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 Rethinking Political Violence

Series Editor
Roger Mac Ginty
Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies
University of Manchester
Manchester, United Kingdom
This series provides a new space in which to interrogate and challenge
much of the conventional wisdom of political violence. International and
multidisciplinary in scope, this series explores the causes, types and effects
of contemporary violence connecting key debates on terrorism, insur-
gency, civil war and peace-making. The timely Rethinking Political
Violence offers a sustained and refreshing analysis reappraising some of
the fundamental questions facing societies in conflict today and under-
standing attempts to ameliorate the effects of political violence.

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/14499
 Mary Michele Connellan • Christiane Fröhlich
Editors

A Gendered Lens for

Genocide Prevention
Editors
Mary Michele Connellan Christiane Fröhlich
Juris Doctor Program Center for Earth System
Melbourne Law School Research and Sustainability
Melbourne, Australia Universität Hamburg
Hamburg, Germany

Rethinking Political Violence

ISBN 978-1-137-60116-2 ISBN 978-1-137-60117-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-60117-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951130

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
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translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
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tional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Photo by DANIELA NOBILI

Printed on acid-free paper

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The registered company is Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW,
United Kingdom
TO THE PEOPLE OF SYRIA
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book is the product of intense collaboration across disciplinary,

political and cultural boundaries between us, the editors, and our authors,
reviewers and publishers. We would like to thank the reviewers, who have
put tremendous work into engaging with individual chapters; the publish-
ers, who have given us the space to critically engage with a politically
pressing topic; the authors, who have dedicated time and energy to the
individual chapters; and our friends, family and mentors who have end-
lessly supported us.
We would like to explicitly thank Cordelia Moore, who helped us
immensely with the final editing of the book manuscript.

vii
 CONTENTS

1 A Gendered Lens for Genocide Prevention 1

Mary Michele Connellan and Christiane Fröhlich
Central Concepts: Genocide, Gender and Prevention 2
What Is a “Gendered Lens”? 3
The Book 5
References 9

2 The Problem of “Protecting Vulnerable Groups.”

Rethinking Vulnerability for Mass Atrocity and Genocide
Prevention 11
Mary Michele Connellan
Vulnerability and Protection 12
Gender and Violence 17
The International Legal Framework on Gender and Sexual
Violence 20
Conclusion 22
References 25

3 Men, Masculinities and Genocide 27

Henri Myrttinen
Using a Critical Masculinities Approach 29
Sex, Gender and the Gaps in the Legal Framework 30
Masculinities and Genocidal Ideologies 32
Masculinities and the Micro-Dynamics of Perpetration 35

ix
x CONTENTS

Victims and Survivors 38

Conclusion 40
References 45

4 Mothers and Monsters: Women, Gender, and Genocide 49

James Snow
Neglected Women 51
Visible Women: Framing Women Inside Genocide Narratives 54
Frame 1: Mothers 55
Frame 2: Women and Children 57
Frame 3: Women as Femmes Fatales 59
Frame 4: Monsters and Worse 61
Women Perpetrators: Moving Forward 65
Doing Gender 67
Doing Gender: Perpetrators 69
Conclusion 73
References 80

5 Sixty Years of Failing to Prosecute Sexual Crimes:

From Raphaël Lemkin at Nuremberg to Lubanga
at the International Criminal Court 83
Douglas Irvin-Erickson
Lemkin on Sexual Crimes 87
Lubanga: Sexual Crimes Before the ICC 92
Conclusion: The Failures of Justice 98
References 106

6 “We Are Not Part of Their War”: Hutu Women’s

Experiences of Rebel Life in the Eastern DRC Conflict 111
Anna Hedlund
Theoretical and Historical Overview: Gender and Genocide
in Rwanda 115
Genocide in Rwanda and the Refugee Crises in the DRC 116
A Short History of the FDLR 118
Analysis: Experiences of Violence: Women and Girls
in the FDLR 119
Living with Trauma and Fear 121
Victimization and Lack of Trust 122
 CONTENTS xi

Diverse Roles 123

Conclusion 124
References 130

7 A Century Apart: The Genocidal Enslavement

of Armenian and Yazidi Women 133
Nikki Marczak
Scope and Methodology 136
Background: The Victims, Perpetrators and Events 137
Sexual Enslavement 139
Cultural, Social and Biological Enslavement 144
Insights from the Comparative Analysis 148
References 158

Index 163
 CHAPTER 1

A Gendered Lens for Genocide Prevention

Mary Michele Connellan and Christiane Fröhlich

In this book, we develop, together with our authors, the concept of “a

gendered lens for genocide prevention” in order to provide innovative and
effective ways of understanding the role of gender in genocide studies, as
well as new tools for policymaking and preventative efforts. Our starting
point is that while gender has been recognized as a crucial factor in
understanding genocide and mass atrocities, most notably in the work of
Adam Jones,1 a specific gendered lens for genocide prevention is still
lacking in both policy and academia. Therefore, this book draws on
contemporary feminist theory, concepts of masculinity, critical discussions
of international law and in-depth case studies to uncover socially con-
structed gender roles which are crucial for the onset, form and prevention
of genocide and mass atrocities.
Following a sociology of knowledge approach, we consider knowledge
about genocide to be influenced by attitudes, interests and identities of
individuals, all of which shape the structure and extent of what is or can be

M.M. Connellan (*)

Juris Doctor Program, Melbourne Law School, Melbourne, Australia
e-mail: mary.michele.connellan@gmail.com
C. Fröhlich
University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
e-mail: Christiane.froehlich@uni-hamburg.de

© The Author(s) 2018 1

M.M. Connellan, C. Fröhlich (eds.), A Gendered Lens for Genocide
Prevention, Rethinking Political Violence,
DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-60117-9_1
2 M.M. CONNELLAN AND C. FRÖHLICH

known about genocide. As Cushman stated, “[g]enocide is an objective

reality, but it is one which people approach with a variety of personal,
ideological and disciplinary dispositions which shape what we know about
this all-too-real phenomenon.”2 With this book, we aim to dismantle
some of the social and institutional processes which play a role in creating
knowledge about genocide; these can be understood as evidence-based
representations of nature, socio-cultural relations and behavior. On this
basis, even more importantly, we aim to uncover how genocide and mass
atrocities become accepted practices in a given group and setting; one of
these processes is the development of socially constructed gender roles and
their interaction with violent and non-violent behavior. We believe that
this knowledge is a prerequisite for the development of effective preventa-
tive efforts.

