convert from To
by
single wheel dual wheel 0.8
single wheel dual tandem 0.5
dual wheel dual tandem 0.6
double dual tandem dual tandem 1
dual tandem single wheel 2
dual tandem dual wheel 1.7
dual wheel single wheel 13
double dual tandem dual wheel 1.7

Secondly, after the aircraft have been grouped into the same landing gear configuration, the
conversion to equivalent annual departures of the design aircraft should be determined by the
following formula:
( )
Where R1 = equivalent annual departures by the design aircraft

R2 = annual departures expressed in design aircraft landing gear
W1= wheel load of the design aircraft
W2 = wheel load of the aircraft in question
Example 4.2: Assume an airport pavement is to be designed for the following forecast traffic:
Determine the ESWL
Forecast annual Maximum take-off weight
Aircraft Gear type
departures (Lb) (Kg)
727—100 dual 3760 160000 72600
72 7—200 dual 9080 190500 86500
707—320B dual tandem 3050 327000 148500

DC-9-30 dual 5800 108000 49000
CV-880 dual tandem 400 184500 83948
73 7—200 dual 2650 115500 52440
L—1011—
dual tandem 1710 450000 204120
100
74 7—100 double dual tandem 85 700000 317800
4.5. Example on Flexible Pavement Design
Example 4.3: As an example of the use of the design curves, assume a flexible pavement is
to be designed for a dual gear aircraft having a gross mass of 75 000 lb (34 000 kg) and 6 000
anua1 equivalent departures of the design aircraft. Design CBR values for the sub base and
subgrade are 20 and 6, respectively.

Figure 40 Flexible pavement design curves for critical areas, dual wheel gear

Figure 41Minimum base course requirement

4.6 Example on Rigid Pavement Design
Design curves have been prepared for rigid pavements similar to those for flexible
pavements; i.e. separate curves for single, dual, and dual tandem landing gear assemblies and
separate design curves for wide body jet aircraft. Use of the design curves requires four
design input parameters: concrete flexural strength, subgrade modulus, gross weight of the
design aircraft, and annual departure of the design aircraft. The rigid pavement design curves
indicate the thickness of concrete only. Thicknesses of other components of the rigid
pavement structure must be determined separately.
Concrete flexural strength: The required thickness of concrete pavement is related to the
strength of the concrete used in the pavement. Normally a 90 day flexural strength is used for
design. The designer can safely assume the 90 day flexural strength of concrete will be 10 per
cent higher than the 28 day strength.
k value: The k value is, in effect, a spring constant for the material supporting the rigid
pavement and is indicative of the bearing value of the supporting material.
Gross weight of aircraft: The gross weight of the design aircraft is shown on each design
curve. The design curves are grouped in accordance with main landing gear assembly type
except for wide body aircraft which are shown on separate curves.
Annual departure of design aircraft: The fourth input parameter is annual departures of the
design aircraft. The departures should be computed using the procedure explained earlier.
Sub-base requirements: The purpose of a sub-base under a rigid pavement is to provide
uniform stable support for the pavement slabs. A minimum thickness of 4 in (10 cm) of sub-
base is required under all rigid pavements. Sub-base thickness in excess of 4 in (10 cm) can
be used to increase the modulus of soil reaction and reduce the required thickness of concrete
needed, if economical. The cost of providing the additional thickness of sub-base should be
weighed against the savings in concrete thickness.
Figure 42 Rigid pavement design curves - dual tandem gear

Stabilized sub-base: Stabilized sub-base is to be required for all new rigid pavements
designed to accommodate aircraft weighing 100000lb (45,400 kg) or more. The structural
benefit imparted to a pavement section by a stabilized sub-base is reflected in the modulus of
subgrade reaction assigned to the foundation.
Figure 43 Effect of stabilized sub-base on subgrade modulus

Example 4.4: As an example of the use of the design curves, assume that a rigid pavement is
to be designed for dual tandem aircraft having a gross weight of 350,000 lb (160 000 kg) and
for 6000 annual equivalent departures of the design aircraft. The equivalent annual departures
of 6000 includes 1200 annual departures of B-747 aircraft weighing 780000 lb (350000 kg)
gross weight. The subgrade modulus of 100 psi (25 MN/m3 ) with poor drainage and frost
penetration is 17 in (45 cm). The feature to be designed is a primary runway and requires 100
per cent frost protection. The subgrade soil is CL. Concrete mix designs indicate that a
flexural strength of 650 psi (4.5 NN/m2 ) can be readily produced with locally available
aggregates.

CHAPTER FIVE: MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION
OF AIRFIELD PAVEMENTS
5.1 (ICAO) ACN/PCN Pavement Strength Rating System
The Aircraft Classification Number / Pavement Classification Number (ACN/PCN) system

has been adopted by ICAO as the standard for the international reporting of airfield pavement
bearing strengths. The ACN-PCN system of rating airport pavement is designated by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as the only approved method for reporting
strength. The ACN-PCN method came into use in 198 1.
The engineering system used for the control of aircraft loadings on airside surface is the CN-
PCN method. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) (DOC 9157-AN/901
and Amendment number 35 to Annex 14, Ref. 2) devised the ACN/PCN method as an
effective, simple, and readily comprehensible means for reporting aircraft weight-bearing
capacity of airfields.
As per ICAO the bearing strength of a pavement intended for aircraft of apron (ramp) mass
greater than 5,700 kg shall be made available using the aircraft classification number-
pavement classification number (ACN-PCN) method. The PCN reports the relative bearing
strength of an airport pavement and the ACN expresses the relative effect of an airplane on
the pavement.
5.1.1 Determination of Aircraft Classification Number (ACN)
Annex 14 defines ACN as follows:

ACN: A number expressing the relative effect of an aircraft on a pavement for a specified
standard subgrade strength in term of standard single wheel load.
Computation of the ACN requires detailed information on the operational characteristics of
the airplane such as maximum aft center of gravity, maximum ramp weight, wheel spacing,
tire pressure, and other factors.
The ACN of an aircraft is numerically defined as two times the derived single wheel load,
where the derived single wheel load is expressed in thousands of kilograms. As noted
previously, the single wheel tire pressure is standardized at 1.25 MPa. Additionally, the
derived single wheel load is a function of the subgrade strength.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT ACN. For flexible pavements, airplane landing gear flotation
requirements are determined by the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) method for each
subgrade support category. The CBR method employees a Boussinesq solution for stresses
and displacements in a homogeneous, isotropic elastic half-space. To standardize the ACN
calculation and to remove operational frequency from the relative rating scale, the ACN-PCN
method specifies that ACN values be determined at a frequency of 10,000 coverage‘s.
Example 5.1. Find the ACN of DC-l0-LO at 157,400 kg on a flexible pavement resting on a
medium strength subgrade (CR 10). The tire pressure of the main wheels is 1.28 MPa.

Figure 44 ACN Flexible Pavement Conversion Chart
Figure 45 Flexible Pavement Requirements 10,000 coverages

RIGID PAVEMENT ACN. For rigid pavements, the airplane landing gear flotation
requirements are determined by the Westergaard solution for a loaded elastic plate on a
Winkler foundation (interior load case), assuming a concrete working stress of 399 psi (2.75
MPa).
Example 5.2. Find the ACN of B727-200 Standard a t 78,500 kg on a rigid pavement resting
on a medium strength subgrade (i.e., k = 80 MN / m3 ) .The tire pressure of the main wheels is
1.15 MPa.

Figure 46 Reference pavement thickness for rigid pavement

Figure 47 ACN Rigid Pavement Conversion Chart
The following steps aroused to determine the ACN of an aircraft:
 Using the pavement requirement chart published by the manufacturer determine the
reference thickness for the given aircraft mass, subgrade category, and 10,000
coverage;(figure 45)
 Enter Figure 44 with the reference thickness determined in step a) and the CBR
corresponding to the subgrade category and read the derived single wheel load; and
 The ACN at the selected mass and subgrade category is two times the derived single
wheel load in 1,000 kg.
5.1.2 Determination of Pavement Classification Number (PCN)
Annex 14 defines ACN as follows:

PCN: A number expressing the bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations in
term of standard single wheel load.
The pavement classification number (PCN) reported shall indicate that an aircraft with an
aircraft classification number (ACN) equal to or less than the reported PCN can operate on
the pavement subject to any limitation on the tire pressure, or aircraft all-up mass for
specified aircraft type(s).
The PCN value is for reporting relative pavement strength only and should not be used for
pavement design or as a substitute for evaluation
PCNs can be assessed more quickly and with minimal cost. There are two basic steps
required to arrive at a Using aircraft PCN:
 Determine the airplane with the highest ACN in the traffic mix frequently using the
runway. This is the critical airplane.

