Iit - Foundation - Set - IV

Welcome to SRM Gateway
Dear Student,
Welcome to SRM Gateway. We thank you very much for joining SRM Gateway. We are
all committed to your satisfaction and fulfill your expectations in training, quality in our
services, which is our primary goal.
We are sure that you will become very skilled and will be positioning yourself well in the IT
industry.
We shall always ensure that you are guided well during the course.
We wish you all the best for the complete learning of the technology Stay ahead in the
technology. Way ahead of others.
Warm Regards,
Management
SRM Gateway
Document Number : SRMGW - FD - 04
Course Code : FD
SRM Gateway
This document is the property of SRM Gateway. This
document has been prepared exclusively for the use of the
students. No part of this document shall be copied or
transferred in any form or by any means which would
initiate legal proceedings, if found.
SRM Gateway
No. 9, 3rd Avenue, Ashok Nagar, Chennai – 600 083
Preface
About the book
This book will be an effective training supplement for students to master the subject. This
material has in-depth coverage and review questions to give you a better understanding.
A panel of experts have complied the material, which has been rigorously reviewed by in-
dustry experts and we hope that this material will be a value addition.
We also would value your feedback, which will be useful for us to fine-tune it better.
Wishing you all success.
SRM Gateway
IIT FOUNDATION
SET - 4
INDEX
PHYSICS
1. ELASTICITY ....................................................................................................... 2
2. SURFACETENSION............................................................................................ 16
3. VISCOCITY ........................................................................................................ 28
4. ELECTROSTATIC .............................................................................................. 44
5. CURRENT ELECTRICITY - I ........................................................................... 69
CHEMISTRY
1. RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS & EQUILIBRIUM ................................ 91
2. METALLURGY .................................................................................................. 110
3. CARBON COMPOUNDS .................................................................................. 140
4. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ................................................................................... 152
5. IAIIAIIIAIVA ....................................................................................................... 190
MATHS
1. CO - ORDINATE GEOMENTRY ............................................................................... 247
2. LOCAS AND CONCURENCY ....................................................................................

251
3. TRIGONMETRY..........................................................................................................
257
4. STATICS ........................................................................................................................
269
PHYSICS
Contents
1. ELASTICITY
2. SURFACETENSION
3. VISCOCITY STABILITYIES
4. ELECTROSTATICS
5. ELECTRICITY-1
IIT - FOUNDATION - SET - IV
1 UNITS & DIMENSIONS
2
PHYSICS
Elasticity:
It is the property exhibited by matter by which a body tries to regain its original size and shape soon
after the external forces are removed.
Plasticity:
It is that property of matter by which a body never regains its original shape or size after the removal
of the external forces acting on it. Wax, Chewing gum etc. are nearly plastic.
Stress:
When a body is deformed by any set of forces F, F elastic restoring forces f, f appear with in the
body. In the state of equilibrium, the deforming forces are balanced by these restoring forces.
The elastic restoring force per unit area is called stress.

stress = F/A.
SI unit of stress = Nm–2 (or) Pascal
Types of stress:
1. Longitudinal stress or tensile stress: The longitudinal stress appears within the body when it is
extended i.e. when its length is increased. Ex : loaded wire.
2. Shearing stress or tangential stress: A shearing stress appears within the body when its shape is
changed by applying the tangential force on its surface.
3. Bulk stress or volume stress : Bulk stress appears within the body when its volume is changed by
applying forces normally and uniformly all over its surface.
Types of strain:
Strain: The deformation produced per unit magnitude is called strain. Strain has no units. Strain is
dimensionless.
1. Longitudinal strain or Linear strain or Tensile strain :



e
mg
3
It is the ratio between the change in length and the original length.
e
Longitudinal strain = .

When longitudinal strain is produced there is small change in linear size but no change in the shape of
the body.
A A1 B B1
F
 
D C
2. Shearing strain or Tangential strain (q):

It is the ratio between the relative displacement between the parallel layers and the distance between
them.
AA 1
Shearing strain q = radian
AD
When shearing strain is produced there is only change in shape but no change in size of the body.
3. Bulk or Volume strain:
It is the ratio between the change in volume and original volume
change in volume V
Bulk strain = 
original volume V
When bulk strain is produced there is change in size but no change in shape.
F F
V
Elastic limit:
It is the maximum stress up to which the behaviour of the material is elastic. Beyond the elastic limit
there will be a permanent deformation in the body. Even if the deforming forces are removed the
body can not recover its original shape and size completely.
Hooke’s Law:
4
PHYSICS
Within the elastic limit stress is directly proportional to strain.
stress
  constant(E)
strain
The constant (E) is called coefficient of elasticity or modulus of elasticity.
The three types modulii of Elasticity and Poission’s ratio:

1. Young’s modulus (Y):
Within the elastic limit the ratio of the longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain is called the
Young’s modulus :
longitudinal stress F / a F. L.
Y = longitudinal strain  e / L  ae
mgL
Y = 2 Nm–2 or Pascal.
r e
e
a = r2
F=mg
2. Rigidity modulus (n) : Within the elastic limit the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain is called
the rigidity modulus.
shear stress F / a F
n = shear strain    a. Nm–2
a
F
 
3. Bulk modulus (k) : Within the elastic limit the ratio of the normal stress to the bulk strain is called the
bulk modulus.
normal stress F / a F V
k=   –2
bulk strain v / V a v  Nm
5
F F
V
F
4. Poisson’s ratio (s ) : Within the elastic limit the ratio of the lateral contractional strain to the
longitudinal elongational strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
lateral strain d/D
s=  .
longitudin al strain e / L
Where d = decrease in thickness
D = original thickness
e = increase in length.
L = original length
The value of s lies between 0 and 0.5
Strain Energy:
The work done in deforming a body is stored in it in the form of elastic potential energy. This energy
is called the strain energy.
Let a wire of length ‘L’ and area of cross-section ‘a’ be stretched using a force F. Since the resulting
elongation ‘e’ is proportional to the force F, we can write
F = K.e. …………………. (1)
During the process of elongation the elastic restoring force developed in the wire at the instant when
the elongation is ‘x’ is given by
f = Kx
The work done in stretching it further by ‘dx’ is given by
dw = f.dx = Kxdx
6
PHYSICS
a
e
F
The total work done in stretching the wire by e is given by

e
w =  Kxdx
e
 10 2 
=  Kx 0
 21  1
2
w= Ke = Ke.e But from equation (1) it follows that
2 2
1
w = F.e ………………………… (2)
2
1
Strain energy of the wire = Fe ………….(3)
2 Strain energy
–3
Strain energy per unit volume = Volume
1 of wire J m
Fe 1 F e
= 2 = . .
aL 2 a L
But F/a represents the stress and e/L represents the strain
1
 Strain energy per unit volume =  stress  strain
2
Behaviour of a wire when subjected to gradually increasing load:
With increase in the load on a wire its length increases. The graph drawn with load (F) on Y-axis and
elongation (e) on X-axis is as shown.
(1) Proportionality limit : Maximum load upto which elongation is directly proportional to the load is
called proportionality limit. In the above graph point A represents proportionality limit and upto “A”
Hooke’s law is valid.
7
B C D
A  

o o1 X
e 

(2) Elastic limit : Maximum load upto which the wire regains its original shape and size after the re-
moval of the applied force is called elastic limit. In the above graph point B represent elastic limit
upto B wire shows elastic behaviour and beyond B wire shows plastic behaviour.
(3) Yield point: If even a very small increase in the load produces very large elongation then the wire is
said to be yielding. Force above which a wire starts yielding is called yield point. In the above graph
point B represents yield point, which is also elastic limit.
(4) Permanent set: At point C if we slowly decrease the load then the load elongation graph can be
CO1 That is even after the removal of applied load left behind, there is an elongation OO1. This
elongation OO1 even after the removal of the load is called permanent set.
(5) Breaking point: Minimum force at which the wire breaks is called breaking point. In the above
graph point D represents breaking point.
(6) Elastic fatigue: The temporary loss of elasticity of a material due to the fact that it is subjected to
stress and strain repeatedly is called elastic fatigue.
Ex : Plasticity is developed at the location where a wire is bent and unbent repeatedly and eventually the wire
breaks at such a location.
(7) Behaviour of metals: From the stress - strain graph the behaviour of metals can be studied. If the
width of the graph beyond the elastic limit is more, the metal is ductile and malleable. If the width of
the graph is small the metal is brittle.
Experimental determination of Young’s modulus of a material by Searle’s method :
8
PHYSICS
Rigid support
Reference wire
experimental
metal frame wirewire
frameframe
sprit level
micro meter
screw
screw
Dead load
Variable load
Description:
Searle’s apparatus consists of two identical wires made of same material and same length, hung from
a rigid support. Their free ends are connected to rectangular metal frames. The two frames are
hinged so that they move independently. There is a horizontal platform on which a spirit level is
arranged. This platform rests on the tip of micrometer screw. Dead loads are attached to both the
wires to keep the wires straight and taut.
Procedure:
The length of either wire is measured as
‘  ’. The average diameter and hence the radius ‘r’ of the wire is determined using a screw guage.
The least count of the micrometer is determined. The micrometer head is now turned so that the
bubble of the spirit level comes to the middle. The pitch scale and head scale reading are noted.
P.S.R. + (H.S.R. ´ LC) gives the initial reading. The experimental wire is loaded gradually in steps of
500 grams. For each load the micrometer head is turned till the bubble comes to the middle. The
readings are taken and tabulated as below
9
M
Average =
e
The result in the last column will be constant. Thus verifying Hooke’s law.
A graph is drawn taking the load (M) along the X-axis and the elongation (e) on Y-axis. The graph is
a straight line. The elongation (e) for any suitable load M is calculated from the graph.
O M
X
The Young’s modulus ‘Y’ is calculated using the formula