CENTRAL CONCEPTS: GENOCIDE, GENDER AND PREVENTION

Crucially, we recognize genocide and mass atrocity not as static phenom-
ena, fixed across space and time, but as deeply dependent on context and
perception. In accordance with Theriault,3 we underline the necessity to
historically situate events or processes, and the key role of the respective
“prevailing ethical views of a time and place.”4 We see genocide and mass
atrocities as contingent, unpredictable and as a product of human agency.5
While gender too is transient, we nevertheless find that intersectional
markers of difference like class, ethnicity, age or gender are relevant for
understanding the perpetration and victimization caused by genocide and
mass atrocities, in order to gain an insight into their mechanisms and
characteristics.
Our understanding of gender is as the socio-culturally and politico-
economically constructed roles and responsibilities ascribed to men and
women which change over time, are context and history-specific and are
inseparable from power relations.6
As mentioned, our ambition with this book is to provide knowledge
about possible entry points for genocide and mass atrocity prevention.
This indicates our fundamental belief that atrocities are preventable, and a
more comprehensive knowledge about their mechanisms and character-
istics will benefit future prevention efforts. In this sense, we are part of
what Cushman has termed “preventionism.”7 However, answering his
critique of preventionism as “an ideology which pervades the liberal
project of modernity and the social sciences which are part of that
 A GENDERED LENS FOR GENOCIDE PREVENTION 3

project,”8 this book aims to critically reflect on the anthropo-, andro- and
eurocentric characteristics of traditional ideas of genocide and to develop a
new, more holistic and comprehensive perspective through what we call a
gendered lens for genocide prevention.

WHAT IS A “GENDERED LENS”?

Central to our conceptual argument is that by defining genocide in a static
and traditional way, most commonly as the systematic killing of men and
boys at fighting age (between ages 16 and 60), other, equally genocidal
violence, like systematic sexual violence as a tool of ethnic de- or re-
population, the destruction of communities and genocidal dispersion9
evade adequate recognition and intervention. As Adam Jones writes:
“Focusing on genocide as traditionally viewed ( . . . ) tends to give short
shrift to mass atrocities against females, who are more likely to be raped
and/or enslaved in such conflicts than they are to be killed outright.”10
The related term “gendercide” was coined by Mary Anne Warren, who
defined it as follows:

. . . gendercide [is] the deliberate extermination of persons of a particular sex

(or gender). Other terms, such as “gynocide” and “femicide,” have been
used to refer to the wrongful killing of girls and women. But “gendercide” is
a sex-neutral term, in that the victims may be either male or female. There is
a need for such a sex-neutral term, since sexually discriminatory killing is just
as wrong when the victims happen to be male. The term also calls attention
to the fact that gender roles have often had lethal consequences, and that
these are in important respects analogous to the lethal consequences of
racial, religious, and class prejudice.11

Adam Jones later explored the concept of gendercide to include the idea
that “civilian males of an imputed ‘fighting age’ were especially vulnerable
to genocidal massacre,”12 thereby adding the masculine perspective to the
originally women-centered idea of a gendercide.
What this book adds to the discussion is a focus on prevention. Our
particular kind of a gendered lens for genocide analysis is centered around
the understanding that throughout the process of genocide, there are
various entry points for prevention. Many scholars and institutions13
have developed different frameworks for prevention, notably Gregory
Stanton’s ten-stage approach, which follows the process of genocide, as
4 M.M. CONNELLAN AND C. FRÖHLICH

“predictable but inexorable,” one that is not linear, where “stages may
occur simultaneously.”14 While Stanton’s approach is useful and informa-
tive, it is lacking an inclusion of the role gender plays in each of the
proposed ten stages. Stanton focuses particularly on genocide, whereas
this book considers mass atrocities and genocide prevention simulta-
neously, because we believe that the role gender plays in both processes
is essentially similar. As such, we suggest an approach to genocide preven-
tion similar to Stanton’s, with the addition of the following indicators, or
entry points, for prevention at each stage. These indicators should likewise
be applied to any framework for mass atrocity prevention:

– Direct references by agents of genocide or mass atrocity to gendered

roles or expectations;
– Changes in traditional gender roles, particularly increased represen-
tations of the violent masculine;
– Increased cases of sexual or gender-related violence;
– Intimidation tactics based on gender roles;
– Gendered imbalances in survivors and the social, economic and
cultural implications; and
– Gendered differences in reprisals during and after genocide.

The contributions to this book engage with these entry points on different
levels and from different perspectives, with the overarching goal of oper-
ationalizing them in order to improve prevention and mitigation efforts in
situations of genocide and mass atrocities. In this sense, the concept of
intersectionality is particularly useful; it can help to identify ways of
approaching genocide prevention differently and more effectively.
While this is not in itself a new perspective – feminist approaches have
long been characterized by the critical evaluation of intersections between
gender and other power structures15 – intersectionality as a concept has
never actually entered mainstream social sciences.16 This book aims to
show that both research and policymaking would benefit from critical
engagement with post-colonial, anti-racist and post-structural ideas that
have informed the concept of intersectionality. Power intersections are
evident in all relations and on all levels of human interaction, for example,
in institutional practices or individual decision-making. The key element
in power intersections is social in- and exclusion based on markers of
difference, and, crucially, these markers serve as the basis for the definition
of what is “normal,”, while at the same time revealing underlying power
 A GENDERED LENS FOR GENOCIDE PREVENTION 5

structures, which are often portrayed as “natural.”17 Such structures

determine individual or group access to material and virtual resources,
they influence societal structures and institutions, and they are reproduced
through daily social practices. What is more, these structures often under-
pin processes of violence and vulnerability. This book therefore develops
alternative ways of explaining and understanding social processes like
identity formation, the gendered nature of everyday practices and the
co-constitutive character of social roles and different positions of power
in a given society and context.