 Assign the ACN of the critical airplane at commonly used load percentage as the
PCN.
REPORTING THE PCN. The PCN system uses a coded format to maximize the amount of
information contained in a minimum number of characters and to facilitate computerization
S.N. Particulars Code
1 Pavement type for ACN-PCN determination:
Rigid pavement R
Flexible pavement F
2 Subgrade strength category:
High strength: characterized by K = 150 MN/m3 and representing all K values above
120 MN/m3 for rigid pavements, and by CBR = 15 and representing all CBR values above A
13 for flexible pavements.
Medium strength: characterized by K = 80 MN/m3 and representing a range in K of 60 to

120 MN/m3 for rigid pavements, and by CBR = 10 and representing a range in CBR of 8 to 13 B
for flexible pavements.
Low strength: characterized by K = 40 MN/m3 and representing a range in K of 25 to

60 MN/m3 for rigid pavements, and by CBR = 6 and representing a range in CBR of 4 to 8 for C
flexible pavements.
Ultra low strength: characterized by K = 20 MN/m3 and representing all K values below
25 MN/m3 for rigid pavements, and by CBR = 3 and representing all CBR values below 4 for D
flexible pavements.
3 Maximum allowable tire pressure category:

High: no pressure limit W
Medium: pressure limited to 1.50 MPa X
Low: pressure limited to 1.00 MPa Y
Very low: pressure limited to 0.50 MPa Z
4 Evaluati on method:
Technical evaluation: representing a specific study of the pavement characteristics and T

application of pavement behavior technology.
Using aircraft experience: representing a knowledge of the specific type and mass of aircraft U
satisfactorily being supported under regular use.
Example 5.3. If the bearing strength of a rigid pavement, resting on a medium strength
subgrade, has been assessed by technical evaluation to be PCN 80 and there is no tire
pressure limitation, then the reported information would be:

Example 5.4. If the bearing strength of a composite pavement, behaving like a flexible
pavement and resting on a high strength subgrade, has been assessed by using aircraft
experience to be PCN 50 and the maximum tire pressure allowable is 1.00 MPa, then the
reported information would be:
Example 5.5. If the bearing strength of a flexible pavement, resting on a medium strength
subgrade, has been assessed by technical evaluation to be PCN 40 and the maximum
allowable tire pressure is 0.80 MPa, then the reported information would be:
5.1.3 Discussion on ACN-PCN
If the ACN for an airplane is lower than or equal to the reported PCN for an airport
pavement, the airplane can operate without weight restriction on that pavement. For example,
if you have a PCN of 81/F/B/W/T and you have an ACN of 53 for a 388,000 lb 767-300ER
on a flexible pavement with a B subgrade, that airplane can operate at that airport at 388,000
lbs for an unlimited number of annual operations. On the other hand, if the ACN happened to
be 51, the 767-300ER could not operate at that airport at 388,000 lb for unlimited operations.
It may, however, be able to operate at a lower weight or be able to operate on a limited
number of operations at the higher weight. This would have to be coordinated with the airport
authority.
5.2 Pavement Distresses
An airport pavement is a complex engineering structure. Failure in pavements is not a

phenomenon of chance, but a phenomenon that has a definite mechanical cause.
Distresses in a pavement structure leads to all types of pavement failure. Pavement distresses
are external indicators of pavement deterioration caused by loading, environmental factors,
construction deficiencies, or combinations thereof. Failure could be structural (deep structure
rutting, alligator cracking, longitudinal or transverse cracks in slabs, etc.) or functional
(surface rutting, roughness, loss of skid resistance, etc.). Structural failure requires careful
and detailed examination of the failure mechanism and the pavement layer contributing to the
failure. Repairs are generally very expensive and the pavement may need reconstruction.
Functional failures are generally easier and less expensive to fix. The type of distress in the
pavement gives an insight to the type of failure, either structural or functional. In some cases,
the two types of distresses interact with each other.
5.2.1 Flexible Pavement Distresses.
Sixteen types of distresses are considered in flexible airport pavements. These distresses
could be caused by material, environmental, construction, structural, or operational factors,
and are described in the following sections

Alligator Cracking: A series of interconnecting
cracks caused by fatigue failure of the HMA surface
under repeated traffic loading is called alligator
cracking, as shown in figure 48. High tensile strains
at the bottom of the HMA layer under a wheel load
initiate fatigue cracks. The crack propagates to the
surface as a series of parallel cracks, which get
interconnected with repeated loading. Alligator
cracking, which is predominant in the wheel paths,
is considered to be a major structural distress that
can lead to structural failure of the pavement.
Figure 48 Alligator Fatigue Cracking
Bleeding: Bleeding is a film of bituminous material
on the pavement surface that usually becomes quite
sticky. It is generally caused by excessive amounts
of HMA or tars in the mix or low air void content, or
both. It occurs when asphalt fills the voids of the mix
during hot weather, then expands out onto the
surface. It is caused by poor mix design and is a
material-related distress. Bleeding leads to functional
failure.
Figure 49 Tire Marks Evident In High-Severity Bleeding

Block Cracking: Block cracks are interconnected
cracks dividing the pavement surface into
approximately rectangular pieces (1 by 1 ft to 10 by
10 ft). It is generally caused by the shrinkage of the
HMA and daily temperature cycling. It is not load-
related and would classify as a distress caused by
material and environmental factors. Block cracking
normally occurs over a large portion of pavement
area and indicates that the asphalt has hardened
significantly. Block cracking causes functional
failure of the pavement structure.
Figure 50 High-Severity Block Cracking
Corrugation: Corrugation is a series of closely
spaced ridges and valleys (ripples) occurring at
fairly regular intervals (usually less than 5 ft) along
the pavement perpendicular to the direction of
traffic. It is generally caused by the combined
action of traffic and unstable pavement surface or
base. Corrugation leads to functional failure of the
pavement.
Figure 51 Corrugation

Depression: Depressions are localized pavement surface
areas having elevations slightly lower than those of the
surrounding pavement. Depressions can be caused by
settlement of the foundation soil, or it can be built during
construction. Depressions could cause hydroplaning of
the aircraft and leads to functional failure.
Figure 52 Depression in Pavement
Joint Reflection Cracking From PCC: This type of

distress occurs on pavements having an asphalt overlay
on PCC slabs and is caused by the movement of the PCC
slab beneath the HMA surface because of thermal and
moisture changes, and in response to loading. It is
therefore partially load-related, but it does not
necessarily lead to further structural deterioration of the
underlying structure and is considered to be a functional
distress
Figure 53 Joint Reflection Cracking From PCC
Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking (Non-PCC

Joint Reflective): The longitudinal cracks are parallel to
the pavement centerline or lay down direction.. These
types of cracks are not associated with loading. This type
of distress is mainly caused by construction, material,
and environmental factors. This type of distress leads to
the functional failure of pavement.
Figure 54 High-Severity Longitudinal and
Transverse Cracking
Oil Spillage: Deterioration or softening of the pavement

surface caused by spilled oil, fuel, or other solvents is
called oil spillage. Oil spillage is caused by operational
factors and leads to functional failure.
Figure 55 Oil spillage

Patching and Utility Cut Patch: A patch is an area
where the original pavement has been removed and
replaced with either similar or different material. A patch
is considered a defect, no matter how well it performs.
Traffic load, material, and poor construction practices
can cause patch deterioration. A patch is considered to
be a function distress.
Figure 56 High-Severity Patch
Polished Aggregate: Aggregate polishing is caused by

repeated traffic applications. The surface binder is worn
away to expose coarse aggregate. Skid resistance is
reduced and leads to functional failure.
Figure 57 Polished Aggregate
Raveling and Weathering: Wearing away of the

pavement surface caused by dislodging of aggregate
particles and loss of asphalt binder leads to raveling and
weathering. It indicates significant hardening of the
asphalt binder and can cause severe foreign object debris
(FOD) problems and leads to functional failure.
Figure 58 High-Severity Raveling And Weathering
Rutting: Rutting is a longitudinal surface depression in

the wheel path. Pavement uplift may occur along the sides
of the rut. Rutting is caused by the permanent
deformation occurring in any of the pavement layers or
subgrade, which is usually caused by consolidation or
lateral movement of the materials due to traffic loads.
Significant rutting can lead to major structural failure of
the pavement. A rut depth of 1 inch is considered to
indicate functional failure due to the ponding it can cause.
Figure 59 Rutting in a Pavement

Shoving: Shoving is the longitudinal displacement of a
localized area of the pavement surface, as shown in
figure. Braking and turning aircraft are generally the
cause. Also, PCC pavements occasionally increase in
length where they adjoin flexible pavements. This
growth shoves the asphalt pavement, causing it to swell
and crack. The PCC slab growth is caused by a gradual
opening of the joints, as they are filled with
incompressible materials that prevent them from
closing. Shoving is a materials-related distress, and a
functional failure that can lead to structural failure.
Figure 60 Shoving in a Pavement
Slippage Cracking: Slippage cracking occurs when
braking or turning wheels cause the pavement surface
to slide and deform. The slippage cracks, shown in
figure, are crescent- or half-moon-shaped cracks
having two pointed ends away from the direction of
traffic. It generally occurs when there is a low-strength
surface mix or a poor bond between the surface and
the next layer of pavement structure. This is classified
as a functional distress that can lead to structural
failure if not corrected.
Figure 61 Severe Slippage Cracking

Swell Distress: An upward bulge in the pavement‘s
surface characterizes swell distress. It may occur
sharply over a small area or as a longer, gradual
wave. Either type of swell can be accompanied by
surface cracking. It is generally caused by frost action
in the subgrade or by swelling soil, but a small swell
can occur on the surface of an asphalt overlay over
PCC as a result of a in the PCC slab. A swell is
classified as a functional distress.
Figure 62 Swell Distress
Jet-Blast Erosion: Jet-blast erosion causes darkened

areas on the pavement surface where the bituminous
binder has been burned or carbonized. This type of
distress is caused by operational factors.
Figure 63 Jet-Blast Erosion

5.2.2 Rigid Pavement Distresses.
Common types of distress in concrete pavement are pumping, faulting, cracking, and joint
deterioration. ASTM D 5340-03 [3] lists 15 distress types for jointed concrete pavements,
which are described in the following sections. The distress definitions are the same for both
plain and reinforced jointed concrete pavements, with the exception of linear cracking, which
is defined separately for plain and reinforced jointed concrete pavements.
Blowup: Blowups, as shown in figure 64, occur in hot

weather, usually at transverse cracks or joints that are
not wide enough to permit expansion of the concrete
slabs. The infiltration of the incompressible materials
into the joint space leads to insufficient width. When
expansion cannot relieve enough pressure, a localized
upward movement of the slab edges or shattering
occurs in the vicinity of the joint. Blowups can also
occur at utility cuts and drainage inlets. Blowups
increase FOD potential and lead to functional failure.
Figure 64 Blowup in a Pavement
Corner Break: A corner break is a crack that

intersects the joint at a distance less than or equal to
one-half of the slab length on both sides, measured
from the corner of the slab. Factors causing corner
breaks are load repetitions combined with loss of
support and curling stresses. Figure 65 shows a corner
break.
Figure 65 Corner Break
Longitudinal, Transverse, and Diagonal Cracks:

Longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal cracks divide
the slab into two or three pieces and are generally
caused by a combination of load repetitions, curling
stresses, and shrinkage stresses.
Figure 66 longitudinal and transverse cracking

Durability Cracking: Durability (D) cracking is caused
by the concrete‘s inability to withstand environmental
factors such as freeze-thaw cycles. It appears as a
pattern of cracks running parallel to a joint or a crack.
This type of cracking can eventually lead to
disintegration of the concrete within 1 to 2 feet of the
joint or crack and is classified as a function distress.
Figure 67 shows high-severity D cracking.
Figure 67 High-Severity D Cracking
Joint Seal Damage: Joint seal damage is any condition

that enables soil or rocks to accumulate in the joints or
allows a significant amount of water infiltration.
Accumulation of incompressible materials prevents the
slabs from expanding and may result in buckling,
shattering, or spalling. Typical joint seal damage are
(1) stripping of joint sealant, (2) extrusion of joint
sealant, (3) weed growth, (4) hardening of filler, (5)
loss of bond to the slab edges, and (6) lack or absence
of sealant in the joint. Joint seal damage is classified as
a functional distress.
Figure 68 Joint Seal Damage
Patch, Small (less than 5 ft 2 ): A patch is an area where

the original pavement has been removed or replaced by
a filler material. Poor construction of the patch, loss of
support, heavy load repetitions, moisture, and thermal
gradients can all cause distress. A patch is classified as
a functional distress. Figure 69 shows a small patch
distress.
Figure 69 Small Patch Distress
Patch, Large (over 5 ft 2 ). An example of a large patch

could be a patch that has replaced the original pavement
because of the placement of underground utilities and is
classified as a functional distress. Figure 70 shows a
large patch.
Figure 70 Large Patch Distress

Popouts: A popout is a small piece of pavement that breaks
loose from the surface due to a freeze-thaw action in
combination with expansive aggregates, see figure 71.
Popouts usually range from approximately 1 to 4 inches in
diameter and from 1/2 to 2 inches in depth. This type of
distress is generally caused by material and environmental
factors. It is a functional distress (FOD) rather than a
structural distress.
Figure 71 Popout Distress
Pumping: Pumping is the ejection of material by water

through joints or cracks caused by the deflection of the slab
under moving loads. As water is ejected, it carries particles
of gravel, sand, clay, or silt, resulting in loss of pavement
support. Pumping near joints indicates poor joint sealer and
loss of support that will lead to cracking under repeated
loads. Pumping can occur at cracks as well as joints and is
classified as a functional distress.
Figure 72 Water Bleeding and Pumping
Scaling, Map Cracking, and Crazing. This distress

refers to a network of shallow, fine, or hair-like cracks
that extend only through the upper surface of the
concrete. The cracks intersect at angles of 120°. It is
generally caused by over finishing the concrete and may
lead to surface scaling. Breakdown of the slab surface
occurs to a depth of 1/4 to 1/2 inch. Deicing salts,
improper construction, freeze-thaw cycles, and poor
aggregate may also cause scaling. These distresses are
classified as a functional distress and are construction-
related. Figures 73 show scaling and map cracking,
respectively.
Figure 73 Scaling and Map Cracking

Settlement or Faulting: Difference of elevation
at a joint or crack, caused by upheaval,
consolidation, or a buildup of loose materials
under the trailing slabs, is called settlement or
faulting and is classified as a functional distress.
Figure 74 shows faulting of transverse cracks.
Figure 74 Faulting of Transverse Cracks
Shattered Slab/Intersecting Cracks: Cracks

that break the slab into four or more pieces due
to overloading or inadequate support or both
are called intersecting cracks, whereas a high-
severity level of this distress is referred to as a
shattered slab and is classified as structural
failure. Figure 75 shows a shattered slab
condition.
Figure 75 Shattered Slab Condition
Shrinkage Cracks: Shrinkage cracks are

hairline cracks that are usually only a few feet
long and do not extend across the entire slab.
They are formed during the setting and curing
of concrete and usually does not extend
through the depth of the slab and is classified
as a functional distress. However, shrinkage
crack is also the term used to describe a load-
induced crack that extends only part of the way
across a slab. In this case, it is classified as a
structural distress.
Figure 76 Shrinkage Crack

Spalling (Transverse and Longitudinal): Joint
spalling is the breakdown of slab edges within 2 feet
of the side of the joint. A joint spall does not extend
vertically through the slab but intersects the joint at
an angle. Spalling is caused by excessive stresses at
the joint or crack caused by infiltration of
incompressible materials or traffic loads or weak
concrete at the joints (caused by overworking)
combined with traffic loads and is classified as a
structural distress. Figure 77 shows spalling at a
transverse joint.
Figure 77 Joint Spalling at a Transverse Joint
Spalling (Corner): Corner spalling is the raveling or

breakdown of the slab within 2 feet of the corner. A
corner spall differs from a corner break in that the
spall usually angles across to intersect the joint, while
a break extends vertically through the slab. A corner
spall is classified as a structural distress. Figure 78
shows a corner spall.
Figure 78 Corner Spalling
5.3 Maintenance and rehabilitation of airfield pavement
The goal of any maintenance program is to provide a safe and operable pavement for the least
possible cost. Timely maintenance can renew the pavement condition and prolong the life of
the pavement. A pavement life cycle
curve illustrates the useable life of a
pavement by comparing pavement
condition versus time. In the first
several years of a pavements life, the
deterioration in pavement condition
over time is relatively low. However, at
certain point in time, the deterioration
of the pavement increases, resulting in
an accelerated drop in pavement
condition.
Figure 79 Typical Pavement Life Cycle Curve

This pavement life cycle curve demonstrates that $1 spent for preventative maintenance early
in the pavement life is equivalent to $4 to $5 spent later in the pavement life, it is cheaper to
apply limited funds to a pavement when the condition is relatively good rather than applying
additional funds to improve the condition from a lower value.

Purpose of pavement maintenance are:
• To prevent further runway crack.
• To provide good runway surface friction.
• To increase safety by providing correct and clearly visible runway marking
5.3.1 Flexible Airfield Pavements
The maintenance works of bituminous surfaces mainly consist of path repairs, repairs of
surface treatments, resurfacing and special repairs.
Patch repairs: On the damaged or improper airfield pavements surface, patch repairs are
carried out. Localized depressions and pot holes may be formed in the surface layers due to
defects in materials and construction. Inadequate or defective binding material causes
removal of aggregates during monsoon, Patchwork may be done on affected localized areas
on sections using a cold premix.
Replace of pot holes: For the repairs of the pot holes, these are cut to rectangular shape and
the affected material removed until the sound materials are encountered. The excavated
patches are cleaned and painted with bitumen binder. A premixed material is then placed in
the selection.
Surface treatment: The pavement becomes patchy and slippery where the surface materials
bleeds due to excess of bitumen at the time of construction. Corrugations or rutting or
shoving develop in such pavement surfaces. It is Customary to spread blotting materials such
as aggregate chips of maximum size of about 10 mm or coarse sand during summer.
Necessary rolling is done to develop permanent bond between the existing surface and the
new materials. The binders in the black top surfaces also get oxidized due to ageing. This
develops minute cracking in the pavement surface. If the surface has been seriously damaged
due to oxidization or volatilization of binder materials, it may be necessary to apply more
than one layer of surface treatment.
Resurfacing: When the pavement surface is totally worn out and develops a poor riding
surface, it may be more economical to provide an additional surface coarse on the existing
surface. In case the pavement is of inadequate thickness due to increase in traffic loads and
strengthening is necessary, then an overlay of adequate thickness should be designed and
constructed.
5.3.2 Airfield rigid pavement
The repair methods for rigid pavements are best categorized by the nature of the defect which
they seek to treat. These defects are found at joints, at the surface of the slab or of immediate
structural significance.
Repair of defects at Joints: All joints and cracks in a rigid pavement must be kept sealed
with some adhesive material. The sealant material may fail. Flexibility is lost with age and
the result can be cracking within the sealant or a loss of bond between the sealant and one or
both sides of the joint. Therefore, joints need periodic maintenance by ploughing out old
defective sealant to a depth of 25 mm, sand blasting the vertical faces of the joint, cleaning
the joint, inserting sponge rubber to the bottom of the groove and finally sealing in one pour.

Repair of Surface Defects: Surface defect due to the loss of surface texture in the concrete
may be repaired by cutting transverse grooves in the pavement surface. These grooves are
saw-cut and provide a durable finish to the concrete. But if the fault lies in the microtexture
of the aggregate exposed at the surface, surface dressing or roughening of the surface is done.
Repair of Structural Defects: Structural defects in a rigid pavement include cracks and slab
movement. Crack may be transverse, longitudinal, comer, diagonal and restraint. The
transverse and longitudinal cracks may be repaired by sand blasting the vertical face to the
crack to a depth of at least 25 mm, cleaning the crack and then filling with rubber-asphalt
compound. Medium longitudinal cracks may be treated by stitching while wide cracks are
treated by full depth repair. Diagonal cracks are also repaired in the same manner.
Figure 80 Preservative Techniques

Microsurfacing is defined as a mixture of high quality aggregate and a polymer-modified
emulsion binder. This technique is primarily used to correct or inhibit raveling and oxidation
of the pavement surface, however, it is also effective in improving Surface Texture, sealing
the pavement surface, and filling minor surface irregularities and wheel ruts
Other interesting facts:
• Microsurfacing has successfully been used on both low and high volume roadways.
• Microsurfacing has been found to perform well for 4 to 7 years, depending on the
condition of the existing pavement.
• Ruts up to 50 mm (2 in) have been successfully filled, with recurrence of rutting
within 3 to 5 years.
• Initial Surface Texture numbers range from the mid-40s to upper 50s (where higher
Surface Texture numbers represent greater Surface Texture—highway agencies
typically require improved Surface Texture when the values dip below about 35).
• When underlying cracks are not working, microsurfacing delays the development of
those cracks in the new surface (reflective cracking).