g  M 
Y= 2  
r  e 
Precautions:
The loads added must not exceed elastic limit.
The hinges must be frictionless.
10
PHYSICS
ASSIGNMENT
11
1. A wire of length 5m and of area of cross-section 10-6m2 is stretched by 2mm. If the tension developed
in the wire is 50N, Young’s Modulus will be
1) 100 G.Pa 2) 125 G.Pa 3) 150 G.Pa 4) 175 G.Pa
2. Two wires of same length are made of same material. The diameter of one is 0.75 times the diameter of
the second. If these wires are extended by the same load, their elongations will be in the ratio
1) 3 : 4 2) 16 : 9 3) 9 : 16 4) 4 : 3
3. A wire extends by 1mm when a force is applied. Double the force is applied to another wire of same
material and length but half the radius of cross-section, the elongation of wire in mm will be
1) 8 2) 4 3) 2 4) 1
4. Two bars ‘A’ and ‘B’ of circular cross-section and of equal volume are made of same material. Diam-
eter of ‘A’ is half that of ‘B’. If equal force is applied on both, the ratio of extensions of A and B is
1) 16 :1 2) 4 : 1 3) 2 : 1 4) 8 : 1
5. A longitudinal stress of 1kg.wt /mm2 is applied to an experimental wire. Given y=10x1011 N/m2. The
percentage increase in the length of the wire will be
1) 0.001% 2) 0.002% 3) 0.003% 4) 0.01%
6. A thick rope of rubber of density 1.5 kg/m3, young’s modulus 5x106 N/m2 and length 8 m when hung
from the ceiling of a room, the increase in its length due to its own weight is
1) 9.6x10-5 m 2) 19.2x10-5 m 3) 9.6x10-3 m 4) 9.6 m
7. An aluminium rod has breaking strain 0.2%. The minimum cross sectional area of the rod in m2 in order
to support a load of 104 N is (Y=7x109 N/m2)
1) 1.7x10-2 2) 1.7x10-3 3) 7.1x10-4 4) 1.4x10-4
8. A wire can support a load ‘w’ without breaking. It is cut into two equal lengths. The maximum load that
each part can support is
1) w/2 2) w/4 3) 2w 4) w
9. Load - extension graphs of two wires of same material and thickness are as shown. The ratio of length
of wire A and wire B is
1) 1: 3 2) 3: 1 3) 1: 2 4) 2: 1
10. A uniform spring of constant k is cut into two pieces whose lengths are in the ratio 1 : 2. The force
constant of the larger piece of the spring is
1) 3k 2) 3k/2 3) 2k 4) k/2
11. The rubber cord of a catapult has a cross sectional area of 1mm2 and total unstretched length 10cm. It
is stretched until it’s length increases to 12 cm and then released to project a missile of mass 5gm. If y of
rubber is 5 x 108 Nm-2, the velocity of projection is
1) 10 m/s 2) 20 m/s 3)40 m/s 4) 50 m/s
12. The length of a metal wire is L1 , when the tension in it is T1, and is L2 when the tension is T2 . The natural
length of the wire is
L1  L 2 L 1T2  L 2 T1 L 1T2  L 2 T1
1) 2) L 1L 2 3) T2  T1 4) T2  T1
2
13. The length of a rubber card is l1 metres when the tension 4N and l2 metres when the tension is 5N. The
length in metres when the tension is 9N is
1) 9l2 - 8l1 2) 5l2 - 4l1 3) 5l1 - 4l2 4) 9l1 - 8l2
12
PHYSICS
14. A wire AB of area of cross section 0.005 cm2 and length 2m is suspended vertically from a fixed
support at A. A load of 5 kg is attached to the mid-point of the wire and a further load of 5kg is attached
at its lower end B. If Y=2 ´ 1011 Pa, then the depression of the end B is (g=10 m/s2 )
1) 0.5 mm 2) 1 mm 3) 1.5 mm 4) None
15. A point mass m is suspended at the end of a massless rubber card of length ‘L’ and cross-sectional
area A. If Y is the Young’s modulus of the rubber, the frequency of oscillation of the mass is
1 AY mL 1 mL YA
1) 2) 2 3) 4) 2
2 mL YA 2 AY mL
16. A wire is just kept taut between two walls at room temperature of 300C. It is cooled to 00C. If the wire
has an area of cross-section of 10-6 m2 given that coefficient of linear expansion of the metal is 12 x 10-
6 0
/ C and Young’s modulus of the material of the wire is 20 x 1010 N/m2. The force on the walls is
1) 62N 2) 36 ´ 10-4N 3) 72N 4) 72 ´ 104N
17. One face of a cube of side 0.6m is fixed and on the opposite face is applied a tangential force of 3 x 107
N. If the relative displacement between these two faces is 1 mm . then the modulus of rigidity of its
material is
1) 5 x 109 Pa 2) 5 x 1010 Pa 3) 1.2 x 1010 Pa 4) None
18. A spherical ball contracts in volume by 0.01% when subjected to a normal stress of 100 atmospheres.
The bulk modules of its material in pascals is nearly equal to
1) 10 10 2) 10 11 3) 10 12 4) 10 13
19. Volume of a given amount of water at a pressure of 105 Pa is 1 litre. When the pressure increases to 106
Pa its volume decreases by 0.45 C.C. The compressibility of water is
1) 5 x 10-10 Pa-1 2) 2 x 10-5 Pa-1 3) 5 x 10-9 Pa-1 4) None
20. Bulk modules for rubber is 9.8 x 108 Nm-2. The depth, to which a rubber ball is to be taken in a lake, so
that its volume decreases by 0.1% is
1) 100 m 2) 500 m 3) 1000m 4) 5000 m
21. For a given material the rigidity modulus is 0.75 times that of bulk modulus. The Poisson’s ratio is
1) 0.75 2) 0.25 3) 0.4 4) 0.2
22. The bulk modulus of material is 14 x 1010 N/m2 and rigidity modulus is 7 x 1010 N/m2. The Young’s
modulus of the material is
1) 18 x 1010 N/m2 2) 18 x 108 N/m2 3) 9 x 1012 N/m2 4) 9 x 1010 N/m2
23. A material has Poisson’s ratio 0.2. If a uniform rod made of material suffers longitudinal strain 4´10-3 the
percentage change in its volume is
1) 0.36% 2) 0.48% 3) 0.24% 4) None
24. A wire of length 5m is pulled to have an extension of 1mm. Its Y is 1.9´104N/m2. The energy per unit
volume stored in it in J/m3 is
1) 7.6x10-4 2) 3.8x10-4 3) 1.9x10-4 4) 0.95x10-4
25. A copper wire 2m long is stretched by 1mm. For copper Y=8 x 1012 Nm-2 , density d= 5 x 103 kg m-
3
and specific heat =400 J kg-1 K-1. If the energy stored is converted into heat, the rise in the temperature
of wire is
1) 10C 2) 0.50C 3) 0.250C 4) 20C
26. A wire AB is suspended about the end A and marks C and D are marked on the wire at a distance 40cm
13
apart. When a load is suspended from B, then the marks C and D are displaced by 0.3mm and 0.5mm
respectively. The original length of AC is
1) 20cm 2) 40cm 3) 60cm 4) 80cm
27. Two wires A and B of same thickness but of lengths 3m and 4m are made of materials of Young’s
modulii 180 GPa and 120 GPa respectively. These wires are joined end to end and extended holding
the free ends until the net elongation is 4.5mm. The elongation of the wire A alone is
1) 1m 2) 1.5mm c) 2mm d) 2.1mm
28. A wire of certain length has area of cross-section 2.5x10-6m2. The work done to stretch it by 2mm is
0.2J. Then the stress developed in the wire in N/m2 is
1) 4x106 2) 7x109 3) 4x107 4) 8x107
29. Four wires of the same material are stretched by the same load . The dimensions are given below.
Which one of them will elongate the most ?
1) Length 100cm, diameter 1mm 2) length 200cm, diameter 2mm
3) length 300cm, diameter 3mm 4) length 400cm, diameter 0.5mm
30. A copper wire of length L is stretched such that its length increases by ‘e’. The Young’s modulus of the
material is Y, density is d and specific heat is ‘s’. If the energy stored in the stretched wire is converted
into heat, then the rise in the temperature of the wire is
Ye Ye 2 2Ye 2 Ye 2 d
1) 2) 3) 2 4)
Lds 2L2 ds L ds 2s
31. Two wires, one of material A and the other of material B each 1.5m long and of diameter 2.0mm
are joined end to end to form a composite wire of length 3.0m. Force required to produce a total
extension of 0.25mm is.. (YA=1.5x1011 Pa and YB = 1x 1011 Pa )
1) 0.314 N 2) 3.14 N 3) 31.4 N 4) 314 N
32. When a load on a wire is increased from 3kg wt to 5 kg wt, the elongation increases from 0.3mm to
0.5mm. The work done during the extension of the wire is [take g= 10 m/s2]
1) 25 x 10-4 J 2) 8 x 10-3 J 3) 9 x 10-3 J 4) 45 x 10-4 J
33. A solid sphere of radius R, made of material of bulk modulus k is surrounded by a liquid in a cylindrical
container. A massless piston of area A floats on the surface of liquid. When a mass m is placed on the
piston to compress the liquid, the fractional change in the radius of the sphere is
mg mg mgk 3mg
1) 2) 3) 4)
Ak 3 Ak A Ak
14
PHYSICS
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
2 2 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 2 2 3 2 3 1
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
3 2 2 1 1 4 1 3 2 2 3 2 4 4 2
31. 32. 33.
3 2 2
15
2 SURFACE TENSION
16
PHYSICS
Introduction:
The free surface of liquid at rest behaves like a stretched elastic membrane. The following experi-
ments illustrate that the surface of a liquid tends to contract to have minimum area.
a) A small liquid drop assumes a spherical shape.
Ex: Rain drop, drop of mercury, dew drop, etc.
This is because for a given volume the surface area is minimum for spherical shape only.
b) Let a needle be placed on a blotting paper and let the paper be placed on water. The blotting paper
soon sinks to the bottom but the needle floats on the surface of water. A small depression is seen
formed along the length of the needle. The tension in this depression supports the weight of the
needle.
c) Let a wire ring be dipped in to a soap solution and drawn out. A thin film is formed across the ring.
A loop of thread is slipped on to the film. The loop assumes some shape. The portion of the film
within the loop is pin-pricked. The loop of thread immediately assumes circular shape, allowing the
remaining portion of the film to have minimum area.
d) If an ordinary hairbrush is immersed in water all its hairs spread out. But when it is withdrawn from
the water the hairs come close together as if they are bound by a contracting membrane.
Molecular forces are divided into two types:
a) Cohesive forces: Attractive forces among similar molecules are called cohesive forces.
b) Adhesive forces: Attractive forces among dissimilar molecules are called adhesive forces.
Cohesive and adhesive forces extend up to a certain distance called the intra molecular attraction
range (10-9 m) or simply the range of molecular forces.
Sphere of influence of a molecule: A sphere of radius equal to the range of molecular force and
with the molecule at its centre is called the sphere of influence of that molecule.
Definition of surface tension:
The surface tension is the force per unit length acting perpendicular to any imaginary line drawn on
the free surface and tending to pull the surface apart along that line.
S.I. unit: Nm–1
Molecular theory of Surface tension:
The sphere of influence of a molecule like ‘A’ is entirely with in the liquid. Such a molecule experi-
ences no net force as it is equally pulled in all directions.
17
C
B

The sphere of influence of a molecule like ‘B’ is partly out side the liquid. Such a molecule experi-
ences some net downward pull as there are more number of molecules in the lower half of its sphere
of influence.
Such a downward pull is largest for a molecule like ‘C’ as there are no molecules in the upper half.
So all molecules in the surface film of thickness equal to molecular range, are experiencing net down-
ward pull and possess potential energy.
But any system always tends to have the lowest P.E. So the surface of a liquid tends to contract so
as to have minimum P.E. This makes the surface of the liquid behave like a stretched elastic mem-
brane. Hence the liquid surface possesses surface tension.
Note: The top most layer of thickness equal to the range of molecular force is called the surface of
the liquid.
Relation between surface tension and surface energy (or) to show that surface energy per
unit area is equal to surface tension:
The potential energy of the surface of a liquid is called it’s surface energy.
Q A A1
P
2l.T
S
R B B1
Let PQRS represent a rectangular frame of wire, with movable side AB of length ‘l’ and it is dipped
in a soap solution and removed slowly. A soap film is formed across AQRB with two surfaces upper
and lower. The frame is held horizontally.
Both the surfaces of this film tend to contract. If ‘T’ is the surface tension then ‘AB’ is pulled towards
QR with a force F = Tl + Tl = 2Tl
 If the wire AB is slowly moved by a distance ‘x’ without acceleration to A1B1 then the work done
against this force is given by
18
PHYSICS
w = 2l T´ x = T´ 2 l x
w = T´ increase in surface area of both the surfaces put together
This work that is done is stored in the surface as P.E or Surface energy.
surface energy
 Surface tension (T) = Nm-1.
increase in surface area
(Or) Surface Tension = Surface energy per unit area.
Angle of contact:
The angle between the tangent drawn to the surface of the liquid, at the point of its contact with the
solid and the solid surface, measured through the liquid is called the angle of contact.
Liquids whose angle of contact is Liquids whose angle of contact is obtuse

is acute (less than 900 ) are wetting (greater than 900 ) are non-sticky liquids.
liquids, they spread over the surface (non - wetting)
of a solid. Ex:- water on glass. Ex:- For Mercury on glass,  =1400
For pure water on glass, the angle of contact
is almost zero.
Capillarity:
Definition: The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube when it is introduced into a
liquid is called capillarity.
Capillary raise for the liquids Capillary fall for the liquids
of acute angle of contact of obtuse angle of contact
A glass tube with a very fine bore is called a capillary tube. When this is dipped vertically into a liquid
like water the liquid rises into the tube. And all the liquids which have an angle of contact less than
900 show a similar effect. However, in the case of a liquid like mercury, the angle of contact is greater
19
0
than 90 , there is a depression of liquid level in the tube.
Ex: Rising of oil into the wick of the lamp.
Rising of ink into the pores of blotting papers
Experimental determination of surface tension of water by capillary raise method:
Theory:
T = Surface tension of the liquid