THE BOOK
The book’s framework is applied to a diverse range of topics by our
authors, covering not only historic cases of genocide and its treatment
by international law, for instance the Holocaust, the Red Khmer and
Rwanda, but also contemporary cases like mass atrocities committed
against Yazidis in Iraq and Syria.
In her conceptual chapter, Mary Connellan highlights the significance
of the interplay between norms of recognition of genocide and experi-
ences of vulnerability and violence. Using a feminist approach influenced
by the work of Judith Butler, she draws attention to the problems asso-
ciated with the notion of “protecting vulnerable groups,” and decon-
structs ideas of “protection” and “vulnerability,” analyzing the relation
between gender and violence and addressing the international legal frame-
work on gender and sexual violence. Crucially, Connellan asks who shall
be protected, by whom and how? The ways power and vulnerability are
inherited by states and individuals are central to her discussion, and
provide vantage points for the in-depth analysis of the key subjects of
recognition and violence.
Henri Myrttinen uncovers both the gendered invisibility in and the
centrality of men, boys and masculinities in acts and processes of genocide.
He outlines how taking a critical masculinities approach can help in under-
standing the complex relationship between gender norms and mass atro-
cities. Although men play central roles as perpetrators, victims, survivors,
enablers, bystanders and witnesses, they are seldom analyzed as gendered
beings, with expectations projected onto them by society and in part
internalized by themselves. These projections interact with age, class,
sexual orientation, dis-/ability, as well as ethnic or religious background.
In a situation of genocide or mass atrocity, these may push one group of
6 M.M. CONNELLAN AND C. FRÖHLICH

men to become perpetrators, and force others into a position as targets of

violence. By outlining such an intersectional, critical approach to mascu-
linities at the macro- and micro-levels of perpetration, Myrttinen offers the
required tools to develop a more nuanced understanding of the dynamics
of violence as well as of the gendered ideologies underpinning genocide.
James Snow critically engages with the ways women are framed in
genocide studies as well as in media narratives of genocide, thereby ques-
tioning gender stereotypes and how genocide is “seen” and understood.
Focusing on the genocide in Rwanda and its aftermath, including the
prosecution of perpetrators, Snow analyzes how gender stereotypes direct
the way women are viewed primarily as targets and victims of violence,
while turning a blind eye to female perpetrators. In the rare case that
women are acknowledged as actual or potential perpetrators of genocide,
they are confined to one of two frames: Either they are cast as femmes
fatales, or they are constructed as monsters and sometimes mother-mon-
sters. Using the case of Pauline Nyiramasuhuko, Snow shows that female
perpetrators are portrayed as “mother-monsters” in a way that recalls and
parallels the mother-monster of Greek mythology, Medea. Snow counters
this simplification and mythologization by operationalizing West and
Zimmerman’s framework of “doing gender” to illuminate that we need
to focus on specific and local factors that might explain women’s partici-
pation in genocide, to better assuage or prevent mass atrocities.
Douglas Irvin-Erickson reminds the reader that the world’s first geno-
cide prevention framework explicitly considered gender crimes and sexual
violence to be acts of genocide, a fact often overlooked today because they
were removed from the genocide discussion in the aftermath of the
Second World War. Irvin-Erickson highlights the challenges arising from
this for genocide prevention and persecution efforts during and after the
Cold War. For instance, in the trial of Thomas Lubanga Dyilo at the
International Criminal Court (ICC) and the trial of Khieu Samphan and
Nuon Chea at the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
(ECCC), which are widely acknowledged as landmark cases in interna-
tional criminal law, the defendants were convicted of war crimes and
crimes against humanity, but cleared of all charges for sexual violence,
outraging observers and human rights advocates who widely considered
them to have facilitated mass rape in the Democratic Republic of Congo
and Cambodia. Irvin-Erickson argues that the two primary reasons why
the prosecution of rape and other sexual crimes failed in both cases at the
ICC and ECCC were the same challenges to the prosecution of sexual
 A GENDERED LENS FOR GENOCIDE PREVENTION 7

crimes that Raphaël Lemkin identified when he urged his colleagues at

Nuremberg to prosecute Nazi defendants for sexual crimes. Irvin-Erickson
pays particular attention to Lemkin’s insistence that prosecutors should
present sexual crimes as integral to larger criminal programs, so that
leaders can be held accountable in international criminal courts for acts
of sexual crimes without having to prove a direct causal link between high-
ranking defendants and the acts of sexual crimes committed by low-level
perpetrators.
Anna Hedlund interrogates the dispersal of mass atrocities from
Rwanda to the Congo and how gendered power structures influence the
practices of memorializing genocide in rebel camps. She thus turns our
attention from the male soldiers of the Democratic Forces for the
Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), who have received great attention over
the years in human rights reports and academic literature, to the margin-
alized refugee population – women, elders and children – who move about
with the rebels. Building on several months of anthropological fieldwork
in a rebel camp of the FDLR in the Congo, Hedlund paints a detailed
picture of the diverse roles women hold in the camp and the group based
on their individual history, background, age, ethnicity and recruitment
experience. By including women’s voices into the analysis of the FDLR,
Hedlund shows that some women are victims under FDLRs control and
have traumatic memories and experiences of forced recruitment and vio-
lence, whereas other women are active participants in mobilizing violence
and share the group’s military, ideological and political goals to return to
their home country, Rwanda. The chapter shows that applying a gendered
lens to the FDLR, the Rwandan genocide and its aftermath can provide
policymakers and organizations working to prevent violence and genocide
with a better understanding of how gender and societal roles are lived and
performed inside an armed group in contexts of ongoing violence.
Nikki Marczak explores the enslavement of women as a genocidal
strategy against Armenian and Yazidi communities during genocides a
century apart. By applying a gendered lens to both genocides, Marczak
uncovers important parallels: Both peoples have endured the horrors of
genocide, sexual violence, trafficking, forced marriage and forced mater-
nity. Genocidal enslavement of women deprives them not only of physical
freedom, but of their culture, identity and community, potentially leading
to social death. Both cases show how genocide is as much about restricting
the future potential of a group via biological, sexual and cultural strategies
of destruction, as it is about the physical murder of existing members.
8 M.M. CONNELLAN AND C. FRÖHLICH