Figure 81 Micro surfacing
5.3.3 Snow and Ice Control
Snow & ice control plan is established to ensure airport operations safety in the event of snow
and ice conditions.
Procedures to follow are:
1. Timely removal of control of snow and icing.
2. Selection and application of approved materials for snow and ice control
3. Timely notification to aircraft when any portion of the pavement is less than
satisfactory.
Icing Effect: Icing is the accumulation of ice on the exposed surfaces of aircraft or on the
surface of runway. Icing effect can cause problems to the aircraft thus can lead to accident.
Ice forming on aircraft surface can cause aircraft loss of directional control, reduce aircraft
performance and even can cause aircraft loss radio communications. While ice forming on
runway makes slippery surface that can cause aircraft loss of control during take-off or
landing.
Figure 82 Snow and Ice on exposed airfield

Snow and Ice Control: Ice accumulation are potentially the most damaging weather
phenomenon to affect airports. Methods to control ice on the pavement surfaces include the
application of chemical solution (glycol) and snow removal equipment (plows, sweepers).

The idea to use chemicals is that they react with the ice to produce a chemical reaction that
produces heat. The heat melts the ice.
And the snow removal equipment are able to loosen and plow the ice off of the surface.
• Anti-icing: To prevent ice from forming. The process of spraying a glycol solution on
the parts of an aircraft to prevent the formation of ice
• De-icing: To remove ice after it has formed. De-icing is the process of removing
snow & ice from an aircraft surface or runway surface.
Why is snow and ice control important?
Winter weather can have a serious impact on safe airport operations, often resulting in
conditions that may lead to incidents, accidents, or delays. For that reason, snow and ice
control at an airport is extremely important, regardless of the size of the airport or the aircraft
using it. Landing or taking off on a slippery surface is much more dangerous for a plane as
aircraft brake is not efficient. Snow and ice control on the last third of the runway is
especially critical, as this area must offer a clear pavement if a pilot decides to abort a
takeoff.
Figure 83 Snow and Ice Control
5.3.4 FOD Control Program
FOD is stand for Foreign Object Damage. The purpose of this formal program is to increase
safety of airport operations and to reduce maintenance costs through the elimination of
foreign object hazards. Visual inspections of the airport operating surfaces and reporting of
any FOD by all airport operators are key to the entire program

Figure 84 Air France crashed on 25 July 2000
A Concorde aircraft owned by Air France crashed on 25 July 2000, soon after taking off
from Charles de Gaulle airport, Paris. All passengers and crew, totaling 109 people, were
killed on board, as well as five people on the ground. It was later discovered that foreign
object on the runway may have pierced a tire which exploded and damaged the fuel tank,
which then caused a fire.
5.3.5 Bird hazard management
Bird & wildlife hazards especially near to airport has the big potential to cause serious
aircraft damage and loss of human life. Every years there are many aviation accidents
reported caused by bird & wildlife hazards. Because of this, FAA directs any related airport
to concern on bird and wildlife hazard management .
Figure 85 Bird Hazard

Example: Bird Hazard That Caused the Tragedy at Brussels Airport, Belgium.
The Boeing 747 crashed after take-off when the right engine experienced a momentary loss of
power because of bird strike.
The number of incidents with significant damage to aircraft represents approximately 5% of
the total number of bird strikes, 69% of bird strikes take place in daylight, 15% take place at
night and the rest of bird strikes take place at sunrise and sunset
�65% of damaged aircraft with a weight above 27 000 kg have engine intake damage
�29% bird strikes take place during the approach and 25% during the take-off run
�51% of bird strikes take place below 30 m above the terrain
�91% of cases the pilots were not warned of the appearance of the birds.

Bird hazard Control Techniques
There are several control techniques available to solve the bird hazard problem. Some of the
techniques are:
Noisemakers tools, this tool will scare the bird and cause the bird to move away from
airport.
Elimination of habitat such as trees to discourage bird populations.
The crews must inform the air traffic authorities of movements of birds detected and all
impacts with birds.
5.4 Evaluation of airfield Pavement
The object of the pavement evaluation is to assess the adequacy of the runway for a given
loading under given environmental conditions. Information that can be collected includes
assessment of the structural condition of the pavement, its skidding resistance and its surface
texture and profile. The pavement evaluation is categorized into two major types; structural
evaluation and functional evaluation. The former is a quantitative evaluation of a pavement
while the latter is qualitative. The airfield pavement may need repair of overlay work for one
or more of the following reasons.
 The bearing capacity of the pavement is inadequate. This may be because the aircrafts
of greater capacity are brought into use
 The level of service is unacceptable; runway is lengthened and the existing portion
must often be overlaid at the same time.
 The integrity of the structures and surface courses is threatened.
 The level of safety is unacceptable; loss of skid resistance, aircraft vibrate.
 The cost of maintenance has increased considerably.
The evaluation is one of the best tools available to the maintenance engineer who needs to
know the functional and structural) condition of runway at a given time.
5.4.1 Functional evaluation
It includes evaluation of surface characteristics of airfield pavement like riding quality, skid
resistance and surface texture. A functionally failed pavement will not carry out its intended
function without causing discomfort to passenger or without causing high stresses in the
plane due to its roughness.
Riding Quality: Riding quality of the airfield pavement may be measured by using either 3 m
long straight edge or high speed equipment like Automatic Road Unevenness Recorder.
When measured with 3 m straight edge, the maximum permissible deviation should not be
more than 3 mm. The US Bureau of Public Road roughometer is a single wheeled trailer with
a centrally located recording wheel. Measurements are made at the standard operational
speed of 30 kmph. The recording system measures the vertical movement of the axle relative
to the top of the suspension system. A second counter records the distance travelled in terms
of revolutions of recording wheel.

Figure 86 Quarter-Car Model Used as the Basis of the International Roughness Index,
The profilometer is another equipment for measuring the surface irregularities. It plots a
profile of the surface on a natural vertical scale. This equipment is a 16 wheeled articulated
carriage which supports a detecting and recording device at a constant height above the road
surface. The equipment determines roughness value in terms of cm/km.
Measurement of Skid Resistance and Surface Texture : Skid resistance tests are carried out
on the wet surface and are based on the coefficient of friction in such circumstances as
measured by the portable skid resistance tester. This is a device of standard dimensions
whose essential features are a pendulum with a rubber pad at the lower end, and a graduated
scale. The pendulum is raised to the horizontal and released; the pendulum falls and is slowed
by friction between the surface under test and the rubber pad. The skidding resistance of the
surface is reported as one hundred times the coefficient of friction indicated by the pointer.
The grip tester is the equipment which is widely used on runways in UK. It is shown in Fig.
87. The measuring wheel turns more slowly than the main wheel and drag and load are
continuously monitored by a small computer.
Figure 87 Schematic view of griptester

Stereophotography is an indirect method of measuring pavement friction properties. In this
method the surface is analyzed into six components. The complete set of six parameter
numbers is called the ‗texture code number‘. The method requires highly trained personnel
and is time consuming.
The sand pitch method is a new method of assessing pavement macro texture. A known
volume of sand is spread on the surface in a circular patch such that the tips of aggregate
particles just project at the upper level of the sand. The texture depth is determined by
dividing the volume of sand by the area of the ditch.
Contactless sensor is the latest development in methods of texture depth measurement. This
apparatus is mounted on a towed trailer and is capable of wing a continuous record. The
equipment is very costly but provides the continuous reading over a large sample of the
pavement surface. TRRL has now developed a hand operated ‗walking speed‘ laser. This has
considerable cost advantage over the towed version of contactless sensor. It is however
limited to investigation of small areas.
Figure 88 Contactless sensor
5.4.2 Structural evaluation of airfield pavement
Most methods for assessing the bearing capacity of airfield pavements are based on a reversal
of the design procedure. This approach involves a slow and mostly investigation that can only
be carried out at a few locations. There has, therefore, been an attempt to develop evaluation
methods that are efficient to provide information about the characteristic bearing capacity of
an entire airfield. It should be noted that destructive tests continue to be indispensable in the
final age of investigation.
Plate Bearing Test: This test simulates a single aircraft wheel and is most commonly used to
evaluate airfield pavements. The most sensitive part of a slab is the corner. Therefore, the test
is normally conducted at corner. The plate load test on a concrete pavement consists of
determining the load that produces the limiting deflection at comer. The limiting deflection is
decided in advance and the following equation is used to calculate permissible wheel load.

[ ( ) ]
where
=permissible stress in concrete at comer (kg/cm2)
P = wheel load (kg)
h = slab thickness (cm)
a = radius of contact area
k=subgrade modulus (kg/cm2)
µ=Poisson ratio for concrete
l = radius of relative stiffness given by
[ ]
( )
Figure 89 Plate Load Bearing Test
Core Cutting Method: Core sampling serves basically to provide information about the
quality of the bearing conditions of the concretes slab, the bonding of the courses and the
erodibibility of the sub base. In flexible pavements, information about the thickness of each
bound layer and various physical data relating to the materials can be obtained. The ideal is to
take a core of 150 mm in diameter, using a water cooled diamond tipped core cutter along the
near side wheel path in suspect areas.