 = Angle of contact
r = radius of the bore of the tube

h = capillary raise
The surface tension ‘T’ can be resolved into
 the horizontal component Tsinq and
 the vertical component T cos
The horizontal components T sin cancel each other and the vertical components T cos add up.
The surface of the meniscus is in contact with the tube along a line of length = 2r.
 Net upward pull on the liquid column = T cos  x 2r  
So the liquid column raises to such height ‘h’ that this upward pull is balanced by the weight of this
liquid column. So if the density of the liquid is ‘d’ then
T cos . 2r = (pr2h) (d) (g)
rhdg
(or) T =  (2)
2 cos  
The height ‘h’ is measured upto the lower meniscus only.
 r
But there is little liquid in the meniscus. So the height ‘h’ is corrected as  h 
r  3
r h   dg
T =  3  (3)
2 cos 
For a narrow tube r/3 can be neglected. And for water  = 0
rhdg
T =  (4)
2
Procedure: A clean dry capillary tube is vertically held in a beaker of water. A bent pin is arranged
20
PHYSICS
so that the tip of the pin just touches the water surface. The water rises in to the capillary tube
forming a meniscus. A travelling microscope is focused to the lower meniscus. The microscope
reading is taken. The beaker is now removed. The microscope is moved down and is focused to the
tip of the pin. The reading is taken. Difference between the two readings gives capillary raise (h).
M- Microscope
h
Pin
water
The capillary tube is a held horizontally. The microscope is then focused on the bore of the capillary
tube and setting the cross-wire tangential to the circle of the bore, alternately on either side the
readings are taken. The difference in the readings R1 and R2 in the two positions gives the diameter.
Half of this value gives the radius(r). Substituting the ‘r’ and ‘h’ in the in the following formula we can
determine the surface tension.
rdg  r
T =  h   Nm–1
2  3
R1 ~ R2
r=
2
R1 R2
Precautions:
The tube must be perfectly clean.
Microscope readings are to be taken with out parallax error.
Effect of temperature on surface tension:
As temperature increases, the surface tension of a liquid decreases according to the formula, S = S0
(1-at) , where S0 = Surface tension at 00C. S = Surface tension at t0 C and a is temperature
coefficient of surface tension.
21
Excess of pressure inside a liquid drop (or bubble):
The surface of a liquid has a tendency to contract. So the liquid in the drop is squeezed by the
contracting surface of the liquid. So in the equilibrium state the pressure of the liquid with in the liquid
is more than outside atmospheric pressure and the surface of the drop is convex towards the atmo-
spheric air. It is the difference between these pressures which is called the excess of pressure.
Fp
Let a spherical drop of radius ‘r’ be imagined to be divided into two hemispheres.
The circumference of the cross-section = 2r
The force on the rim of the cross-section due to the surface tension=2r. T
This force is balanced by the excess of pressure ‘p’
Area of the cross-section = r2
Force on this section due to the excess of pressure = r2 .p
For the equilibrium of the drop, r2 p = 2r T
2T
or p =
r
In the case of the bubble there are two surfaces inner and outer.
 r2 p = 2 x 2r . T
4T
or p =
r
In the case of a bubble the pressure of air within the bubble is more than the outside atmospheric
pressure. The difference between these pressures is called excess pressure.
If the drop or the bubble is not spherical and if the radii of curvature in the two perpendicular
directions are r1 and r2, then the excess of pressure is given by
 1 1
For the drop p = T  r  r 
 1 
1 21 
For the bubble, p = 2T  r  r 
 1 2
If the surface is concave outwards then the radius is taken negative and the inside pressure is less
than that outside. The above formulae still hold good for the pressure difference.
22
PHYSICS
ASSIGNMENT
23
1. A ring is cut from a platinum tube having 9.9cm external and 9.7cm internal diameter. It is suspended
horizontally from a pan of a balance, so that it comes in contact with the water in a glass vessel. If an
extra 4.4gm is required to pull it away from water, the surface tension of water is
1) 35 dyne cm-1 2) 70 dyne cm-1 3) 75 dyne cm-1 4) 80 dyne cm-1
2. A circular disk of diameter 10cm is suspended horizontally from a pan of a balance, so that it comes in
contact with the water in a glass vessel. If an extra 4.4gram is required to pull it away from water, the
surface tension of water is (g = 10ms-2)
1) 35 dyne cm-1 2) 70 dyne cm-1 3) 75 dyne cm-1 4) 80 dyne cm-1
3. A square wire frame of side ‘L’ is dipped in a liquid. On taking out, a membrane is formed. If the
surface tension of liquid is T, the force due to surface tension on each side is
1) 2TL 2) 4TL 3) 8TL 4) 16TL
1
4. A soap bubble of radius cm is expanded to double its radius. If the coefficient of surface tension is

30 dynes/cm, the work done is
1) 720 ergs 2) 520 ergs 3) 420 ergs 4) 360 ergs
5. The surface tension of a liquid is T. A single drop of this liquid of radius ‘R’ was split into 8 drops of
equal size. The work done in splitting the drop is
1) 6R2T 2) 4R2T 3) 8R2T 4) 12R2T
6. If a number of little droplets of a liquid of density r, surface tension T and specific heat c, each of radius
r, coalesce adiabatically to form a single drop of radius R, the rise in temperature will be
3T  1 1  3T  1 1  3T  1 1  3T  1 1 
1)    2)    3)    4)   
c  r R  c  r R  2c  r R  2c  r R 
7. The amount of work done in forming a soap film of size 10cm ´ 10cm is (surface tension of soap solution
is 3 ´ 10-2N/m)
1) 6 x 10-4J 2) 3 x 10-4J 3) 6 x 10-3J 4) 3 x 10-2J
8. A capillary tube of diameter 0.4 mm is introduced vertically into a liquid of density 800 kg/m3 and of
surface tension of 49 x 10-3 N/m. If the angle of contact is zero then the capillary raise is
1) 6.25 cm 2) 3.5 cm 3) 0.625 cm 4) 4.25 cm
9. Water rises to a height of 2 cm in a glass capillary tube. If the area of cross section of the tube is only
1 th
of the former value then the water rises to a height of
25
1) 10 cm 2) 30 cm 3) 20 cm 4) 0.4 cm
10. A liquid rises to a height 6 cm into a capillary tube. If there is a planet whose mass is 3 times the mass
of the earth and whose radius is 2 times that of the earth then the capillary rise with the same apparatus
on such a planet would be
1) 4.5 cm 2) 12 cm 3) 9 cm 4) 8 cm
11. A 10cm long capillary tube is dipped in water. The water rises upto 5 cm. If the entire arrangement is
put in a freely falling lift, the length of the water column in the tube will be
1) zero 2) 5 cm 3) 10 cm 4) 7.5 cm
12. In a surface tension experiment with a capillary tube water rises upto 0.1m. If the same experiment is
repeated in an artificial satellite, which is revolving around the earth and at an altitude of 3R from the
24
PHYSICS
surface of the earth, water will rise in the capillary tube up to a height of
1) 0.1m 2) 0.2m
3) 0.4m 4) Full length of the of the tube
13. Water rises to a height of 16.3cm in a capillary tube of height 18cm above the water level. If the tube is
cut at a height of 12cm
1) Water will come as a fountain from the capillary tube.
2) Water will stay at a height of 12cm in the capillary tube
3) The height of the water in the capillary tube will be 10.3cm
4) Water will flowdown the sides of the capillary tube
14. A capillary tube is held with its one end in water and the mass of water that rises in the capillary tube is M.
If another tube of double the radius is immersed then the mass of water that will rise in the capillary is
1) M 2) 2M 3) 4M 4) M/2
15. Water rises into a capillary tube to a height 6 cm when the tube is vertical. If the tube is tilted so that it
makes an angle 600 to the vertical, the length of the water column in the capillary tube would be
1) 6 cm 2) 12 cm 3) 4 3 cm 4) None
16. The difference of air pressure between the inside and outside of a soap bubble 5 mm in diameter is
(assume surface tension to be 16 N/m)
1) 15600 N/m2 2) 10600 N/m2 3) 25600 N/m2 4) 12800 N/m2
17. An air bubble of radius R is formed at a depth h below the surface of water. If p0 is the atmospheric
pressure ‘d’ is the density of water, and T is the surface tension of water, then the pressure in side the
bubble is
2T 2T 4T 4T
1) p0 + 2) p0 + hdg + 3) p0 + 4) p0 + hdg +
R R R R
18. The excess pressure due to surface tension inside a spherical drop is 6 units. If eight such drops
coalesce, the excess pressure inside the new drop is
1) 3 units 2) 6 units 3) 12 units 4) 48 units
19. A spherical soap bubble of radius 2cm is formed inside another of radius 3cm. If the surface tension is
30 dyne/cm. The excess pressure within the smaller bubble over the pressure out side the larger bubble
in pascal is
1) 10 2) 15 3) 100 4) none
20. The excess pressure inside a soap bubble is twice the excess pressure inside a second soap bubble.
The ratio of their volumes is
1) 1 : 2 2) 2 : 1 3) 1 : 8 4) 8 : 1
21. One soap bubble A has radius R, another bubble B has radius 2R. The two come in contact to have a
common wall. The radius of curvature of the common wall would be
1) 2R concave towards B 2) 3R concave towards A
3) 2R concave towards A 4) 3R convex towards B
22. A vessel, whose bottom has holes with diameter 0.1mm is filled with water. The maximum height upto
which water can be filled without leakage is (T = 7.5 x 10-3 Nm-1 and g = 10 ms-2)
1) 100mm 2) 75mm 3) 50mm 4) 30mm
25
23. The radius of the orifice of a liquid dropper is 2 mm. If the surface tension of water is 70x10-3N/m and
g = 10m/sec2 then the mass of the water drop falling from dropper is
1) 88 x 10-6 kg 2) 88 x 10-4 kg 3) 8.8 x 10-3 kg 4) 88 x 10-3 kg
24. The two limbs of a U-tube have bores of radii 0.25 mm and 2mm when water of surface tension 70 x
10-3 N/m is taken into the U-tube the levels of water stand at different heights so that the level difference
is
1) 2.5 cm 2) 5 cm 3) 7.5 cm 4) 10 cm
25. A small drop of clean water is squeezed between two clean glass plates so that a thin layer of large area
is formed. Assuming the thickness of the layer is 10-6 m, the area of it is 40cm2. Surface tension of water
is 7x10-2 N/m, the force pushing the plates together is
1) 460 N 2) 760 N 3) 1120 N 4) 560 N
26. Water rises to a height of 2cm in a capillary tube. The angle of contact is zero. Then the tube is
depressed further so that its length above the surface of water is only 1cm with respect to the meniscus
in the tube, the apparent angle of contact now is
1) 30o 2) 90o 3) 0o 4) 60o
27. The surface energy of a liquid drop is U. It is sprayed into 1000 identical drops. The total surface
energy will now be
1) 1000U 2) 100U 3) 10U 4) U/10
28. Two spherical soap bubbles of radii 3cm and 4cm in vacuum coalesce under isothermal conditions. The
resulting bubble has a radius equal to
1) 7cm 2) 1cm 3) 5cm 4) 6cm
29. A 20cm long capillary tube is dipped in water. The water rises upto 8 cm. If the entire arrangement is
put in a freely falling elevator, the length of water column in the capillary tube will be
1) zero 2) 8cm 3) 4cm 4) 20cm
30. The lower end of a capillary tube is at a depth of 16cm from the free surface of water and water rises
4cm in it. The mouth pressure required to blow an air bubble at the lower end will be x cm of water
column, where x is
1) 5 2) 10 3) 15 4) 20
26
PHYSICS
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 3 4 2 2 2
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
3 2 1 1 3 3 4 1 2 4 4 3 2 4 4
27
3 VISCOCITY
28
PHYSICS
HYDROSTATICS:
Pressure at a point in a liquid:
The pressure at any point within a liquid is due to the weight of the liquid above it. The pressure at
this point acts in all directions.
P P
P
h P
P P
. x
P P a
P
Let a point ‘X’ be at a depth ‘h’ below the surface of a liquid at rest. A horizontal circle of area ‘a’
is considered around this point. The weight of the cylindrical column of liquid, standing above this
area acts on this area.
 Force on this area = a . h . d . g
where d = density of the liquid and
g = acceleration due to gravity
Force
But pressure =
area
a. h. d. g
P =
a
P = hdg
This gives the hydrostatic pressure at a depth ‘h’ below the surface.
Force of Buoyancy:
When body is immersed in a liquid it experiences a net up thrust called the force of buoyancy.
Let a cylinder of height ‘h’ and of area of cross-section ‘a’ be immersed in a liquid of density ‘d’ with
its length vertically and the upper end at a depth ‘h1’ below the surface of the liquid.
The pressures P-P on the lateral surface of the cylinder cancel each other.
The downward force due to 