Marczak shows that the gendered nature of the Yazidi genocide follows a
similar trajectory as the Armenian genocide and explores how an aware-
ness of their parallels may be useful for intervention. She outlines how the
use of forced conversion and assimilation, forced marriage and impregna-
tion, sexual slavery and sexual violence, were and are underpinned by
gendered and ideological concepts, designed to destroy the group’s bio-
logical, cultural and social infrastructure; the identification of which may
serve as important indicators for preventative efforts.
In bringing together the diversity of case studies and conceptual
frameworks within the framework of a gendered lens for genocide, we
hope to provide new ways of approaching genocide and mass atrocity in
both research and policy. The book does not attempt to offer a single or
particular solution to preventing genocide and mass atrocities, but rather
highlights the fact that it is prevention that should be at the forefront of
both academic work and political initiatives. We propose that any future
work on genocide and mass atrocity prevention should involve a better
understanding of how gendered roles interact with violence at different
stages, and how working with this knowledge can assist prevention
efforts.

NOTES
1. Adam Jones (ed.). Gendercide and genocide (Nashville: Vanderbilt
University Press, 2004), and Adam Jones, “Gendercide: Examining gen-
der-based crimes against women and men,” Clinics in Dermatology 31: 2
(2013): 226.
2. Tom Cushman, “Is genocide preventable? Some theoretical considera-
tions,” Journal of Genocide Research 5:4 (2003): 523.
3. Henry Theriault, “Against the grain: Critical reflections on the state and
future of genocide scholarship,” Genocide Studies and Prevention 7:1
(2012): 124f.
4. Ibid.
5. See Cushman, “Genocide,” 524.
6. See Christiane Fröhlich and Giovanna Gioli, “Gender, conflict and global
environmental change.” Peace Review – A Journal of Social Justice 27: 2
(2015).
7. Cushman, “Genocide,” 524.
8. Ibid.
9. Theriault, “Against the grain,” 125.
10. Jones, “Gendercide,” 227.
 A GENDERED LENS FOR GENOCIDE PREVENTION 9

11. Mary Anne Warren, Gendercide: The implications of sex selection (Totowa,
NJ: Rowman & Allanheld, 1985): 22.
12. Jones, “Gendercide,” 227.
13. For example the UN Office for the Special Advisor on Genocide Prevention.
14. Gregory H. Stanton originally presented as a briefing paper, “The Eight
Stages of Genocide” at the US State Department in 1996. Discrimination
and Persecution have since been added to the 1996 model. See, http://
www.genocidewatch.org/genocide/tenstagesofgenocide.html.
15. Anna Kaijser and Annica Kronsell, “Climate change through the lens of
intersectionality.” Environmental Politics 23: 3 (2013): 419.
16. For instance K Crenshaw, “Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity
politics, and violence against women of color,” Stanford Law Review 43:6
(1991), and Pinar Bilgin, Identity/Security (The Routledge Handbook of
New Security Studies, ed. by J. P. Burgess, Routledge, 2010).
17. Gabriele Winker and Nina Degele, “Intersectionality as multi-level analysis:
Dealing with social inequality,” European Journal of Women’s Studies 18:1
(2011): 51.

REFERENCES
Bilgin, Pinar. Identity/Security. The Routledge Handbook of New Security
Studies, (edited by) J. P. Burgess. London and New York: Routledge, 2010,
pp. 81–89.
Crenshaw, Kimberlé. “Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics,
and violence against women of color.” Stanford Law Review 43:6 (1991),
1241–1299.
Cushman, Tom. “Is genocide preventable? Some theoretical considerations.”
Journal of Genocide Research 5:4 (2003), 523–542.
Fröhlich, Christiane, and Giovanna Gioli. “Gender, conflict and global environmen-
tal change.” Peace Review – A Journal of Social Justice 27:2 (2015), 127–136.
Jones, Adam (ed.). Gendercide and Genocide. Nashville: Vanderbilt University
Press, 2004.
Jones, Adam. “Gendercide: Examining gender-based crimes against women and
men.” Clinics in Dermatology 31:2 (2013), 226–229.
Kaijser, Anna, and Annica Kronsell “Climate change through the lens of inter-
sectionality.” Environmental Politics 23:3 (2013), 417–433.
Theriault, Henry. “Against the grain: Critical reflections on the state and
future of genocide scholarship.” Genocide Studies and Prevention 7:1
(2012), 123–144.
Warren, Mary Anne. Gendercide: The Implications of Sex Selection. Totowa, NJ:
Rowman & Allanheld, 1985.
10 M.M. CONNELLAN AND C. FRÖHLICH

Winker, Gabriele, and Nina Degele “Intersectionality as multi-level analysis:

Dealing with social inequality.” European Journal of Women’s Studies 18:1
(2011), 51–66.