Figure 90 Subgrade strength test
The Benkelman Beam: The deflection method is based on the concept that pavement
sections which have been conditioned by traffic, deform elastically under a load. The elastic
deflection under the load depends upon subgrade type, its moisture content and compaction,
the thickness of the layers, quality of pavement material and drainage conditions. Existing
studies in many countries have shown that the performance of flexible pavement is closely
related to the deflection of the pavement under the load, the Benkelman beam is a device for
measuring the rebound deflection at point in the surface of a pavement caused by the passage
of a wheel load. This method is generally used for the design of overlay.
The Deflectograph: The deflectograph operates on the same principle as the Benkelman
beam but differs in a number of aspects. Deflections are measured by electronic transducers
and are recorded automatically. The equipment consists of two automated deflection beams,
one operating with each pair of loaded dual rear wheels of a two axle lorry. The beam
mechanism is mounted on a common frame to form the beam assemb1e as shown in Fig.90.
The vehicle moves forward at a constant speed of 2 kmph ; the operating cable connecting the
deflection beam sub assembly to the lorry is let out at such a rate that the beam assembly
remains stationary on the road. This enables the deflection caused as the rear wheels of the
lorry approach the end of the beam (Fig. 90 b) to be measured. The beam assembly is now
drawn forward by the cable to the position shown in Fig. 90 C. The cycle is then repeated
along the road and readings are taken at intervals of 3.8 m. The deflection measured with
deflectograph is converted to an equivalent Benkelman beam deflection at the same
temperature, and then a temperature correction is applied as in case of beam data.
The Falling Weight Defleclometer (FWD): The load applied to the pavement in
deflectograph acts more gradually than does that due to a moving vehicle. The FWD consists
of a mechanism of applying a load to the pavement surface. The deflection created by the
FWD load impulse is unidirectional and approximately half size wave in form, with a
duration of 25-30 microseconds which closely approximates the deflection impulse created
by a truck wheel at a speed of 65 kmph. The falling weight has four different mass
configurations varying from 50 to 300 kgs and can be dropped from heights between 20 and
38 cm. A specially designed spring system ensures that there is only one impact. Geophones
are used to detect the signal impulse at the centre of the loading plate and at 20 cm, 30 cm, 45
cm, 65 cm, 90 cm and 120 cm from the load. Fig. 90 illustrates the principle of the FWD.
Vertical movements at each geophone are recorded electronically and this information,

together with thickness of the pavement layers obtained from coring, is processed by
computer to provide estimates of the strength of the various pavement layers and the
subgrade. No design charts are available for the FWD since the software used will generate
overlay designs.
Figure 91 Principle of the falling weight deflectometer
5.5 Strengthening Of Airfield Pavements
5.5.1 Objectives
Most of the Military airfield pavements were constructed during the Second World War.
Since then the gross weight of the present day aircraft has increased tremendously. Possible
improvements in the design characteristics of aircrafts would further increase the design
wheel load. Runway and taxiway pavements thus cannot be replaced with new sections as
and when required, and it is essential that the existing pavements are strengthened by
providing additional layers of new pavements over existing pavement sections. The overlying
pavement layers are called as overlays. Overlays may also be needed under the circumstances
when the existing pavements have successfully completed their useful functioning.
5.5.2 Overlay Design
For design purposes overlays can be classified 1mo two major groups:
(i) Flexible Overlays, and
(ii) Rigid overlays.
The following determinations are made regardless of the type of overlay is selected:
(a) Soil subgrade type and strength characteristics
(b) Actual thickness of each layer in the existing pavement Section.
(a) Design of flexible overlay
These overlays can be provided on any of the two types of existing pavements i.e. flexible or
rigid. CAA recommends that if bituminous overlay is provided, t should not be less than 8
cm. For thickness more than 8 cm, stage construction should be resorted.

Flexible overlay on rigid pavement: For such an overlay, the basic procedure of flexible
pavement design is employed. For this purpose, the subgrade Support is considered and any
conventional type of design method is used.
Flexible overlay on flexible pavement: For flexible overlay the minimum thickness of base
course recommended by CAA is 15 cm. It is required to first compute the total thickness of
rigid pavement for the increased loading condition. This value is modified by a factor F
which represents the characteristics of subgrade or subbase conditions of existing rigid
pavement. Table 8 gives the values of F
Now for thickness of flexible overlay, following design equation as given by CAA is used:
( )
Where
T=required flexible overlay thickness
F=factor for reduction of the thickness h
h=required rigid pavement thickness over exising subbase
he =thickness of existing rigid pavement
For bituminous overlay following relation is used: tb=T/1.5
Table 8 'F' for different subgrade and subbase
Example 5.6: An existing runway and taxiway consists of 15 cm of cement concrete slab
resting on subgrade. The subgrade soil is grouped as Rb type. It is necessary to strengthen the
pavement for supporting ESWL of 26,300kg. Determine an overlay thickness of bituminous
concrete.
(b) Design of rigid overlay

Similar to the above considerations, rigid overlay can be provided either on existing
pavement of rigid type or flexible type.

Rigid Overlay on Flexible: Pavement for designing (the rigid overlay over existing flexible
pavement, the subgrade reaction modulus i.e. k is obtained for the existing section and is
employed in determining the additional pavement thickness by the design method discussed.
Rigid Overlay on Rigid Pavement: For computing thickness of additional rigid pavement,
the following relationship is used
( )
where,
ho = rigid overlay thickness required
hd= computed rigid pavement thickness based on modified loading and subgrade condition
he=existing rigid pavement thickness
C, x, y, and n are empirical values based on the conditions of the existing slab and the overlay
construction techniques. Values recommended by U S. Corps of Eiigineers, FAA and PCA
are given in Table 9
Table 9 Coefficient for design of rigid overlay

Example 5.7: Due to increased traffic, a monolithic thickness of 20 cm of cement concrete
pavement is required. Compute the thickness of the rigid overlay when
(î) Existing cement concrete pavement is l0 cm thick and is in good condition.
(ii) Existing cement Concrete pavement is 10 cm thick but is cracked.
Interface condition may be assumed as partially bonded, US Corps of Engineers method.

CHAPTER SIX: TERMINAL DESIGN
6.1 General
Terminal area: Area other than landing, serves for other activities includes: terminal and
operational building for managerial & operational activities, vehicle parking area and aircraft
service Hanger. The terminal area is the major interface between the airfield and the rest of
the airport. It includes the facilities for passenger and baggage processing, cargo handling,
and airport maintenance, operations, and administration activities.
The first step in terminal design process is to gather together and catalogue all of the existing
data, information, and parameters that will have a bearing on the planning and subsequent
design of the terminal facilities. The next step involves determining future forecasts of
passenger, cargo, and aircraft movements that will form the demand basis for programming
the future terminal and associated apron facility requirements. Once the facility requirements
have been determined, the conceptual planning process can begin. This typically involves an
iterative process of developing initial, and then progressively more refined, terminal complex
concepts.
6.2 Defining the Terminal Complex
The primary users of airport terminals are airlines, air travelers, well-wishers and meeters/
greeters, and a wide range of employees of airport management, government regulatory
authorities, air carriers, concessionaires, and other airport tenants. While terminal facilities
must, first and foremost, provide a good level of service (LOS) to these users, the planning
and design of an overall terminal facility is greatly influenced by the more rigid requirements
needed to accommodate maneuvering aircraft and ground access systems. The terminal
complex consists of the interface between aircraft, travelers, and the various modes of
landside transportation. Terminal complex includes three primary components: airside,
terminal, and landside. Figure depicts a diagram of a generic terminal complex that shows
these three key components.
Figure 92 Terminal Complex

6.2.1 Airside Terminal Facilities
For the majority of new terminal planning and design projects, it is important from the outset
to formulate solutions based on the airside component. This requires identifying gate
requirements and locating aircraft parking positions and their supporting taxi lanes that
optimize the overall efficiency of the airfield prior to developing the internal layout of the
terminal building and the landside curb and terminal roadway systems. The efficiency of
airfield operations will, to a very large extent, drive the overall efficiency of passenger
processing through the terminal, and the ability of aircraft to park at the terminal and
maneuver safely around the airfield in accordance with taxi lane/taxiway requirements
contained in FAA Advisory Circulars is paramount. The airside‘s large spatial requirements
and fixed requirements for aircraft wingtip separations and maneuvering clearances typically
drive the physical geometry of the terminal complex more than either the passenger
processing requirements within the terminal building, or its associated landside components.
The primary elements to consider when dealing with the airside component of a terminal
complex include the following:
Aircraft parking restrictions
– Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 14, Part 77 requirements
– U.S. Standard for Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS) requirements
– Air traffic control tower line-of-sight
Aircraft maneuvering
– Taxiway requirements
– Taxilane requirements
– Pushback areas
Aircraft parking
– Terminal gates
– Remote aircraft parking positions
– Wingtip clearances
– Aircraft parking guidance systems
Aircraft parking apron
– Apron gradients
– Hydrant fueling
– Preconditioned air
Apron service roads
– Tail-of-stand
– Head-of-stand
Ground service equipment
– Staging
– Movement/maneuvering
– Storage
Aircraft servicing
Security and emergency response
Environmental
– Fuel spillage
– Waste disposal