  P1  a
liquid pressure on the upper end 
= h1dg´a
Similarly the upward force on 

 = P2  a
the lower end 
= (h1+h)dg ´ a
29
P1
P P
P2
Net upward force on the cylinder or force

of buoyancy on the cylinder = (h1 + h)dga - h1dg.a
= hdga
= (ah)dg
= weight of liquid of volume equal to the volume of cylinder
 The force of buoyancy on a body immersed in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced
by it
This force of buoyancy depends only on the size of the immersed body and not on its shape.
Archimedes principle: When a body is immersed in a liquid it suffers an apparent loss of weight equal
to the weight of the liquid displaced by it.
Floating body: The weight of a body floating at rest on a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced by it.
HYDRODYNAMICS:
Steady flow - Streamline flow:
The flow of a liquid is said to be steady or streamlined flow when the velocity at any given point
remains constant at all instants. That is each particle of the liquid that passes a particular point,
passes it with the same velocity in the same direction. For the flow of a liquid to be steady its velocity
should be low and less than certain limiting value called the critical velocity of that liquid.
The steady flow of a liquid is represented by a set of stream lines which are either straight or curved.
Streamline: A stream line represents the path along which particles of the liquid move, without
deviating from the path at any point.
Properties of the stream lines:
30
PHYSICS
v2
P v1
V2
V1
The tangent drawn to the stream line at any point gives the direction of the velocity of the particle at
that point.
Each and every particle that passes a particular point on the stream line passes with the same veloc-
ity.
The velocity at one point on the stream line may differ from the velocity at another point on the same
stream line.
No two stream lines intersect. That is there will be no intermixing of the liquid.
The velocity of the liquid is more at the point where the stream lines are closely spaced.
Ex: V1  V2
In the case of lamilar flow the stream lines are straight and parallel. In the case of tubular flow the
stream lines are curved.
A bunch of stream lines constitute a tube of flow.
Turbulent flow:
The flow becomes turbulent or erratic when the velocity of flow is larger than certain limiting value
called the critical velocity.
The velocity of flow at any point changes at random.
There is inter mixing of the liquid.
The flow cannot be represented by stream lines.
There may be whirls in the flow.
The equation of continuity:
Let ‘ V1 ’ be the velocity of flow at the location where area of cross-section of the tube of flow is ‘A1’
and Let V2 be the velocity at the location where area of cross-section is A2.
Since the liquid is incompressible we have.
31
V2
A2
V1
A1
Volume of the liquid that passes  Volume of the liquid that passes 
    
through one section in 1 sec  through another section in 1 sec 
.
A1 V1  A 2 V2
This is the equation of continuity.
Viscosity:
The property of a liquid by virtue of which the liquid resists the relative motion between its different
layers is known as viscosity or internal friction of the liquid.
Explanation:
When a liquid in a tub is churned for some time and left, the rotation of the liquid slows down and
finally ceases. This shows that there are viscous forces within the liquid which are responsible for the
stopping of the rotation of the liquid.
Considering the steady flow of water in a canal we notice that the layer of water in contact with the
bed of the canal is stationary and the velocity of any layer above it increases with the increase of its
distance from the bed. The layer ‘B’ is moving faster than the layer ‘A’. The tangential force (F or
F1) between them tends to retard the motion of layer B and accelerate the layer A. In other words
the nature of such a force is to reduce or oppose the relative motion between the layers. Such a
resisting force is called viscosity.
B
A F F1
The coefficient of viscosity:

Newton showed that for a streamline flow the viscous force (F) acting on any liquid layer is directly
proportional to its surface area (A), its velocity(V) and inversely proportional to its distance(x) from
the stationary layer.
v
F  A.
x
v
F = -.A.
x
32
PHYSICS
The constant ‘‘ is called the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. The negative sign shows that the
v
direction of F is opposite to that of v. The quantity is called the velocity gradient.
x
Definition of the coefficient of viscosity :
The coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is defined as the force per unit area required to maintain unit
velocity gradient in the stream line flow of that liquid.
C.G.S. unit of the coefficient of viscosity is Poise.
S.I. unit of the coefficient of viscosity is kg/m/s or Pa.s or Nm–2s
1 poise = 0.1Nm–2s
Note:
The ratio of the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid to its density ‘d’ is called the
coefficient of kinematic viscosity and is represented by .

m=
d
The S.I unit of m is m2 s-1 and its practical unit is ‘stoke’.
1 stoke = 10–4 m2s–1
Poiseuille’s Formula:
h
l
P
If the flow of liquid is streamline flow, then the volume (V) of the liquid that is delivered in one second
through a capillary tube of length ‘ ’ and of a bore of radius ‘r’ under a pressure ‘p’ is given by
 Pr 4
V=
8 
where h = coefficient of viscosity of the liquid and
p = hdg.
Experimental determination of h:
The initial height of the level of water in the vessel, above the capillary tube is measured as h1. The
drops of water that are falling from the capillary tube are collected into a beaker for a time t sec. The
volume of this water in the beaker is measured as v. The final height of the water level is measure as
33
h2. The length of ‘l’ of the capillary tube is measured with a scale. The radius ‘r’ of the bore of the
capillary tube is estimated using a travelling microscope.
Calculations:
 h1  h2 
Average pressure p =   dg
2 
where d = density of water.
g = acceleration due to gravity
v
volume of water collected in 1 second = V =
t
pr 4
we have V =
8
 h  h2  4
v  1 dg.r  h 1  h 2 dgr 4 . t
=  2   h=
t 8 16V
Then the coefficient of viscosity of water can be obtained.

Precautions:
* Flow of water should be streamlined. So the height of water level should not be too large.
* The bore of the capillary tube should be narrow.
* The radius ‘r’ of the bore should be measured very carefully.
Variation of viscosity with temperature:
(a) The viscosity of a liquid i.e., the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase of tem-
perature. This is because on increasing the temperature of the liquid the distance between the liquid
molecules increases. Consequently the cohesive force between the molecules decreases.
 Viscosity decreases
(b) The viscosity of a gas increases with increase of temperature.
Bernoulli’s Theorem:
Theorem:
For a streamline flow of a non-viscous and incompressible liquid the total energy per unit volume
remains same at all points along its path.
Proof:
34
PHYSICS
P2
V2
P1 V1
h2
h1
Let an incompressible and non-viscous liquid of density ‘d’ be pushed from a height h1 to a height h2
through a tube of stream line flow. Considering ‘unit volume’ (V = 1) of liquid of mass ‘d’ that
enters the tube flow with velocity ‘V1’ and leaves the tube with velocity V2 we have :
(a) Work done on the liquid :
Work done on the liquid by the pressure ‘P1’ at the point of entry = P.V
= P1.1 ( V = 1)
= P1
Work done by the liquid against the pressure P2 at the exit = – P.V
= –P2.1
= –P2
Net work done on the liquid of unit volume = P1 – P2
(b) K.E. gained by the liquid :
1
K.E of unit volume of liquid at entry = d.V12
2
1
K.E. of unit volume of liquid at exit = d.V22
2
1
Net gain in K.E. = .d. (V22 – V12)
2
(c) P.E. gained by the liquid :
P.E of unit volume of liquid at entry = m.g.h
= d.g. h 1
P.E of unit volume of liquid at exit = d.g. h 2
Net gain in P.E of unit volume of liquid = d.g ( h 2 - h 1 )

Net work done on the liquid = (K.E + P.E) gained by the liquid
1
P1  P2  d(V22 – V12) + dg(h2 – h1)
2
(or)
1 2 1
P1  dv1  h1 dg  P2  dv2 2  h2 dg
2 2
35
Taking that the total energy of the liquid to be consisting of three parts namely
(1) P is the pressure energy per unit volume
1 2
(2) dv is the K.E per unit volume and
2
(3) h dg is the P.E per unit volume
The Total energy per unit volume at entry = Total energy per unit volume at exit.
 The total energy per unit volume is found remaining constant. Thus the Bernoulli’s theorem is
proved.
 Mathematical expression of the Bernoulli’s theorem is
1 2
P+ dv + hdg = constant
2
Conditions under which Bernoulli’s theorem holds good are:
a) The liquid must be non-viscous: only then no work is done against these forces.
b) The liquid must be incompressible: for the density ‘d’ to remain same all along the tube of flow.
c) The flow of the liquid must be steady or streamlined: so that there is no entry or exit of liquid from the
lateral surface of the tube of flow.
Note1:
Even when the liquid is at rest, the pressure is different for different layers at different depths. It is by
virtue of this pressure, the liquid has pressure energy much like the elastic potential energy possessed
by a stretched spring. The pressure ‘P’ at any point represents the pressure energy per unit volume
(or energy density) at that point.
2: When the liquid is at rest i.e when v = 0, the Bernoulli’s equation becomes
P + d g h = constant
or P1 + d gh1 = P2 + d gh2
P1 - P2 = dg (h2 -h1)
P = dg . h
This is what we have learnt in Hydrostatics and represents the pressure difference between two
points at different depths.
3: If the tube of flow is horizontal then the Bernoulli’s equation becomes
P + dv2 = constant
At the location where the velocity is larger (or the streamlines are closer) the pressure P is
smaller. This is a very important conclusion.
Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem:
36
PHYSICS
F A F
B
1 Two ping-pong balls A and B are suspended side by side and air is blown through the small spacing
between them. The velocity of air is more and hence the pressure in between the balls becomes less
than that out side, according to Bernoulli’s theorem
 The balls experience lateral forces and come closer.
2 Spinning of a ball in a current of air :
When the ball is at rest in a current of air as shown in the figure - 1, the streamlines both above and
below the ball are identical. So the pressures at these two locations are equal and the ball experi-
ences no net force.
Instead if the ball is spinning as shown in the figure - 2, then the current of air below the ball opposed
by the spin of the ball and the current of air above the ball is dragged further by the spin of the ball.
The velocity of air above the ball becomes much larger. As a result of this, the streamlines become
closer above the ball and
hence the pressure in this location decreases. Therefore the ball experiences a lateral force F in the
upward direction.
3 Airfoil:
37
An airfoil or the wing of an aeroplane is cutting through the air very rapidly. Then by virtue of its
shape, the velocity of air above the airfoil becomes very large compared to the velocity below it. The
streamlines of flow above the foil are much closure. So the pressure of air above the foil compared
to that below the foil is much less. So the foil experiences a very large upward force F. This force is
called the dynamic lift. This force is in sharp contrast with the static lift or the force of buoyancy.
4 Torricelli’s theorem (or) Law of Efflux:
h
h1 B
h2
Statement:
The velocity of efflux of a liquid through an orifice is equal to that which a body attains in falling freely
from the surface of the liquid to the orifice.
Proof: h1= height of the free surface (A) of the liquid above the bottom of the vessel.
h2= height of the orifice (B) above the bottom.
P = atm. Pressure acting both on the level (A) and on the liquid at the orifice (B)
V = velocity of flow of the liquid through the orifice and the velocity of the liquid level can be assumed
to be nearly zero because the area of cross-section at ‘A’ is very large compared to that at the orifice
from the Bernoulli’s theorem we have
1 2 1
P + h1 dg + d  o   P  h2 dg  dv 2
2 2
 1 2
(or)  h1  h2 dg  dv 
 2 
38
PHYSICS
1 2
hdg  dv
2
1 2
hg = v
2
velocity of efflux, V  2gh
The velocity acquired by a body in falling through a height ‘a’ is also given by 2gh . Hence the
theorem.
Note: The distance R at which the jet of water touches the ground is given by the formula.
2H
R= V
g
2h2
 R  2gh .
g
R = 2 h h2
Stokes formula – Terminal Velocity :