Mary Michele Connellan is a final-year law student at Melbourne Law School,

Australia. She has a Masters from the University of Barcelona in Citizenship and
Human Rights, and a Bachelors in International Studies from Adelaide University,
Australia. Mary has worked in genocide and mass atrocity prevention policy and
presented papers at international conferences.

Christiane Fröhlich is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Hamburg,

Germany. She holds a PhD from the Center for Conflict Studies at Marburg
University. Her work has been published, among others, in Migration and
Development, Global Policy, Contemporary Levant as well as a number of edited
volumes. More information is available at www.christianefroehlich.de.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
ignition systems; Transmission; Tractor arrangement; Lubrication;
Tractor operation; Engine maintenance; Locating trouble; Causes of
trouble. The book is indexed and carefully illustrated.

[2]
WHITMAN, WALT. Gathering of the forces. il
2v *$15 Putnam 814

The books contain the editorials, essays, literary and dramatic

reviews and other material written by Walt Whitman as editor of the
Brooklyn Daily Eagle in 1846 and 1847. The editors of the collection
are Cleveland Rodgers and John Black, the latter contributing a
foreword, inspired by the spirit of Whitman, and the former a sketch
of Whitman’s life and work. The contents fall into seven parts with
classification of the articles as follows: Part 1—Democracy: American
democracy; Europe and America; Government; Patriotism. Part 2—
Humanity: Hanging, prison reform, unfortunates; Education,
children; Labor, female labor; Emigrants; England’s oppression of
Ireland. Part 3—Slavery and the Mexican war: The extension of
slavery; The union of states; War with Mexico; The Oregon boundary
dispute. Part 4—Politics; Political controversies; Two local political
campaigns; Civic interests; Free trade and the currency system. Part
5—Essays, personalities, short editorials; General essays;
Personalities of the time; “The art of health”; Short editorials;
Whitman as a paragrapher. Part 6—Literature, book reviews, drama,
etc. Part 7—Two short stories not included in Whitman’s published
works: The love of Eris; A legend of life and love. The books are
illustrated and indexed.

Reviewed by E. F. Edgett
 Boston Transcript p4 D 24 ’20 1550w

“To those who knew him only by his great and minor poems or by
the stories of his vanities and eccentricities, these volumes will be a
revelation. They reveal his soul as it grew; and nothing will be more
surprising than their conventional form, their respect for the current
conventions of morality, and their unforced and clear style.” M. F.
Egan

+ N Y Times p2 Ja 2 ’21 3000w

“It is a human document, a great side-light on Whitman’s poems,

and incidentally, a mine of information on a host of matters of
temporary and local interest.” F: T. Cooper

+ Pub W 99:168 Ja 15 ’21 600w

WHO was who. *$6.50 Macmillan 920

(Eng ed 20–14622)

“This book fills the gap between the standard biographical

dictionaries and the current Who’s who. It contains the notices,
reprinted from former volumes of Who’s who, of those more or less
well-known persons who died between 1897 and 1916, with the dates
of their deaths. It runs to nearly eight hundred pages of small
type.”—Spec
 “There is no reason why ‘Who was who’ should not be a democratic
work instead of what it is now. There is even no reason why it should
not be readable. Accidental exclusion must always occur; deliberate
ought never. We commend to the editors the ‘Modern English
biography’ of Frederic Boase, as a model of hard fact, of brevity, and
yet of amplitude. At the same time, we recognize the greatness of
their task and the great usefulness (in the right quarter) of their
volume.”

+ − Ath p79 Jl 16 ’20 280w

Reviewed by Ralph Bergengren

Boston Transcript p4 S 22 ’20 2250w

+ − Sat R 130:40 Jl 10 ’20 370w

“As a work of reference it will be found exceedingly useful, all the

more because many of the persons named will never figure in the
‘Dictionary of national biography’ if, as we hope, that great work
should be continued.”

+ Spec 124:88 Jl 17 ’20 90w

“Apart from its utility as an indispensable book of reference for the

man of affairs, ‘Who was who’ will remain as a permanent store
house of information about the personalities of one of the most
important and critical epochs of British history.”

+ The Times [London] Lit Sup p458 Jl 15

’20 220w
 WIDDEMER, MARGARET (MRS ROBERT
HAVEN SCHAUFFLER). Boardwalk. *$1.60
(3½c) Harcourt

20–773

Omitting all the rose-garden atmosphere of her novels, Margaret

Widdemer has written a series of short stories about boys and girls of
high school age. The scene is one of the summer resort towns along
the Atlantic coast during the months of the year when the boardwalk
belongs to the young people who live there the year round. The titles
are: Changeling; Rosabel Paradise; Don Andrews’ girl; Black magic;
The congregation; The fairyland heart; Good times; Oh, Mr
Dreamman; Devil’s hall.

“Clear cut, interesting little sketches into which the same people
step again and again until one knows quite the whole village.”

+ Booklist 16:173 F ’20

“We must admit of them all that they piece together with their
small tragedies and happinesses into what seems a very truthful
representation of an American town. Whether or not these stories
meet with the immediate popularity of ‘The rose garden husband,’ it
must be conceded that Miss Widdemer has done a more difficult
thing and revealed a more mature and a surer art.” D. L. M.

+ Boston Transcript p6 Ja 21 ’20 850w

“It is a sordid, tawdry, unwholesome atmosphere, the sort of

atmosphere that one would shun if the ideas back of the stories and
their psychology, for they are primarily stories of character, were not
really interesting. Is the skill with which it is done a sufficient excuse
for painting dead fish and tinsel?”

− + Ind 102:374 Je 12 ’20 190w

“Her delving into the substrata of inarticulate being is sometimes

faltering, and her presentation of the less obvious springs of human
emotion is not always convincing, but her distinct penchant for
transferring to paper the elusive quality of personality is
undeniable.”

+ − N Y Times 25:145 Mr 28 ’20 650w

“On the whole, it is a strong and searching collection.”