Blast Fences
– Public and employee protection
Winter operations
– Aircraft deicing
– Apron snow removal
6.2.2 Terminal Building Facilities
The ever-evolving airport and aviation industry requires today‘s airport terminal buildings to
be planned and constructed in ways that safeguard flexibility for future modification at the
least expense, while also responding to variations in demand and/or the changing needs of
passengers, airlines, and aircraft.
The primary elements to consider when dealing with the terminal building component of the
terminal complex include the following:
Programmatic parameters
– LOS performance standards
– Demand/capacity assessment
Terminal facility requirements
– Ticketing/check- in
– Passenger screening
– Holdrooms
– Concessions
– Baggage claim
– Circulation
– Airline offices and operations areas
– Baggage handling
– Baggage screening system
– International facilities—Federal Inspection Services
– Support areas
– Special requirements
– Building systems
Functional relationships
Flow sequences
– Passengers
– Visitors
– Employees
– Baggage
– Deliveries
– Waste removal
Passenger movements
– People mover systems
– Passenger way finding and signage

Terminal concept development
– Domestic and international terminals
– Concourse configurations
– Centralized and decentralized terminals
– Single vs. multi- level terminals
– Flexibility and efficiency
– Common-use terminal equipment
– Swing gates
Figure 93 Terminal Building showing passenger and baggage flow
6.2.3 Landside Terminal Facilities
There are planning situations when the landside components may be the driving force behind
the most appropriate terminal complex solution. Planning of landside terminal facilities
requires considerable care because the efficiency, or lack thereof, can greatly influence the air
travelers‘ perceptions of the overall efficiency and user friendliness of the terminal.
The terminal landside system provides the interface between the airport and the regional
ground transportation system. Ideally, passenger connectivity between the various points of
landside access to the terminal by road and, when applicable, rail should be as seamless and
convenient as possible with a minimum of pedestrian level changes. Pedestrian and vehicular
movements on the landside are particularly vulnerable to congestion at many airports due to
peaks of demand associated with air travel and a historic pattern of growth in enplanements.
Expansion of these facilities is often difficult, so intensive and proactive management of the
landside curb and roadway systems is required to cope with increased activity and
congestion. This management can be performed using manpower or by the use of technology.
The primary elements to consider when dealing with the terminal building component of the
terminal complex include the following:
Curb front pedestrian facilities
– Sidewalk—adjacent to terminal
– Curb islands
– Pedestrian crosswalks
– Curbside baggage check-in
Curb front vehicle lanes
– Loading/unloading lanes
– Bypass lanes
– Through lanes
Parking
– Terminal passenger parking
– Remote passenger parking
– Off-airport parking
– Valet parking
– Employee parking (FAA, airlines, tenants, staff)
– Rental car parking
– Cell phone lots
Entry/exit roadways
– Primary terminal access and exit roadways
– Recirculation roadways
– Service roads/loading docks
Commercial vehicle/transit staging areas
– Taxi and bus holding areas
– Ground transportation centers
6.3 Terminal design concepts
The design of terminal depends upon the nature of the air traffic to be handled at an airport.
The design concepts chosen is a function of a number of factors, including the size and nature
of traffic demand, number of participating airlines, the traffic split between international and
domestic, scheduled, and charter flights, access modes etc.
There are two categories of terminal concept types. The first category addresses the
organization of terminal processing into either a centralized or decentralized type of airport

terminal complex. The second category then organizes the terminal into one of four generally
recognized types of terminal and concourse concepts.
6.3.1 Centralized Terminal Facilities
As the name implies, the underlying premise of a centralized terminal is that all passengers
and baggage at the airport process through a single facility. There are many advantages to
such a centralized operating philosophy:
 Maximizes the use of the facilities and staffing
o A single consolidated terminal maximizes passenger processing capacity and
eliminates unnecessary facility duplication.
o A single consolidated terminal minimizes staffing requirements for functions
like passenger security screening checkpoints.
o A single consolidated terminal provides the opportunity to operate as a
common-use facility by utilizing CUTE and CUPPS technologies.
 Minimizes interline connections: Because all airlines are operating within a single
consolidated terminal facility, the connections of passengers and baggage between
airlines are typically closer and less complex than in unit terminal complexes.
 Maximizes concession revenue opportunities: In a centralized facility, it is possible to
achieve the maximum exposure of the departing passenger to centralized concessions,
which boosts revenue production while eliminating the need to duplicate concession
locations as is needed with multiple unit terminals.
 Simplifies macro way finding: From a macro way finding prospective, there is only
one location that passengers need to arrive at and depart from, which typically
simplifies the ground access infrastructure and decision making on approaching or
departing the airport and terminal complex.
Primary Secondary
Centralized planning approach
Figure 94 Centralized terminal building
6.3.2 Decentralized Terminal Facilities
Several unit terminals create different needs from those of a single consolidated terminal.
Multiple unit terminals represent the most decentralized concept. Each terminal operates
independently of the other terminals and duplicates most facilities such as restrooms, building
services, vertical circulation, and related structures.
An airport also may have different types of airline service that require different types of
terminals. A domestic terminal, or one targeted at low-cost carriers, has different needs and

characteristics than a large international terminal. Each of these characteristics should be
considered when deciding on a centralized or decentralized concept.
Terminal Building
Decentralized Terrminal building
Figure 95 Decentralized planning approach
6.3.3 Basic Plan Configurations
Over time, four basic terminal/concourse concept types have been recognized by the industry
at large.
Figure 96 Simple and Expanded linear terminal configuration.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Shortest walking distances  Duplication of terminal
 Clear orientation facilities/amenities
 Simple construction  Longer minimum connecting time
 Adequate kerb length  Longer walking distances for transfer pax
 Shorter close-out times  Special logistics for handling of transfer
 Lower baggage systems costs bags
(conveying/sorting) using  Less flexibility in terminal and apron for
decentralized system future changes in operations cg aircraft
design, airlines

Figure 97 Pier and Multi-pier concourse configuration.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Centralized resources, economies of  Long walking distances
scale (human, facilities, amenities)  Kerbside congestion
 Facilitates pax management  Limited expansion capability
 Economical to build  Reduced aircraft circulation & and
 Efficient use of land maneuverability
 Limited compatibility of future
aircraft design development
Figure 98 Satellite concourse configuration.

Advantages Advantages
 Centralized resources (human,  Requires high technology,
facilities and amenities) underground transportation system
 Facilitates pax management  High capital, maintenance & operating
 Additional satellites can be designed cost
to accommodate future aircraft design  Kerbside congestion
developments  Limited expansion capability at main
terminal
 Increases minimum connecting times
 Early closed-out times
More Complex Designs.
Figure 100 Transporter concourse configuration

Figure 99 Single-level terminal with dual curbs
Figure 101 Multiple-spine automated people mover.

Figure 102 Spine automated people mover.
6.4 Level of service standards for terminal space

6.5 Flow Sequences
This section describes the various paths or flows taken by the different user groups of the
terminal and concourse facilities. These groups typically include passengers, visitors,
employees, baggage, and deliveries.
Figure 103 One-way or two-way loop automated people movers.
6.5.1 Passenger flow
Figure 104 Passenger flow diagram for domestic and international

6.6 Parking Facility Requirements
Parking facilities are typically provided for the following users:

 Passengers
 Employees and tenants
 Rental cars
Table 10 Examples of rule-of-thumb passenger parking*.
6.7 Hangar
The primary function of a hangar is to provide an enclosure for servicing, overhauling and
doing repairs of the aircrafts. They are usually constructed of steel frames and covered with
galvanized iron sheets. They are also provided with machine shop and stores for spare parts.
The size of hangar depends upon the size of aircraft and its turning radius. Adequate lighting
inside the hangar is of prime importance. Sometime ceilings of hangar and some portions of
its side walls are glazed, which work as light reflectors. Construction of hangar to store large
number of aircrafts may be undesirable both from economy and other considerations VIZ.
difficulty ¡n the maneuvering of aircrafts, noise nuisance, fumes, fire hazards etc. The
number of hangars depends upon the peak hour volume of aircrafts and demand of hangars
on rental basis by different airline agencies.
6.7.1 Hangar site location
If hangar can be located close to the terminal building and loading aprons, such an
arrangement offers many advantages. But is should be ascertained that this arrangement
offers adequate scope for future expansion of the terminal as well as the hangar facilities,
otherwise the functional efficiency of the entire airport would be impaired. The requirements
of suitable hangar site are as follows:
 The site should be such that there is a convenient road access to it from the site to the
aprons and terminal buildings.
 Proximity to and easy installation of utilities, e.g. electricity, telephone, water supply
and sewers etc.
 Reasonable proximity to the loading apron. The site should not be along the direction
of frequent storms as this is likely to damage the hangar doors etc.
 Sufficient area to provide car parking facilities for working personnel.
 Favorable topography providing good natural drainage.
 Adequate site area for future expansion of hangar facilities.

CHAPTER SEVEN: AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
7.1 General
Air traffic control is an essential element of the communication structure which supports air
transportation. Two basic for air traffic control (ATC) are safety and efficiency of air traffic
movement. ATC organizes the airspace to achieve the objective of a safe, expeditious and
orderly flow of air traffic. The increasing range of aircraft technology means more attention
to the allotment of airspace. The problem is further compounded by the fact that busy airports
sustain excessive landing and departure rates and airports themselves are invariably situated
within busy terminal areas and in close proximity to other airports. Furthermore, these
airports are often sited near the junction of air routes serving other destinations. Conflicts in
air traffic procedures can seriously reduce the capacity of an airport.
7.2 Primary functions of air traffic control
Airport Traffic Control: To direct aircraft during landing or takeoff and guide them from and
back to the airways within a predetermined controlling area around the airport. Also to
control the taxiing of arriving and departing aircraft on the airfield between the apron and the
runway.
Air Traffic Control: To regulate aircraft movement in flight along the runway by keeping
each aircraft properly separated vertically and laterally.
Airways Communication: To disseminate weather and airway information to aircraft in
flight.
General or Non airway Traffic Control: To regulate the movement of aircraft not flying
along airway and to prevent interference with airway traffic. This control is required when
personal flying is very common.
7.3 Air Traffic Control Network
The network for ontro1ling the air traffic can be divided into three parts as follows:
 Control within terminal area
 Control over airways
 Airway communication
The method of traffic control for each system depends upon the weather conditions. These
are commonly known as visual flight rules (VFR) and instrumental flight rules (IFR). If VFR
conditions prevail, the air traffic control during the route is practically not required, since the
pilots can maintain the desired separation by visual aids. The IFR conditions exist, when the
visibility is lower than the limits prescribed for flight under visual flight rules. Rigid traffic
control has to be exercised under IFR condition. The pilot, prior to his departure, prepares a
flight plan which indicates the aircraft destination, the air route to be followed, the desired
altitude and the estimated time for departure. If the flight plan is approved, no change is
allowed without prior approval of the traffic control center.