Let a constant force F be driving a body through a liquid of coefficient of viscosity h. The viscous
force between the body and the liquid increases with increase of the velocity. At some stage the
driving force ‘F’ is just balanced by the viscous force ‘f’. From this stage onwards the body moves
with a steady uniform velocity called the terminal velocity Vt stokes formula gives a relation between
the viscous force ‘f’ and the velocity ‘V’ for a spherical body of radius ‘r’.
F V
f
Stokes formula : f = 6  rv
For a body moving with terminal velocity Vt under the action of the driving force F we have
F=f
F = 6  rVt
Example
When a tiny metal ball is dropped into a tall jar containing castor oil then it descends with a constant
terminal velocity.
If the radius of the ball = r,
density of the metal = d,
density of the liquid = ,
4 3
then weight of the ball = r d.g
3
39
4 3
upthrust or force of buoyancy = r .g
3
4 3
Apparent weight of the ball = r (d-).g
3
If the terminal velocity is ‘Vt’ and the coefficient of viscosity between the ball and the liquid is ‘h’ then
the viscous force balancing the apparent weight of the ball is given by 6phrVt.
4 3
 6phr Vt = r (d-).g
3
2 r2( d  ) g
 Terminal velocity Vt  .
9 
40
PHYSICS
ASSIGNMENT
41
1. As the temperature of a gas is raised its viscosity
1) increases 2) decreases 3) remains constant 4) None
2. A metal ball of radius 2mm and density 10.5 gm/cm3 is dropped in glycerine of coefficient of viscocity
9.8 poise and density 1.5 gm/cm3. The terminal velocity of the ball is
1) 2 cm/s 2) 4 cm/s 3) 6 cm/s 4) 8 cm/s
3. A layer of glycerin of thickness 1mm between two glass plates each of area 10cm2. If n of glycerin is
2kg/m/s then the force needed to slide one glass plate relative to the other with velocity of 1.2 cm/s is
............
1) 6 x 10-2 N 2) 3.6 x 10-2 N 3) 1.2 x 10-2 N 4) 2.4 x 10-2 N
4. A ball rises to surface at a constant velocity in a liquid whose density is four times greater than the
material of the ball. The ratio of the force of friction acting on the rising ball to its weight is
1) 3 : 1 2) 1 : 3 3) 4 : 1 4) 1 : 4
5. An air bubble of radius 0.3mm is found raising in a column of liquid of density 1.2 x 103kg/m3 with a
constant velocity of 2 cm/s. The coefficient of viscosity between the bubble and the liquid in kg m-1s-1 is
1) 11.76 x 10-3 2) 23.52 ´ 10-3 3) 5.88 ´ 10-3 4) none

6. A rain drop is falling with a terminal velocity of 24.5 m/s. If the coefficient of viscosity between air and
the drop is 1.8 x 10-5 S.I. unit and if the density of air is neglected compared to that of water then the
radius of the drop is
1) 0.225 x 10-3m 2) 4.5 x 10-3m 3) 0.9 x 10-3m 4) 0.45 x 10-3m
7. The terminal velocity of a tiny rain drop falling vertically is v. If 8 such drops coalesce the terminal
velocity of the bigger drop is
1) V 2) 2V 3) 3V 4) 4V
8. A lead sphere of mass m falls in a viscous liquid with a terminal velocity v0. Another lead sphere of mass
8m will fall through the same liquid with a terminal velocity
1) v0 2) 4v0 3) 8v0 4) 64v0
9. The volume of water flowing through a capillary tube is 20 cm3/s. If the tube length is halved and bore
radius is doubled the rate of flow becomes
1) 160 c.c/s 2) 320 c.c./s 3) 640 c.c./s 4) 1280 c.c./s
10. Two capillary tubes which are connected in series are carrying a liquid. Their radii are in the ratio 2 : 1
and their lengths are in the ratio 8 : 1. If the pressure drop across the first tube is P then the pressure
drop across the second is
1) P 2) 2P 3) 4P 4) P/4
11. Liquid is flowing through two capillary tubes connected in series. The radii of these tubes are R and R/
2 and their lengths are L and L/4 respectively. If the pressure difference across the two tubes is P then
the pressure difference across the second tube is
1) 2P/3 2) P/3 3) 4P/5 4) P/5
12. The coefficients of viscosity of two liquids are in the ratio 2 : 3 and their densities are in the ratio 4 : 5.If
these liquids contained in different vessels are drained through identical capillary tubes and the liquid
levels stand at the same height, then the ratio of volumes of the liquids collected in equal intervals of time
is
1) 8: 15 2) 6: 5 3)5 : 6 4)15 : 8
42
PHYSICS
13. ‘V’ c.c. of a liquid of coefficient of viscocity ‘h‘ was collected in 5 min, through a capillary tube at a
constant pressure P. Another liquid was made to flow through the same capillary tube and at the same
pressure so that 4V c.c. of the liquid was collected in 10 min. Then the coefficient of viscocity of the
second liquid is
1)  2) /2 3) 2 4) 4
14. When a tube of length  and radius ‘a’ is connected to a pressure head of height h, then volume of fluid
flowing through the tube is 16cm3/s. If a tube of length ‘  ’ and radius a/ 2 is connected to the same
pressure head, then the volume of the fluid flowing through this tube is
1) 16 cm3/s 2) 8 cm3/s 3) 4 cm3/s 4) 1 cm3/s
15. Two capillary tubes of lengths  1 and  2 and of radii r1 and r2 are connected in series. If the pressure
head is P, then the rate of flow through the combination is
(h - coefficient of viscosity of the liquid)
p p p p
1) 2  14   24  2) 4  14   24  3) 6  14   24  4) 8  14   24 
 r1 r2   r1 r2   r1 r2   r1 r2 
16. Two tubes A and B of length 50 cm and 40 cm having radii 0.1mm and 0.2mm respectively are con-
nected in series. If a liquid passing through the tubes enters A at a pressure of 160 cm of mercury and
leaves B at a pressure of 76cm of Hg. The pressure at the junction of the tubes is
1) 76cm of Hg. 2) 118 cm of Hg. 3) 80 cm of Hg. 4) 100 cm of Hg.
17. Consider the following statements.
Statement A : With increase in temperature surface tension of a liquid decreases.
Statement B : With increase in temperature viscosity of gases decreases.
1) both A & B are true 2) both A & B are false
3) A is true & B is false 4) B is true & A is false
18. Viscosity coefficients of two liquids are in the ratio 1 : 2. Their densities are in the ratio 1 : 2. A vessel
is alternately filled with the two liquids to the same height. The rates of flow of the liquids through the
same capillary tube are in the ratio
1) 1 : 4 2) 4 : 1 3) 1 : 2 4) 1 : 1
19. A capillary tube of length 30cm and having a bore of radius 1mm delivers 50c.c. of water in each minute
under a pressure head of 5cm of water. The coefficient of viscosity of water is
1) 6.6 x 10-4 kg m-1s-1 2) 7.7 x 10-4 kg m-1s-1 3) 4.4 x 10-4 kg m-1s-1 4) 5.5x10-4 kg m-1s-1
20. If the radius of the capillary tube is increased by 0.5% then the percentage increase in the rate of flow of
the liquid through it is
1) 1% 2) 4 % 3) 2 % 4) 0. 5 %
43
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
1 4 4 1 1 4 4 2 3 1 3 2 2 3 4
16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
3 3 4 2 3
44
PHYSICS
4 ELECTROSTATICS
45
Charging by friction-Interaction between charges-Conductors and insulators-Electrostatic induc-
tion-Sharing of charge-Charged conductor-The coulomb’s inverse square law-Electric field-Inten-
sity or strength of the electric field -To find the intensity of electric field at a point due to a point
charge-Electric lines of force-Distinguish between Electric lines of force and Magnetic lines of force-
Electric potential-Potential at a point due to a point charge-Potential of a charged spherical conduc-
tor-Relation between the electric intensity (E) and the potential-Electrical Capacity-Capacity of a
spherical conductor-Condenser or Capacitor-Different types of capacitors-Condensers in Series-
Condensers in Parallel-Energy of a charged condenser-Effect of the introduction of a dielectric
between the plates of a capacitor- Sharing of charge between condensers- Uses of Condensers
Charging by friction:
When one body is rubbed against the other then the one, which loses the electrons, is charged
positively and the other which gains the electrons is charged negatively.
Ex :When a glass rod is rubbed against silk, the glass rod is charged positively, while the silk is
charged negatively. The charge on a body is an integral multiple of the charge on the electron.
Interaction between charges:
Like charges repel each other; while unlike charges attract each other.
Conductors and insulators:
Materials, which allow the passage of electricity, are called conductors.
Ex. All metals, earth, human body, graphite, etc.,
Materials, which do not allow the passage of electricity, are called insulators.
Ex. Glass, rubber, ebonite, mica, diamond, plastic, porcelain, etc.,
Elements like Silicon and Germanium are called semiconductors
Electrostatic induction:
  
  
 
charged body conductor
When a conductor, insulated from the earth is arranged near a charged body, at the near end of the
conductor opposite charge is induced and at the farther end similar charge is induced.
Sharing of charge:
The sharing of charge between two conductors takes place only by the transfer of electrons.
Charged conductor:
a) The charge resides only on the outer surface of the conductor.
b) The surface charge density (or) the charge per unit area at any point is inversely Proportional to the
radius of curvature of the surface at that point.
c) Charge tends to accumulate more on the pointed ends of the conductor. Thus the pointed end acts
as a good exit of the charge and also a good entry.
d) A lightning conductor is a long strip of metal one end of which is earthed and the other end is raised
to a point higher than the highest point of the building. This upper end is in the form of spikes. This
allows the charge of the lightning to pass to the earth without damaging the building.
46
PHYSICS
The coulomb’s inverse square law :
The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the product
of the charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
If charges q1 and q2 are at a distance ‘r’ apart, the force ‘F’ between them is given by
q1q 2
F
r2
The value of the constant of proportionality depends on the unit of the charge and nature of the
medium between them.
The expression for the force between the charges in SI system is
1 q 1q 2
F= . . . . .. (for charges in vacuum or air)
4 0 r 2
1 q 1q 2
F= . . . . . . . (for charges in medium)
4 r 2
where  0 = permittivity of free space or vacuum; e = permittivity of the medium.