+ Springf’d Republican p11a Mr 7 ’20

420w

WIDDEMER, MARGARET (MRS ROBERT

HAVEN SCHAUFFLER), comp. Haunted hour.
*$1.75 Harcourt 821.08

20–5609

The little volume presents an anthology of ghost-poems and

contains only such poems as treat of the return of spirits to earth.
Even so no attempt has been made at inclusiveness, but the
selections range from the earliest ballads to the present time. With
an opening poem by Nora Hopper Chesson: “The far away country,”
the poems are arranged under the headings: “The nicht atween the
sancts an’ souls”; “All the little sighing souls”; Shadowy heroes;
“Rank on rank of ghostly soldiers”; Sea ghosts; Cheerful spirits;
Haunted places; “You know the old, while I know the new”; “My love
that was so true”; Shapes of doom; Legends and ballads of the dead.
There is an index.

+ Booklist 16:272 My ’20

+ Nation 111:278 S 4 ’20 70w

“A most unusual anthology of real merit and charm.”

+ Springf’d Republican p10 Ap 29 ’20

120w

WIDDEMER, MARGARET (MRS ROBERT

HAVEN SCHAUFFLER). I’ve married Marjorie.
*$1.75 (3c) Harcourt

20–13699

Married in haste, Marjorie Ellison has had ample leisure to repent

while her soldier husband has been away in France. Now on the eve
of his return she is badly upset at the thought of the reunion. When
Francis comes, it is as bad as she had feared. With the best intentions
on both sides, he frightens her, and she hurts him. Hot tempers and
strained nerves almost complete a tragedy of separation. But Francis
is really in love with Marjorie and so he ventures on an experiment
before giving her up entirely. In a delightful spot in the Canadian
woods, his scheme is tried out, a scheme which leads through storm
and stress to final joy and happiness for both.

“This will be liked by young girls and many women, though some
readers will find it light and sentimental.”

+ − Booklist 17:75 N ’20

“Her theme in ‘I’ve married Marjorie’ is cut from the sheerest

gossamer material. Also it possesses all the old essential ingredients
of cuteness, wistful humor and the necessary serious touch that
brings the theme to a sweet conclusion. But there is a sparkling
sanity about it.”

+ N Y Times p27 Ag 22 ’20 550w

“A lively and amusing tale. Not a big book nor a provable story, but
agreeable ‘summer reading.’”

+ Outlook 126:67 S 8 ’20 80w

Wis Lib Bul 16:196 N ’20 70w

WIENER, LEO. Africa and the discovery of

America. 2v ea $5 Innes & sons 970

20–7013
 The book is archaeological and etymological, showing how many of
the plants believed to have been indigenous to America, and how
much of the language and customs of the Indians, have an African
origin. Besides a long list of the sources quoted, illustrations, a word
and a subject index, the book contains: The journal of the first
voyage and the first letter of Columbus; The second voyage; Tobacco;
The bread roots.

“It is unfortunate that one so well trained in this field of study

should not have undertaken to present his material in a more logical
and readable manner. He is not always convincing, and is often
dogmatic.” E. L. Stevenson

+ − Am Hist R 26:102 O ’20 550w

“It is not to be expected that a work like this can pass

unchallenged, and the soundest of criticism and the most profound
of scholarship should be invoked before an exact estimate can be
made of its value. But the erudition displayed in this volume is
enough to make us wait with impatience Professor Wiener’s second
volume.” G. H. S.

+ Boston Transcript p8 N 13 ’20 1050w

“Worthless as a scholarly contribution, the book provides the

psychologist with a valuable example of distorted erudition and
methodological incompetence.”

− Dial 69:213 Ag ’20 90w

“His book indicates the widest scholarship.” W. E. B. Du Bois

 + Nation 111:350 S 25 ’20 390w

WIGMORE, JOHN HENRY. Problems of law;

its past, present, and future. *$1.50 Scribner 340

20–26999

“Professor Wigmore discusses the law’s evolution, its mechanism

in America, and its problems as they relate to world legislation and
America’s share therein. These lectures constituted one series of the
Barbour-Page foundation lectures at the University of Virginia.” (N Y
Evening Post) “It is assumed by Dean Wigmore that a new age is at
hand, for which a considerable amount of new legislation will be
required, and in view of this fact he urges that our legislators must be
made experts ‘(1) by reducing their numbers, (2) by giving them
longer terms, (3) by paying them enough to justify it [that is,
apparently, the work of legislation] as a career for men of talent, (4)
by making their sessions continuous.’” (Review)

“Three clarifying lectures for the thoughtful layman.”

+ Booklist 17:96 D ’20

“Dean Wigmore demonstrates anew the wide range of his

intellectual rummaging and the queer quirks of his marvelous mind.
The second lecture on ‘Methods of law making’ is intelligible and
sensible.”

+ − Nation 111:568 N 17 ’20 500w

 + N Y Evening Post p26 O 23 ’20 90w

Reviewed by E: S. Corwin

Review 3:449 N 10 ’20 250w

WILDE, OSCAR FINGALL O’FLAHERTIE

WILLS. Critic in Pall Mall. *$1.50 Putnam 824

(Eng ed A20–616)

A selection from the reviews and miscellaneous writings of Oscar

Wilde made by E. V. Lucas. The papers were contributed to the Irish
Monthly, Pall Mall Gazette, Woman’s World and other journals and
date from 1877 to 1890. At the end under the heading Sententiæ Mr
Lucas has grouped a number of briefer extracts from other reviews.

“The extent to which Wilde was a deliberate poseur is made very

clear by this book, for here there is very little pose. In these reviews,
chiefly from the Pall Mall Gazette, we see Wilde as a critic with
strong common sense, general good taste and with an outlook on life
and literature sufficiently ordinary to be indistinguishable from that
of half-a-hundred other critics of his time and of ours.”