7.3.1 Control within Terminal Area
This is done from the airport control tower which is located in the terminal area. The control
tower is nerve center of an airport. Safety of aircraft operations and the effective capacity of
an airport depend upon the skill of the controller operating the system. The controller directs
the movement of aircraft on the ground and in the air within the airport zone. Information are
issued to the pilot regarding airport conditions, airway traffic, visibility, speed and direction
of ground winds, barometric pressure and other relevant information for the safe operation.
7.3.2 Control over Airways
The control is provided by a number of air route traffic control centers (ARTC). Each center
controls a certain definite geographical area, thus covering the entire area of the country.
These centers are usually located at major airports so as to eliminate the expenses of
additional communication facilities. As the aircraft crosses over the boundary of one of the
control areas, it is taken over by the ARTC of another area or by the control tower. ARTC is
mainly concerned with flights under IFR conditions. The pilot first gives his flight plan to
ARTC who then decides the altitude at which the aircraft may fly so as to ensure a safe
separation from other aircrafts operating along the same airway. Without radar coverage,
aircrafts are separated by a distance equivalent to 10 minutes run when flying on the same
altitude. If radar facility is available, the minimum separation is 8 km (5 miles).
7.3.3 Air Communication
This is usually done through flight service stations. These stations are located at the airports
and also along the airways. Their functions are as follows:
To relay air traffic control messages between the ARTC and enroute aircraft.
To give certain information to the pilots, before and during the flights, regarding the weather
change, navigational aids, airports that are out of use, and the procedure at a particular
airports etc.
Signal
Steady red light to aircraft or vehicle as indicated.
Red flare from tower or aircraft.
Meaning:
Do not land. Give way continue circling.
Meaning:
Immediate assistance required
Meaning:
Stop

Signal : Steady green light to aircraft.
Signal: Steady or flashing green or green
flare from aircraft.
Meaning:
Clear to land
Meaning: Clear to take–off Meaning:

By Night – may I land.
By Day – may I land in a direction different from
that indicated.
Signals: White flashes to aircraft or vehicle Signals: White flashes to aircraft

or vehicle.
Meaning:
Land here on receipt of
steady green and await
further instructions.
Meaning:
Return to starting
point on
the aerodrome. Meaning:
I am compelled to land.
Figure 105 Signal for Traffic operation
7.4 Landing aids
The following aids are available to any aircraft while landing.

a) Instrument landing System (ILS)
b) Precision approach radar (PAR) or Ground approach control (GAC)
c) Airport surveillance radar (ASR)
d) Airport surface detection equipment (ASDE)
e) Approach lights
Each of these aids are discussed below:
7.4.1 Instrument landing System (ILS)
It is at present the most widely used system of landing. It consists of telecommunication aids
to the pilot to enable him to approach the runway and make a successful landing under
condition of poor visibility even when no ground reference data is visible. ILS system
provides facilities for landing even when visibility is poor. In the airfield where this facility
does not exist, the landing under IFR Conditions is difficult, and the aircraft is diverted to the
adjoining airport where either proper visibility. ILS consists of three components as follows:

Localizer antenna: It is radio transmitter of very high frequency omni-directional range. It
emit radio beam signal in vertical plane and indicate to the pilot whether he is to the left or
right of the correct alignment for approach to the runway. The localizer antenna is sited on
the extended runway centerline 1,000 to 2,000 feet beyond the far end of the runway.
Guide slope antenna: It is also a radio transmitter of very high frequency omni-directional
range. It transmits radio beam signal in a horizontal plane, and indicates to the pilot, the
correct angle of descent to the runway. The glide slope antenna is located at a distance x
varying from 225 to 375 m (750 to l20 fi) down the runway from the threshold and to one
side of the runway center line at a distance y varying from 120 to 195 m.
Outer and middle markers:
The outer marker is typically located from 5 to 7 miles from the end of the runway
threshold. A vertically emitted radio signal activates a rapidly flashing blue light on the
aircraft‘s marker beacon receiver when the aircraft passes overhead. The outer marker also
produces an audio signal, two Morse code dashes per second, at a low tone to further alert the
pilot to the aircraft‘s position on approach.
The inner marker identifies the location on the approach of the designated decision height in
this case. The inner marker‘s audio signal is a series of Morse code dots at a high tone.
Figure 106 Schematic diagram of Instrument Landing System

7.4.2 Precision approach radar (PAR)
It serves the same purpose as an ILS except that the guidance information reaches the pilot
through his hearing aid. PAR gives to the controller the picture of descending aircraft both in
plan and in elevation. The controller checks the alignment and the glide slope of the aircraft.
Thus no navigational equipment is required in the aircraft.
7.4.3 Airports surveillance radar (ASR)
It is an instrument which provides to the controller at the tower an overall picture of all the
aircrafts within the air space surrounding the terminal. It is effective up to a distance of 50 km
(30 miles) to 100 km (60 miles). The relative horizontal position of the aircrafts are shown as

pips on the scope. As the aircrafts move, pips leave a luminous tail thereby indicating the
directions of movement of the aircrafts, ASR does not indicate the altitude of the aircraft.
7.4.4 Airports surface detection equipment (ASDE)
During the poor visibility conditions, the controller finds it difficult to regulate the taxiing of
aircrafts as he cannot see the aircrafts clearly. ASDE is a short range radar which gives to the
controller a pictorial display of the runways, taxiways, terminal areas and shows the position
of the aircrafts. Even during restricted visibility, this assists the controller to regulate the
traffic on the airport.
7.4.5 Approach-Light Systems
This is a system of high-intensity lights that extend outward from the approach end along the
projected center line of the runway. They provide visual reference to the instrument runway
during the transition from instrument flight to visual flight.
The system consists of horizontal 12-ft bars of high-intensity lights spaced 100 ft apart
longitudinally for a distance of 1400 to 3000 ft. Each bar contains, in addition, a condenser
discharge light. These flash in sequence toward the runway.
Figure 107 Barrette type with capacitor discharge (sequential flashing lights)
Precision-Approach-Path Indicator: This is a system of visual-approach indication,
designed to provide visually the same information that a glide-slope unit provides
electronically. Normally, four light units in one row are placed 1000 ft in from the runway
threshold. The lights are placed 50 ft from the runway edges. The light units have beams
elevated so that a specific approach slope is indicated through the proper combination of red
and white lights; for example, two red and two white.
a) when on or close to the approach slope,

see the two units nearest the runway as
red and the two units farthest from the
runway as white;

b) when above the approach slope, see the one unit
nearest the runway as red and the three units
farthest from the runway as white; and
c) When further above the approach slope, see all

the units as white; and
d) When below the approach slope, see the three

units nearest the runway as red and the unit
farthest from the runway as white; and
e) When further below the approach slope, see all

the units as red.
Figure 108 PAPI light s

CHAPTER EIGHT: VISUAL AIDS

SOLUTIONS
2.1 Solution:
a) Radius of curve,
b) From Horonjeff equation,
( )
= 55.5 m
c) For subsonic transport aircraft,
Adopt the highest of the three estimated values.
Turning radius is 394 m say 400 m.
2.2 Solution:
a) The radius of the central curve . Adopt 500

m.
b) By interpolation the radius of entrance curve, R1 = 871 m
c) Length of the entrance curve is given by,
d) Deflection angle of the entrance curve,
e) Deflection angle of central curve,
f) Length of the central curve,
g) Required sight distance,
h) Available sight distance =
i) Fillet radii for 30 and 150 degree intersection angles can be 22.5 m and 60 m respectively
j) The plan of designed rapid exit taxiway is showed in fig.
3.1 Solution
Here the hottest month is June.
Hence mean of the maximum daily temperature, Tm=50° C
Mean of average daily temperature, Ta=40° C
Airport reference temperature,
3.2 Solution
Here mean of the maximum daily temperature,
∑
=
Mean of the average daily temperature,

∑
=
Airport reference temperature,
3.3 Solution
a) Corrections to runway take-off length:
 runway take-off length corrected for elevation = ( )
 runway take-off length corrected for elevation and temperature = 1760 x (24 – 14.025) x 0.01 1760
1 936 m
 check for the total correction for elevation plus temperature = ( )
 runway take-off length corrected for elevation, temperature and slope = 1 936 x 0.5 x 0.20 1936
2130 m
b) Correction to runway landing length:

 runway landing length corrected for elevation = ( )
c) Actual runway length = 2 175 m