S.I. unit of charge = 1coulomb.

The relative permittivity of the medium  r       0  r
0
Permittivity is that electrical property of the medium between charges, which determines the force of
interaction between the charges.  r is sometimes written as K and is also called dielectric constant
or specific inductive capacity of the medium.
1 1 q1q 2
For charges in the medium F =
4 0 K r 2
1 2
Experimentally it was found that 4  9x109 Nm2 C and  0 = 8.85 x 10-12 F m-1.
0
[F stands for Farad]

Note : Charge on the electron, e = -1.6 x 10-19 C
Electric field:
The space surrounding a charge where its influence is felt is called the electric field.
Intensity or strength of the electric field (E):
The intensity of the electric field at a point is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive
charge placed at that point.
The intensity of electric field is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is N C 1 or Vm-1

To find the intensity of electric field at a point due to a point charge:
Let P be a point at a distance ‘r’ from a point charge +Q.
A unit positive charge is imagined at P.
47
The force experienced by this unit charge is given by
1 Q.1
F = 4 r 2 newton.
0
r P
F
Q  1C
So, the intensity of electric field at P is given by
1 Q
E = 4 r 2
0
1) If the charge is situated in a medium of dielectric constant K, then the electric
1 1 Q
intensity is E = 4 K r 2 N C 1 for Vm-1.
0
2) If a charge ‘Q’ is present at a point where the intensity of the electric field is E, then it experiences
a force F given by F  QE
Electric lines of force:
(a) Definition: An electric line of force is defined as the path along which a positive charge moves, when
kept in an electric field.
(b) Properties of electric lines of force:
1) Electric lines of force start from positive charge and end on negative charge.
2) A tangent drawn to electric line of force, at any point, gives the direction of electric field
at that point.
3) No two lines of force intersect. If two lines of force intersect at a point, then two
tangents can be drawn at the same point, which give two directions for the electric field
at the same point. This is impossible. So no two electric lines of force can intersect.
4) Electric lines of force are not closed curves.
5) Electric lines of force do not exist within the surface of a charged conductor.
6) Electric lines of force leave the surface of a charged conductor normally.
7) If the electric field is uniform, the lines of force will be parallel to each other.
8) Electric lines of force contract longitudinally and expand laterally and hence they
are in the state of tension.
Distinguish between Electric lines of force and Magnetic lines of force :
48
PHYSICS
Electric potential (V) :

The electric potential at a point is given by the work done in carrying a unit positive charge from
infinity or from a point of zero potential to that point.
Electric potential is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is volt.
Definition of volt: The electric potential at a point is said to be one volt if one joule of work is done in
carrying +1C of charge from infinity to that point.
The potential at a point due to a positive charge is positive and due to negative charge is negative.
The potential difference (PD) between two points is the work done in carrying one coulomb of
charge form one point to the other.
The work done in carrying a charge ‘Q’ from one point to the other between which the potential
difference is ‘V’, is given by
W = QV
Positive charges have tendency to pass from a point of higher potential to a point of lower potential
i.e. down the potential gradient.
Negative charges tend to move from a point of lower potential to a point of higher potential i.e., up
the potential gradient.
The surface of a charged conductor is an equipotential surface.
Electric lines of force and equipotential surfaces intersect at right angles.
Electron-Volt (eV) : It is the amount of energy gained by an electron in falling through a potential
difference of one volt. 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joule.
Potential energy of a charged particle in uniform electric field: The work done in carrying the charge
from infinity to any given point in the electric field is stored in it as electrical potential energy. The
potential energy of a charge ‘q’ which is present at a point where the potential is ‘V’ is given by P.E.
= qV joule.
The electric field is a conservative field in the sense that the work done in carrying a charge from one
point to the other is independent of the path along which it is taken.
path1 .A
.B path 2
49
Potential at A = Va
Potential at B = Vb
Potential difference between A and B = Vb - Va
Work done in carrying a charge ‘q’ from A to B is given by W = q (Vb- Va) joule.
This work ‘w’ is same whether the charge ‘q’ is carried along the path-1 or path-2.
Potential at a point due to a point charge:
Let P be a point at a distance ‘r’ from
a point charge +Q.
r P B dx A
Q  1C F
The problem is to find the potential ‘V’ at P

Let +1C of charge be placed at a point ‘A’ at a distance ‘x’ from the charge Q. The force F felt by
1 Q.1 1 Q
+1C is given by F = 4 
0 x
2
4 0 x 2 newton
The work done in carrying this charge +1C from A to B through a small distance dx is given by
dw = F . dx . cos1800
1 Q
= 4 2 dx (1)
0 x
1 dx
= - 4 Q 2 joule
0 x
The work done in carrying +1C from infinity to the point P is given by
r
1 dx
w =  dw    Q 2

4 0 x
r
1 dx
w= Q  2
4 0  x
r
1 1 
w= Q 
4 0  x  
1 1 1 
w = 4 Q  r   
0  
1 Q
w = 4 r joule
0
By the definition of electric potential this work ‘w’ represents the electric potential ‘V’ at the point
‘P’.
50
PHYSICS 1 Q
 Potential at P is given by V = 4 r volt.
0
1) If the charge is surrounded by a medium of dielectric constant K then the potential at P is given by
1 1 Q
V=
4 0 K r volt.
2) Potential energy of a point charge in an electric field of another point charge:
The potential at a point ‘p’ in the electric field of the charge Q1 is given by
1 Q1
V = 4 r volt.
0
r P
Q1 Q2
1 Q1
That is the work done in carrying +1C of charge from infinity to P is 4 r joule and this work is
0
stored in it in the form of potential energy. This implies that a charge +1C placed at ‘P’ has a
1 Q1 1 Q1Q2
potential energy of 4 r joule. So a charge Q2 placed at P has a potential energy of 4
0 0 r
joule
In fact this represents the PE of the system consisting of two charges Q1and Q2 at a distance ‘r’
apart. Similarly the PE of the three charged particle systems is given by
1  Q1Q2 Q2 Q3 Q3Q1 
PE = 4  r  r  r 
0  12 23 13 
This can be extended to any number of charges.
Potential of a charged spherical conductor :

When a charge Q is given to a spherical conductor of radius R, then its potential at any point on its
surface is given by -
1 Q
V = 4 R
0
If the conductor is surrounded by a medium of dielectric constant ‘K’
51
1 1 Q
then its potential becomes V = 4 K R
0
Relation between the electric intensity (E) and the potential (V):
Let ‘A’ and ‘B’ be the two points which are at a distance ‘dr’ apart in an electric field of strength E.
A point charge +1 coulomb is imagined at B.
The force on this charge is given by F= EQ = E.1 = E.
dr B  1C
A 180
o F
Work done in moving +1 coulomb from B to A is w = FScos q

= E dr cos1800 = -E dr
This ‘work’ represents the potential difference dV between A and B.
 dV = - E dr
 dV 
E = -  volt/metre or Vm-1
 dr 
Thus, Vm-1 can also be used as a unit for the intensity of the electric field.
Electrical Capacity(C):
The electrical capacity of a conductor is the quantity of charge required to raise its potential by 1 unit.
If the potential of a conductor is increased by ‘V’ on giving a charge ‘Q’ to it, then its capacity C =
Q
. Its SI unit is farad.
V
Definition of farad: The capacity of a conductor is said to be 1 farad if 1 coulomb of charge is
required to raise its potential by I volt.
Practical units: 1 micro farad = 1F = 10-6 farad.
1 pico farad = 1pF = 10-12 farad.
Capacity of a spherical conductor:
Let a charge ‘Q’ be given to a spherical conductor of radius ‘ R’,
1 Q
its potential V = 4 R
0
52
PHYSICS
Q
Capacity C = = 4  0 R.
V
 Capacity of spherical conductor C = 4  0 R.
Instead if the conductor is surrounded by a medium of dielectric constant ‘K’
then its capacity C 1 = K 4  0 R or C 1 = KC

Condenser or Capacitor:
It is an arrangement by which the capacity of a conductor is increased.
Principle and working of a condenser:
Step-1:
To increase the capacity of a conductor like A, another conductor B is arranged near it. When the
charge is given to A, then opposite charge is induced on the near face of B and a similar charge on the
other face of B. This reduces the potential of A and hence increases its capacity.
Step-2:
To increase the capacity of the conductor A further, the conductor B is earthed. Then positive charge
on B vanishes. The induced negative charge on B reduces the potential of A by a large amount.
Charge on A
But capacity =
Potential of A
So capacity of A is increased by large amount.
Step-3:
53
Capacity of A can be increased further by filling the space between A and B with a medium of
dielectric constant K.
1
Potential of A becomes times. So capacity of A becomes K times.
K
If C = capacity of a condenser with air between the plates ,
C’ = capacity of a condenser with a medium of dielectric constant K between the plates, then
C’ = KC.
Explanation of the role of dielectric medium in the condenser :
In the air cored charged parallel plate condenser there is uniform electric field of intensity E such that
E = V/d (or) V = Ed
Where V = P.D between the plates and d = distance between the plates.
When a slab of dielectric is placed between the plates the polar molecules turn in the direction of the
field E.
So the slab on the whole develops polarised negative and positive charges on its surfaces.
If E = intensity of original field
Ep = intensity due polarised charges.
then the resultant field Er is given by
Er = E - Ep
New potential difference V1 is given by
V1 = (E - Ep)d
This P.D V1 is times the original P.D = V.

 The capacity becomes k times.
54
PHYSICS
Different types of capacitors:
a) Capacity of a parallel plate condenser:
This condenser consists of a pair of parallel metal plates. If area of each plate = A,
distance between the plates = d, then the capacity of the condenser C=
If the space between the plates is filled with a medium of dielectric constant K then its capacity is
0 A
given by C = K
d
Hence the factors effecting the capacity are
(1) area of the plate, C A
1
(2) distance between the plates, C 
d
(3) dielectric between the plates, C  K
If a dielectric slab of thickness ‘t’ and of dielectric constant k is placed between the plates of the
condenser and if ‘t’ is less than the distance ‘d’ between the plates then the capacity is given by C =
0 A
t .
d t 
k
If V = p.d between the plates, d = distance between the plates, then the intensity of the electric filed
V
between the two plates E = .
d
b) Variable condenser: There are two sets of equally spaced
parallel plates. Set B is earthed and charge is given to set A. If there are ‘n’ plates in each set then
55
(2n-1) condensers are formed. If the distance between any two successive plates is ‘d’ and if their
0 A
area of overlapping is ‘A’ then the capacity of the’ whole arrangement is given by C = (2n-1)
d
By using the knob ‘k’ the area of overlapping can be changed. This changes the value of C.
c) Paper condenser: This is made by placing two identical tin foils ‘A’ and ‘B’ one over the other with a
thin sheet of paper in between them. The paper acts as dielectric. The foils A and B act as metal
plates. Basically this arrangement is a parallel plate condenser. The whole arrangement can be rolled
so that the condenser becomes very compact. At the same time the foils have very large area. In
other words the condenser has large capacity but occupies small space.
B A
d) Electrolytic condenser: This consists of a pair of parallel aluminium metal plates with a thin paste of
an electrolyte in between them. On passing direct current electrolysis takes place and one of the
plates is coated with a very thin layer of metal oxide which serves as a dielectric. The electrolyte acts
as a conductor. Since the layer of metal oxide which acts as dielectric is very thin and the dielectric
0a
constant k of the oxide is large, the capacity C = K . becomes very very large. However this
d
condenser can be used in direct current circuits only.
electrolyte Oxide
Al–plate Al–plate
– +
Condensers in Series:
Condensers of capacity C1, C2 and C3 are connected in series between A and B. Charge ‘Q’ is
given at A and B is earthed. Let ‘V’ be the potential difference between the points A and B. Same
charge Q will be developed on all the condensers by induction.
But the potential difference is different for different condensers
Q
Potentials difference across C1 is V1 = C
1
Q
Potential difference across C2 is V2  C …… (1)
2
56
PHYSICS
Q
Potential difference across C3 is V3 = C
3
A   
   B
  