+ − Ath p1258 N 28 ’19 600w

“It has all his delights and all his superficialities and all his faults.”

+ − Dial 69:212 Ag ’20 110w

 “There is nothing especially characteristic about the collection
except, perhaps, a lightness of touch that distinguishes its contents
from the ordinary book-review, and while they reveal the delicacy of
Wilde’s taste and the sincerity of his delight in art and letters they
reveal his limitations, also, and the shallowness of his intellectual
draught.”

+ − Freeman 1:430 Jl 14 ’20 250w

“There is certainly no adequate reason why these forgotten

writings of Oscar Wilde should be sought out and set in order, and
sent forth in a seemly little tome of two hundred pages. Their
resurrection does not add anything to his reputation, nor does it
detract anything. It does not enlarge our knowledge of the writer or
cast any new light upon the character of the man.” Brander Matthews

− + N Y Times 25:69 F 8 ’20 3400w

“These modest criticisms impress one collectively as good-natured,

orthodox, and sensible. Its art vibrates between distinction and
mediocrity—which is another way of saying that it is
undistinguished.”

+ − Review 3:152 Ag 18 ’20 330w

“Collections of this kind usually do no honour to their author. But

in this case the result is a contribution to literature; in the first place,
because the selection has been made by Mr E. V. Lucas, and in the
second place, because it illustrates not only Wilde’s gift for perverse
banter, but also his genuine scholarship and his ability to perform
plain, downright work in an honest, craftsmanlike way.”
 + Spec 124:492 Ap 10 ’20 1450w

“These chapters are slight, but they are models of literary criticism
of the less formal and serious type. Apart from style their superiority
over the contemporary causerie lies chiefly, perhaps, in the cultivated
background that they denote in the writer and presuppose in the
reader.”

+ Springf’d Republican p8 Je 10 ’20 800w

The Times [London] Lit Sup p605 O 30
’19 1350w

WILDMAN, EDWIN. Famous leaders of

industry. il *$2 (3c) Page 926

20–3587

This is a book for boys about boys who have gained success,
wealth, honor, and prestige in the business world. It contains more
than twenty-six sketches of successful men, among them: Philip
Danforth Armour—California pioneer and Chicago packing king; P.
T. Barnum—the world’s greatest showman; Alexander Graham Bell—
immortal telephone inventor, and humanitarian; James Buchanan
Duke—American tobacco and cigarette king; Henry Ford—the
Aladdin of the automobile industry; Hudson Maxim—poet,
philosopher, and wizard of high explosives; John Davison
Rockefeller,—oil king and world’s greatest industrial leader; John
Wanamaker—America’s foremost retail merchant and originator of
the department store; Orville and Wilbur Wright—who achieved
immortal fame as airship inventors. A portrait accompanies each
sketch.

+ Booklist 16:317 Je ’20

“In these conventionally laudatory portraits of a group of

American inventors and business men there is no departure from the
old Sunday school type of ‘helpful’ stories for the young except in a
decided journalistic snappiness of style.” E. S.

+ Survey 44:323 My 29 ’20 140w

WILKINSON, MRS MARGUERITE OGDEN

(BIGELOW). Bluestone. *$1.50 Macmillan 811

20–11184

A volume of lyrics. In her preface the author touches on the

relation of lyric poetry to music as she employs it in the composition
of her poems. Contents: Bluestone; Songs from beside swift rivers;
Songs of poverty; Preferences; Love songs; Songs of an empty house;
Songs of laughter and tears; Whims for poets; California poems; The
pageant.

“Songs with a wide appeal because they are mostly ‘themes of the
folk.’ The appreciation of nature and outdoor feeling are keen.”

+ Booklist 17:63 N ’20

 “There is an undoubted poetic element in these poems of Mrs
Wilkinson, but it is dew rather than flame. And being excellently
even in craftsmanship, there is no poem that fails to satisfy the
reader’s interest in being what it is.” W: S. Braithwaite

+ Boston Transcript p6 Jl 31 ’20 1050w

“Marguerite Wilkinson has decided moral and metrical spring

without conspicuous originality; though she is deeply touching here
in Songs of an empty house, on the childless state.” M. V. D.

+ − Nation 111:248 Ag 28 ’20 70w

“Mrs Wilkinson undoubtedly possesses a deal of talent; it is

evident throughout her work, cropping out in felicitous stanzas here
and rhythmical lines there, but she allows an occasional triteness to
retard the success of the book as a whole.”

+ − N Y Times p16 N 7 ’20 590w

Spec 125:280 Ag 28 ’20 560w

WILLARD, FLORENCE, and GILLETT,

[2]
LUCY HOLCOMB. Dietetics for high schools. il
*$1.32 Macmillan 613.2

20–12948

“Home economics teachers will be interested to learn that a much

needed textbook of dietetics has recently appeared. The content of
the book is especially significant in view of the experience of both
authors as teachers of the subject and of one of them as worker with
actual problems of malnutrition and of family feeding on low
incomes in the Association for improving the condition of the poor.
The book starts with a comparison of the weights and heights of the
girls in the class with the standards for their ages. Following this is a
study of food values as to fuel, protein, mineral, vitamines, and the
requirements of a good diet. Following the general study of the basis
for planning meals, the authors make an interesting and concrete
section of the book by selecting a family containing children of
various ages and discussing the marketing problems of this family.
The high-school girl thus makes application of her earlier nutrition
study to actual food purchase for the family’s need.”—School R

“This book is a distinct contribution to the very small group of

elementary textbooks in nutrition. The work is accurate and up-to-
date. The points are supported and illustrated by suitable tables and
charts in such number as to constitute a unique feature of a
beginner’s book in nutrition. One specially commendable feature is
the fact that it may be used quite as appropriately as a textbook for
boys as for girls.” M. S. Rose

+ J Home Econ 12:513 N ’20 300w

“A splendid and thoroughly scientific body of material makes the

book a well-rounded and teachable text.”