3.4 solution
From Table the reference field length = 1800m
a) Correction factor for elevation =
 Corrected runway length for elevation = 1800 x 1.105 = 1989 m.
b) Temperature correction
 Standard temperature at airport site =
 Airport reference temperature =
 Rise in temperature
 Correction factor for temperature=
 Corrected runway length for elevation and temperature = 1989 x 1.0892 = 2166 m
c) Check for the total correction for elevation plus temperature=( )
d) Correction factor for gradient = 0.2 x 0.5 +1=1.1
e) Corrected runway length for elevation, temperature and gradient= 2166 x 1.1 = 2382.6 m
4.1 Solution
Here and
Single wheel load =
Now plot A ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
The line A-B intersecting CBR=10% line at point C gives ESWL 22950 kg.
4.2 Solution
a) Determination of design aircraft: Since the design aircraft is not necessarily the heaviest aircraft
in the forecast, the 727—200 requires the greatest pavement thickness and is thus the design
aircraft.
b) Group forecast traffic into landing gear of design aircraft. The design aircraft is equipped with
a dual wheel landing gear so all traffic must be grouped into the dual wheel configuration.
c) Convert aircraft to equivalent annual departures of the design aircraft: After the aircraft
mixture has been grouped into a common landing gear configuration, the equivalent annual
departures of the design aircraft can be calculated.
( )

Wheel Wheel Equivalent
Maximum
Forecast load on load of annual
take-off Conversion
A irc raf t Gear type annual Number main gear design departures
weight Factor
departures Dual Gear of (95%) aircraft design
(Kg) Departure wheels (Kg) (Kg) aircraft
727—100 dual 3760 72600 1 3760 4 17242.5 20543.75 1885.2
72 7—200 dual 9080 86500 1 9080 4 20543.75 20543.75 9080
707—320B dual tandem 3050 148500 1.7 5185 8 17634.375 20543.75 2764.9
DC-9-30 dual 5800 49000 1 5800 4 11637.5 20543.75 680
CV-880 dual tandem 400 83948 1.7 680 8 9968.825 20543.75 94
73 7—200 dual 2650 52440 1 2650 4 12454.5 20543.75 462.8
L—1011—100 dual tandem 1710 136100* 1.7 2907 8 16161.875 20543.75 1180.2
74 7—100 double dual tandem 85 136100* 1.7 144.5 8 16161.875 20543.75 82.4
16229.5
Design Aircraft: 727-200
*Wheel loads for wide body aircraft will be taken as the wheel load for a 300,000 lb (136,100 kg) aircraft for equivalent annual departure
calculations.
d) The pavement would be designed for 16230 annual departures of a dual wheel aircraft weighing 190500 lb (86,500 kg). The design should,
however, provide for the heaviest aircraft in the traffic mixture when considering depth of compaction, thickness of asphalt surface, drainage
structures, etc.

4.3. Solution:
a) Total pavement thickness. The total pavement thickness required is determined from Figure 40.
For subgrade value of CBR=6% and design aircraft 34000 kg and equivalent annual departure
6000, total pavement is found to be 51.2 cm,
b) Thickness of sub base course: for the sub-base CBR=20%
Base course + wearing course = 21.8 cm
Hence, thickness of sub-base = 51.2-21.8 = 29.40 cm
c) Thickness of bituminous surface:
o 10 cm for critical area
o 8 cm for non-critical area
d) Thickness of base course: Base course thickness = 21.8 – 10 = 11.8 cm
e) Check for minimum base course
For the total pavement thickness = 51.2 cm and CBR of subgrade = 6%, from figure 41, minimum
thickness of base course = 15 cm.
Since base course min (15cm) 11.8 cm, additional thickness required = 15-11.8 = 3.2 cm
Reduced sub-base thickness = 29.4 - 3.2 = 26.20 cm
f) Thickness of non-critical areas. The total pavement thickness for non-critical areas is obtained by
taking 0.9 of the critical pavement base and sub-base thickness plus the required bituminous
surface thickness given on the design charts. For the thinned edge portion of the critical and non-
critical pavements, the O.7T factor applies only to the base course because the sub-base should
allow for transverse drainage.
g) Summary. The thickness calculated in the above paragraphs should be rounded off to even
increments. If conditions for detrimental frost action exist, another analysis is required. The final
design thicknesses for this example would be as follows.
Layers Critical, cm Non-Critical, cm
Bituminous surface course 10 8
Base course 15 14
Sub-base course 27 25
Transverse drainage 0 8
4.4. Solution:
 The gross weight of the design aircraft dictates the use of a stabilized sub base.
 Several thicknesses of stabilized sub bases should be tried to determine the most economical
section. Assume a cement stabilized sub base will be used.
 Try a sub base thickness of 6 in (15 cm). Using Figure 43, a 6 in (15 cm) thickness would
likely increase the foundation modulus from 100 psi (25 MN/rn3) to 210 psi (57 MN/rn3).
 Using Figure 42 dual tandem design curve, with the assumed design data, yields a concrete
pavement thickness of 16.6 in (42 cm).
 This thickness would be rounded off 17 in (43 cm). Since the frost penetration is only 18 in
(45 cm) and the combined thickness of concrete pavement and stabilized sub—base is 23 in

(58 cm), no further frost protection is needed. Even though the wide body aircraft did not
control the thickness of the slab, the wide bodies would have to be considered in the
establishment of jointing requirements and design of drainage structures.
 Other stabilized sub base thicknesses should be tried to determine the most economical
section.
5.1 Solution
 From Figure 45 read the thickness of pavement needed for the aircraft mass of 157,400 kg and
the subgrade CBR of 10 as 57 cm; and
 Enter Figure 44 this thickness and read the ACN of aircraft for the subgrade CBR of 10 as 44.
5.2 Solution
 From figure 46 Read the thickness of concrete needed for the aircraft mass of 78,500 kg, the
subgrade k value of 80 MN/m3 , and the standard concrete stress of 2.75 MPa as 31.75 cm; and
 Enter Figure 47 with this thickness and read the ACN of the aircraft for the medium strength
subgrade as 48.
5.3 Solution PCN 80 / R / B / W / T
5.4 Solution PCN 50 / F / A / Y / U
5.5 Solution PCN 40 / F / B / 0.80 MPa /T
5.6 Solution
Based on the design procedure discussed earlier, it is found 1at the required thickness of new
pavement sections of rigid type are 24 cm and 30 cm for runway and taxiway locations.
he =15 cm
h for runway=24 cm
h for taxiway = 30 cm
F=0.9
Therefore,
Required rigid pavement overlay thickness for runway, T= 2.5 * (0.9*24-15) =16.5 cm
Required rigid pavement overlay thickness for taxiway, T= 2.5 * (0.9*30-15) =16.5 cm
Therefore,
Flexible overlay thickness = 16.5/1.5=11 cm
Flexible overlay thickness = 30/1.5=20 cm

5.7 Solution
The required thickness of rigid overlays over existing rigid pavements can be determined by the
equation
( )
Now in present case, hd = 20 cm, he = 10 cm
For the U.S. Crops of Engineers method, x = 1.4, y= 1.4, n = 1/1.4
i. When existing pavement is in good condition
In this case, the coefficient, C = 1
The total thickness may be given by
( )
Thus design of rigid overlay thickness is 15 cm
ii. When existing pavement is badly cracked

In this case, coefficient, C = 0.35
And overlay thickness may be given by
( )
Thus the design thickness of the overlay is 18 cm.

REFERENCES
Horonjeff. R and Mckelvey (2010), Planning and Design of Airports, McGraw Hill
Khanna, Arora and Jain, Airport Planning and Design, Nemchand and Bros.
Alexander T. Well, Ed.D. And Seth Young, Airport Planning and Management, McGraw Hill
Norman Ashford and Paul H. Wright (1992), Airport Engineering, A wiley-Intersection Publication
Virendra Kumar and satish Chand, Air Transportation Planning and Design,
A guide to Airfield Pavement Design and Evaluation (2nd edition, February 2006), Construction
Support Team, Defense Estates, Ministry of Defense
Capacity Development of Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal (April 2012), Inception report (draft
report)
Airport Passenger Terminal, Planning and Design (Volume 1: Guidebook), Transportation Research
Board
Common Airport Pavement Maintenance Practices, A Synthesis of Airport Practice, Transportation

Research Board
ICAO Annex 14, part 1, 2, 3 and 4
Lecture Slides of Dr.Punya Shakya, CAAN
Lecture Slide of Dr. Padma Bahadur Shahi, Assistant Dean, Pokhara University

Airport Planning and Design by sunil khyaju sir

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Airport Planning and Design

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Figure 1 Aircraft Components ....................................................................................................... 8

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Table 1 Minimum Turning Radii for Typical Passenger Aircraft ........................................... 13

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1.2Aircraft Component parts

Figure 1 Aircraft Components

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Figure 4 Ram Jet

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Figure 5 Three Controls

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1.3Aircraft Characteristics Related to Airport Planning and Design

Figure 7 Size of Aircraft

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Figure 8 Minimum Turning Radius

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1.4 Airport Master Plan

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1.4.1. FAA recommendations

 Organization and preplanning

1.4.2. ICAO recommendation:

 Prepare a master work plan

1.4.3. Regional Planning

1.5Airport site selection

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1.6 ICAO airport classification

Table 2 Airport Classification as per ICAO

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1.7.1 Conventional methods of forecasting

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1.7.2 Analytical forecasting method

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Annual Enplanements Area

Table 3 Enplanement Data for Airport Demand Forecast

Figure 9 Trend Analysis

1.7.3. Microanalysis of Air Travel

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Figure 11 Airport layout showing taxiway

2.2 Factors controlling taxiway layout

The following considerations decide the layout of taxiway:

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Design criteria for taxiway are given in the table below.

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Figure 13 Path of main gear on path

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2.3.3 Exit Taxiway

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The following principles govern the design of taxiway.

 A high turn-off speeds of 65 to 95 kmph (40 to 60 mph), a compound curve is necessary to

Figure 16 Radius of Curvature for Exit Taxiway

The value of C is 0.39.

Figure 17 Typical exit configuration

2.3.5 Separation Clearance

Figure 18 Separation Clearance for Parallel Taxiways

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