Q
C1 C2 C3
Potential difference between A and B is V = V1 + V2 + V3 …….. (2)

If all these condensers can be replaced by a single condenser of equivalent capacity C
Q
then V  ……….. (3)
C
Q Q Q Q
From equations (1), (2) and (3) C  C  C  C
1 2 3
1 1 1 1
   
C C1 C2 C3
Condensers in Parallel:
Condensers of capacity C1, C2 and C3 are connected in parallel between A and B. Charge ‘Q’ is
given at ‘A’ and ‘B’ is earthed. This charge is shared by the condensers such that the potential
difference is same for all the condensers.
Charge on C1 is Q1 = C1V
Charge on C2 is Q2 = C2V ……… (1)
Charge on C3 is Q3 = C3V
Q1 
C1

Q Q2   C2
 B
A
C
 3
Q3 
Then the total charge ‘Q’ on all the condensers is given by Q= Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ……. (2)
If all these condensers can be replaced by a single condenser, of equivalent capacity C then Q =
CV ………. (3)
Substituting the result of (1) and (3) in equation (2)
We have CV = C1V+ C2V + C3V
 C = C1+ C2 + C3
Energy of a charged condenser:
The work done in charging a condenser is stored in it in the form of electrical energy. Let q be the
q
charge on a condenser of capacity C the potential of the condenser V 
C
57
The work done in giving an additional charge dq to the condenser is given by
q
dw  dq.v  dq.
c
The work done in giving a charge Q to an uncharged condenser is therefore given by
Q q.dq
w   dw  
0 c
Q
1  q2  1  Q2  Q2
w      0 
C  2 0 C  2  2C
This work is stored in it in the form of potential energy. So that energy of the charged condenser is
1 Q2
given by U  . joule.
2 C
If the final potential is V then Q = CV.
So the energy of the charged condenser is, in general given by
1 Q2 1 1
U  .  CV 2  QV
2 C 2 2
Effect of the introduction of a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor:
Let a capacitor be charged to V volt using a battery and then the battery is disconnected. Now its
capacity is C, potential difference between its plates is ‘V’ and the charge on it is Q. Then energy
1 2
stored in it is U  CV
2
Case 1: Now a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is placed between the plates. Then its
1
capacity becomes K times and hence potential becomes times, since charge remains same. Hence
K
the energy stored in it is
1 V 2 1 CV 2 U
U = 
1 KC  2
. 
2 K 2 K K
1
Energy stored becomes times.
K
Case 2: Instead if the dielectric medium of dielectric constant ‘K’ is introduced between the
plates without disconnecting the capacitor from the battery, then its capacity becomes K times but
potential remains the same.
Now the charge on the capacitor Q1 = KC.V Then the energy stored in the capacitor becomes
1
U 1  ( K .C )V 2  K .U Hence the energy stored becomes K times.
2
Sharing of charge between condensers:
Condensers of capacity C1 and C2 are charged to potentials V1 and V2. If they are connected in
parallel with their like plates together then the charge passes from one to another so that they have
58
PHYSICS
same or common potential V.
Net Charge
Common potential 
Net Capacity
C1V1  C2V2
V
C1  C2
There is always loss of energy during the sharing of charge. The loss in energy is given by
1 C1C2 2
U = . V1  V2 
2 C1  C2
Instead if the condensers are connected with their unlike plates together then
C1V1  C2V2
Common potential V  C1  C2
1 C1C2 2
Loss in energyU = 2 C  C V1  V2 
1 2
Uses of Condensers:
(1) Electrolytic condensers are used in rectifiers to store charge and to stabilise the voltage.
(2) Variable condensers are used for tuning the radio.
(3) Paper condensers are used in amplifier, oscillator and detector circuits.
(4) A condenser is a vital component of any electronic circuit.
59
ASSIGNMENT
60
PHYSICS
1. A distance ‘d’ separates two charges. One of the charges is reduced to half of its initial value. To make
the force between them constant, the charges must be placed at a distance of
1) d/ 2 2) d 2 3) d/2 4) 2d
2. A particle of charge q is placed at the centre of an equilateral triangle, with three identical charges Q
each at the vertices. Then the system will be in equilibrium if
1. q = - Q 2. q = -Q/4 3. q = -Q/ 2 4. q = -Q/3
3. Five point charges each q are placed at the vertices A,B,C,D,E of a regular hexagon of side L. The
resultant force on a point charge – q placed at the centre of the hexagon is
E D
F O C
A B
1 q2 1 q2
1) 4 2 along OC 2) 4 2 along OC
0 L 0 4L
1 q2 1 q2
3) 4 2 along OF 4) 4 2 along OF
0 L 0 4L
4. The force between two identical small conducting spheres having charges 80mC and -120mC when
placed at some distance apart is F. They are connected by a conducting wire, and the wire is removed.
The force between them now is
1) F/6 2) F/24 3) F/8 4) F/12

5. A charge Q is placed at each of the two opposite corners of a square. A charge q is placed at each of
the other two corners. If the resultant force on Q is zero, then
1) Q = 2q 2) Q = - 2 q 3) Q = 2 2 q 4) Q = -2 2 q
6. A pendulum of bob mass 40mg having a charge 2´10-8C is suspended in a horizontal electric field of
strength 2´104N/C. If g = 10m/s2, the angular deflection of the pendulum is
1) 390 2) 450 3) 600 4) 150
7. Two pith balls each of mass 18 ´ 10-4kg are suspended from the same point by silk threads 0.1m long.
When equal charges are given the balls separate until the two threads are perpendicular. The charge on
each ball is (g = 10ms-2)
1) 2x10-7C 2) 10-14C 3) 107C 4) 10-6C
8. Two similar metal balls are hung from the same point by long silk threads of equal length. Each ball
carries equal charge Q. The separation between them is 2 cm. The charge on the balls is increased
equally such that separation is 8 cm. The charge on each ball now is
1) 2 Q 2) 4 Q 3) 8 Q 4) 16 Q
9. Two identical charged spheres are suspended by strings of equal length. The strings make an angle of
300 with each other. When suspended in a liquid of density 0.8gm/cc, the angle remains the same. If
the density of the material of the sphere is 1.6gm/cc, the value of dielectric constant of the liquid is
61
1) 1 2) 1.5 3) 2 4) 3
10. If an oil drop of weight 3.2´10-13N is balanced in an electric field of 5´105 V/m, the charge on the drop
is
1) 6.4X´10-13C 2) 6.4´X10-19C 3) 6.4X´10-12C 4) 6.4X´10-15C
11. Two charges, +Q coulomb and -Q coulomb are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side
x metre. Then field strength at the third corner is
1 Q 3 Q 3 Q 1 1 Q
1) 4  . x 2 2) . 3) 4  . x 2 4) . . 2
0 4 0 x 2 0 3 4 0 x
12. Point charges ‘+Q’ each are placed at the corners of a regular hexagon of side ‘a’. If one of the charges
is replaced by ‘-Q’ then the electric intensity at the centre of the hexagon is
1 4Q 1 4Q 1 2Q 1 Q
1) 4  . a 2 2) 4  . a 2 3) 4  . a 2 4) 4  a 2
0 0 0 0
13. Two free charges q and 4q are placed at a distance ‘r’ apart. A third charge ‘Q’ is placed between them
at a distance ‘x’ from ‘q’ such that the system is in equilibrium then, Q = .. and x = ..
4q r 4q r 4q r 4q r

1) , 2) , 3) , 4) ,
9 3 9 4 3 3 3 4
14. A charged particle of mass m and charge q is released from rest in uniform electric field of intensity E.
The kinetic energy of the particle after a time of t is
mE 2 t 2 q 2 E 2t 2 q 2 E 2 q 2t Eqm
1) 2) 3) 4)
2 2m 2m 2t
15. There is a uniform electric filed of strength 103V/m along y-axis. A body of mass 1gram and charge 10-
6
C is projected into the field from origin along the positive x-axis with a velocity of 10ms-1. Its speed in
ms-1 after 10s is (Neglect gravitation)
1) 10 2) 5 2 3) 10 2 4) 20
16. Two point charges of 0.12mC and -0.06mC are situated at a distance of 3.0m from each other. The
electric field intensity at a point p mid-way between them is
1) 120N/C 2) 720N/C 3) 360N/C 4) 240N/C
17. Charges of 1.2´10-8C and -1.6´10-8C are placed 5cm apart at points A and B respectively. The electric
field intensity at a point C which is 3cm from A and 4cm from B is
1) 1.5x105 N/C 2) 1.5x10-5 N/C 3) 1.5x10-6 N/C 4) 1.5x106N/C
18. An infinite number of charges each of Q coulomb are placed at x = 1m, x = 2m, x =4m, x=8m ..
and so on. The electric field strength at the point x = 0 due to this set of charges is
Q Q Q Q
1) 4  2) 3  3) 2  4) 8 
0 0 0 0
19. The concentric spheres have radii r and R(r < R). They carry charges q and Q respectively. Electric
potential and electric field strength on the surface of inner sphere are
1 q Q 1 Q 1  qQ  1 q
1)    and 2)   and
4 0  r R  4 0 R 2 4 0  R  4 0 r 2
62
PHYSICS
1 q Q 1 q 1  qQ  1 q
3) 4  r  R  and 4 r 2 4) 4  r  and 4 r 2
0   0 0   0
20. Two concentric thin metallic spheres of radii R1 and R2 (R1 > R2) bear charges Q1 and Q2 respectively.
The potential at distance r (R1 >r> R2) from the center is
1  Q1  Q2  1  Q1 Q2  1  Q1 Q2  1  Q1 Q2 
1) 4    2) 4     3) 4     4) 4    
0  r  0  r R2  0  R1 R2  0  R1 r 
21. Two concentric thin metallic spheres of radii R1 and R2 (R1 > R2) bear charges Q and Q respectively.
The potential difference between their surfaces is 5V. If +4Q charge is given to the outer sphere then the
potential difference between their surfaces is
1) 5V 2) 10V 3) 15V 4) 20V
22. An infinite number of charges each equal to ‘Q’ but alternately positive and negative are placed at
distances 1m, 2m, 4m, 8m…. …from the origin in the same straight line. The potential at the origin is
Q Q Q Q
1) 6  2) 2 3) 4 4) 8
0 0 0 0
23. Radius of a hollow charged metal sphere is r. If the potential difference between its surface and a point
at a distance 3r from the centre is V, then the electric field intensity at a distance 3r from the centre is
V V V 2V
1) 2) 3) 4)
6r 4r 3r 3r
24. ABCD is a rectangle with AB = 8m and BC = 6m. Charges + 60mC and - 30mC are placed at A and
B. The charge that should be placed at C so that the potential at D becomes zero is
1) -56C 2) 104C 3) -30C 4) -60C
25. Two charges of 10mC and -20mC are separated by a distance of 30cm. The distance of the point from
the smaller charge between the two charges where the electric potential is zero is
1) 6cm 2) 7.5cm 3) 10cm 4) 15cm
26. The angle between electric field lines and equi-potential surfaces due to a point charge is
1) 900 2) 1800 3) 00 4) 450
27. The variation of potential (v) in volt with distance (r) in metre from point ‘0’ is as shown. The electric
field at r=0.5m is
2
v
1
0 1 2 3 4
r
1
1) 0 2) 1 v/m 3) -2v/m 4) v/m
2
28. The electric potential V (in volt) varies with x (in metre) according to the relation V = 5 + 4x2. The force
experienced by a negative charge of 2 x 10-6C located at x = 5m is
63
1) 20 x 10-6N 2) 40 x 10-6N 3) 60 x 10-6N 4) 80 x 10-6N
29. The figure shows different equipotential surfaces in a region of electric field. Among the points A, B, C,
D the magnitude of electric field is maximum at
.A .C
.D .B
50 V 40V 30V 20V 10V
1) A 2) B 3) C 4) D
30. A charge of 5mC is placed at the centre of a square ABCD of side 10cm. The work done in moving a
charge of 1mC from A to B is
1) 45x10+9J 2) 4.5x10-3J 3) 9x10-3J 4) zero