+ School R 28:798 D ’20 360w

WILLIAMS, ARIADNA TYRKOVA- (MRS

HAROLD WILLIAMS). From liberty to Brest-
Litovsk. *$6 Macmillan 947

19–18461

“This is a narrative of events from the first uprisings of the

revolution in March, 1917, to the ratification of the peace with
Germany a year later. Herself a member of the Petrograd municipal
council and the Moscow conference, Mrs Williams has described in
detail the cabinet crises and political vicissitudes of the provisional
government and the steady trend of the socialist center toward
bolshevism. Less complete is her account of the first months of the
bolshevist régime and its negotiations with Germany at Brest-
Litovsk.”—Survey

Ath p1275 N 28 ’19 220w

“Although the book is emotionally coloured with righteous anger

and hatred towards the Bolsheviks, we cannot but welcome it as an
honest attempt to narrate the history of the first year of the Russian
revolution.” S. K.

+ − Ath p1367 D 19 ’19 1100w

“The facts here recorded will be most impressive to all who keep
even an approximately open mind on the Russian question.”

+ − Ind 102:66 Ap 10 ’20 150w

 “She might have made her book a skilful and telling arraignment of
her political opponents if she could have restrained her quite
intelligible hatred and indignation. She betrays her prejudice and
weakens her case most seriously in loading on the Bolsheviki the
blame for all that Russia has suffered since the beginning of the
revolution.” Jacob Zeitlin

− + Nation 110:399 Mr 27 ’20 360w

“When we had finished this long book of Mrs Harold Williams, we

asked ourselves why it left us with the taste of the dust of Dead Sea
apples. The answer is, we believe, that nothing is so barren as
perpetual denunciation. Only a political controversialist could be
quite so self-blind as Mrs Williams.”

− Nation [London] 26:402 D 13 ’19 700w

“This book may be recommended as a storehouse of facts, and it is

to be hoped that the author will in due course produce another
volume, bringing the story down from Brest-Litovsk to the present
day.”

+ Sat R 129:62 Ja 17 ’20 540w

“She shows an intimate knowledge of the political convulsions of

1917, and she describes them in a clear and forcible style. The
dominant note of the book is amazement that the Russian people,
with their many good qualities, could have allowed themselves to be
dominated by a gang of scoundrels.”

+ Spec 123:579 N 1 ’19 1450w

 “Partisan and patriot Mrs Williams is, and the reader will not find
in her description of the storm-tossed waters of the revolution any
clear perception of its deeper currents. But the reader will find in her
book a useful chronicle of events and an interesting and vivid
representation of the political kaleidoscope and of the opinion of no
small part of the Russian intelligentsia during that momentous year.”
Reed Lewis

+ − Survey 44:48 Ap 3 ’20 200w

“A connected account of the first phase of the Russian revolution

has been badly needed. Mrs Williams has a clear picture in her own
mind of what led to Bolshevism, and her main theme is easy to trace
throughout the book. In these days, when many English liberals join
in the foolish denunciation of nearly all Russian liberals as counter-
revolutionaries without examining the positive side of their policy, it
is useful to see the aims and policy of the provisional government
clearly and sympathetically restated.”

+ The Times [London] Lit Sup p618 N 6

’19 1000w

WILLIAMS, BEN AMES. Great accident. *$2

(1½c) Macmillan

20–5226

This is a story of American provincial politics and of education

gone wrong. The way Winthrop Chase, junior, had been brought up
by a well meaning father and mother had brought out strongly the
negative side of his character. He always did the thing he was told
not to do and was fast becoming a drunkard. Shrewd old Ames
Caretall, congressman, returns from Washington just as a mayoral
election is coming on. He resolves to take a gambler’s chance with
young Wint and uses his influence to have him elected mayor over
the head of Wint’s own father. How the “joke” does the trick, knocks
manhood into Wint, and develops him into a sober, unusually
decent, honorable and lovable character is the burden of the story.

“This town and its inhabitants stand out with remarkable

clearness, and it is well worth while for English men and women to
read of it. They will see for themselves how different is their country
from that huge one which speaks the same language.” O. W.

+ Ath p16 Ja 7 ’21 1300w

+ Booklist 16:315 Je ’20

“This is a capital story. There are a number of well-drawn

subsidiary personages, making the life of the small town vivid and
often amusing. Its atmosphere is distinctive and typical.” N. H. D.

+ Boston Transcript p4 S 4 ’20 650w

Dial 69:211 Ag ’20 110w

“It is a perfectly good idea and the characters are interesting

enough, but the author seems to be a little bit tired; it all needs to be
keyed up to a higher pitch.”

+ − Ind 103:53 Jl 10 ’20 110w

 “It will go far toward dispelling in the average reader’s mind the
illusion that a realistic presentation of American life must necessarily
be dull, morbid and unduly sophisticated.”

+ N Y Evening Post p3 My 1 ’20 600w

“The merit of the tale lies in its portrayal of small town life, of the
men who control or try to control the political destinies of the
friendly little town of Hardiston, and in an easy and agreeable style.”

+ N Y Times 25:163 Ap 11 ’20 400w

“Two romances and a broad vein of humor balance the political

narrative, making an entertaining if rather unlifelike American tale.”

+ − Springf’d Republican p8a S 19 ’20 420w

WILLIAMS, GAIL. Fear not the crossing. $1.25

(9c) Clode, E. J. 134

20–1895

A series of spirit communications given to the author through

automatic handwriting by the spirit of a man who had but recently
died, and who found it at first very difficult to adjust himself to
conditions on the other side. The messages are given from day to
day, and describe the life beyond death, its great beauty, satisfying
joy, its boundless service for others, and its superiority to our flesh-
bound existence. Advice is given too for our greater serenity of the
spirit while still in the flesh. Think of God, pray to Him, in order that