31. Point charges 1mC each are placed at the three corners of a triangle of side 3m. The work done in
removing one of the charges to infinity distance is
1) 3 x 10-3 J 2) 6 x 10 3 J 3) 18 x 10-3 J 4) 12 x 10-3 J
32. Three point changes 1C, 2C and 3C are placed at the three corners of an equilateral triangle of side 1m.
The energy required to move these charges to the corners of a smaller triangle of side 0.5m is
1) 9.9 x 1010 J 2) 19.8 x 1010 J 3) 39.6 x 1010 J 4) 79.2 x 1010 J
33. A uniform electric field of 104 Vm-1 exists in a region of space along x - axis. There are the points A, B
and C situated at (0, 0, 0) (2m, 0, 0) and (2m, 2m, 0) respectively. Work done in taking a charge 2mC
from A to B through the path ACB is
1) 4 x 10-2J 2) 10-3 J 3) 2 x 10-2J 4) Zero
34. Surface charge density of a sphere of a radius 10cm is 8.85 x 10-8 C/m2 . Potential at the centre of the
sphere is
1) 1000V 2) 885V 3) 10-3V 4) 442.5V
35. The potential difference between anode and cathode of a radio valve is 500V. The velocity with which
an electron starting from cathode strikes the anode is nearly equal to
1) 7.3x106 m/s 2) 1.33x107 m/s 3) 5x106 m/s 4) 5x106 m/s
36. If 4´1020 eV of energy is required to move a charge of 0.25 coulomb between two points. The P.D
between them is
1) 256 volts 2) 156volts 3) 356 volts 4) 25.6 volts
37. An a particle with KE of 10MeV is projected towards a stationary nucleus of atomic number 50. The
distance of closest approach is
1) 4.4 x 10-15m 2) 14.4 x 10-15m 3) 24.4 x 10-15 m 4) 7.2 x 10-15 m
38. A spherical conductor of radius 10cm is charged and put in contact with an uncharged spherical con-
ductor of radius 20cm. The surface charge densities are in the ratio of
1) 2 : 1 2) 1 : 4 3) 4 : 1 4) 1 : 2
39. Two spheres of radii 5cm and 10cm are charged with 75mC each. They are connected by a conduct-
ing wire. The amount of charge transferred is
1) 25C from smaller to bigger 2) 25C from bigger to smaller
3) 50C from smaller to bigger 4) 50C from bigger to smaller
64
PHYSICS
40. One million drops each of radius 2 cm and having a charge of 4 x 10-9 coulomb coalesce to from a big
drop. The potential of the big drop is
1) 8 x 106V 2) 9 x 106V 3) 18 x 106V 4) 36 x 106V

41. A charge ‘Q’ is distributed over two concentric hollow spheres of radii ‘r’ and R (>r) such the surface
charge densities are equal. The potential at the common centre is
Q( R  r ) Q Q( R 2  r 2 )
1) 4 ( r 2  R 2 ) 2) 3) 4) Zero
0 Rr 4 0 ( R  r )
42. Two circular metal plates each of radius 1m are put together with a dielectric sheet of thickness 1mm in
between them. If the dielectric constant of the sheet is 3.6, then capacity of the arrangement is
1) 1F 2) 2F 3) 0.1F 4) 0.2F
43. Effective capacity in the figure shown is
0 A 2 0 A
1) 2)
d d
30 A 4 0 A
3) 4)
d d
44. The potential of the point ‘B’ is higher than that of ‘A’ by 20V. The potential difference across capacitor
C2 in the figure is
8V 15V
A B
C1=2F C2=3F C3=4F
F
1) 7V 2) 4V 3) 8V 4) 23V
45. A capacitor connected to a 10V battery collects a charge 40mC with air as dielectric and 100mC with
oil as dielectric. The dielectric constant of oil is
1) 4 2) 0.4 3) 1 4) 2.5
46. Two parallel plate capacitors, each of capacity 40F are connected in series. If one of them is filled with
dielectric of dielectric constant 4, their effective capacity is
1) 32F 2) 64F 3) 80F 4) 200F
47. When four identical capacitors are connected in series, their effective capacity is 0.2F. Instead, if they
are connected in parallel, their equivalent capacity will be
1) 0.8F 2) 3.2F 3) 1.6F 4) 4.8F
48. Equivalent capacity between A and B is
A 2F 8F B
8f
8F 32F
65
1) 8F 2) 32F 3) 24F 4) 30F
49. Equivalent capacity between A and B is
A
2C
2C C
C
C C
B
1) 8C 2) 4C
3) 2C 4) 6C
50. An infinite number of identical capacitors, each of capacity 1mF are connected as shown. The equiva-
lent capacity between A and B is
8 ca p a cito r
A B
1) 1F 2) 0.5F
3)  4) 2F
51. Capacity between A and B is
A
C C C
C C C 
1) C 2) 5C
3) ( 5 - 1)C 4)
 5 1 
C
2
52. Four identical capacitors are connected in series with a battery of 20V as shown. The point P is
earthed. The potentials of points A and B are
20V
A C C C C B
1) 5, 15V 2) 15V, 5V
3) 15V, -5V 4) 13V, -7V
66
PHYSICS
53. A charged parallel plate condenser is disconnected from the cell. If the distance between its plates is
doubled, then the electric intensity between its plates
1) becomes 2 times 2) becomes ½ times 3) remains same 4) None

54. A parallel plate capacitor of capacity 100pF is charged to a potential of 500V. If the battery is then
disconnected and the distance between the plates is reduced to half, then the change in the energy
stored is
1) 6.25 x 10-6 J 2) 12.5 x 10-6 J 3) 25 x 10-6 J 4) 3.125 x 10-6 J
55. A condenser of 21mF is charged to 100V and then discharged through a wire of mass 0.25gm and
specific heat 0.1 cal/gm/0C. The rise the temperature of the wire is
1) 20C 2) 10C 3) 40C 4) 50C
56. Two condensers of capacity 2mF and 8mF are each charged to a potential of 1000V and connected
with their unlike plates together. The loss in energy is
1) 3.2J 2) Zero 3) 3.2mJ 4) 3.2´103J
57. Two parallel plate capacitors of capacities C and 2C are connected in parallel and charged to a poten-
tial difference of V volt. The battery is then disconnected and the region between the plates of C is filled
with a material of dielectric constant K. The potential difference across 2C becomes
3V 3V 3V
1) 3V 2) 3) 4)
K K 2 K 1
58. A parallel plate capacitor is charged to a certain Potential Difference A slab of thickness 3mm is
inserted between the plates and it becomes necessary to increase the distance between the plates by 2.4
mm to maintain the same potential difference. The dielectric constant of the slab is
1) 3 2) 5 3) 2.5 4) 2.4
59. An electron of charge ‘q’ enters the region between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor at a point
equidistant from either plate. The capacitor plates are separated by a distance of d and the length of
each plate is L. A potential difference of V is maintained between the plates. If the initial velocity is
parallel to the plates, the maximum value of the velocity, so that electrons do not come out of the plates
is.......... (Neglect gravitational force)
L qV LqV
1) 2)
d m dm
qV 1 LqV
3) L 4)
dm d m
60. A parallel plate capacitor with air as medium has a capacitance of 14mF. The capacitor is filled with
three media k1 = 2, k2 = 3 and k3 = 4 as shown in figure. The capacitance of the system will be
A /2 A /2
d k1 k2 d/2
k3 d/2
1) 38F 2) 21F
3) 17F 4) 24F
67
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
1 4 1 2 4 2 1 3 3 2 1 3 1 2 3
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
2 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 4 3 4
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 3 3 2 4
46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60.
1 2 1 3 4 4 3 3 1 2 1 3 2 1 1
68
PHYSICS
5 CURRENT ELECTRICITY-1
69
Strength of Electric Current:
The strength of electric current in a conductor is given by the rate of flow of charge through any cross
section of the conductor.
If the charge passing through a conductor is Q coulombs in t seconds, then the current I is given by
Charge Q 
I=
time t 
1 coulomb
S.I. Unit of current is ampere(A); 1 ampere =
1 second
However, proper definition of ‘ampere’ is given in “Electromagnetism” chapter.
Ohm’s Law:
(a) Statement: The strength of the current in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference between its ends, provided the temperature is constant.
If a current I amp. is passing through a conductor under a potential difference of V volts between its
ends, then V a I
V = RI
Where R is the proportionality constant and is called the resistance of the conductor.
The S.I unit of resistance is Ohm.
This unit ohm is usually represented by the symbolW.
(b) Definition of Ohm: The resistance of a conductor is said to be one ohm when a current of one
ampere passes through it under a potential difference of 1 volt.
(c) Factors influencing the resistance of a conductor:
The resistance of a wire depends on
(i) Nature of its material
(ii) Physical dimensions such as its length and area of cross – section
(iii) Temperature
(1) Specific resistance (or) Resistivity:
The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly proportional to its length (l) and inversely proportional
to its area of cross section (a).
l
i.e., R  or R=S
a
Where S is a constant called the “specific resistance” or resistivity of the material of the conductor. It
depends on the nature of material of the conductor and its temperature.
Definition : Specific resistance is the resistance of a wire of unit length and unit area of cross
section. The S.I. unit of specific resistance is ohm-meter (or)  m.
The resistivity is of the order of 10-8 ohm.m for metals like copper, 1012 ohm.m for insulators like
glass and 10-1 ohm.m for semiconductors like silicon.
 1
(2) Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance  i.e.  is called conductance. Its S.I. unit is siemen
 R
or mho.
70
PHYSICS
(3) Conductivity: The reciprocal of specific resistance is called the conductivity and its SI unit is siemen/
m.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law :
Ohmic resistances are those which obey the Ohm’s law. The potential (V) versus current (I) graph
for these conductors is a straight line. Ex : Metallic Conductors.
Non ohmic resistances are those which do not obey the Ohm’s law. The V-I graph for a non-ohmic
resistance is not a straight line. Ex : Discharge tubes, Transistors etc.,
Note : The slope of the V - i graph gives the conductance of the wire.
Ohmic resistance:
The V-i graph is a straight line. This shows that at a given temperature, the conductance and hence
the resistance of the wire is constant and is independent of the strength of the current and direction of
the current.
Non-ohmic resistance:
The typical V-i graph for diode as shown in the figure is not a straight line. From the graph it follows
that
a) The non-ohmic resistance is variable. Its value depends on the strength of the current and
b) The value of the non-ohmic resistance depends also on the direction of the current. It has small value
while the current is flowing in one direction and a very large value when the current is reversed in
direction.
The non-ohmic resistance offered by certain devices like thermistor, neon bulb etc. is so peculiar that
for the same P.D it carries different currents and hence offer different resistances.
V V
R1 = i and R2 = i
1 2
Variation of Resistance with temperature:

The electrical resistance of a metal wire increases with increase in temperature. The resistance Rt of
a conductor at a temperature t0c is given by the relation.
71
Rt = R0 (1+t)
where R0 is the resistance of the wire at 00C and a is called the temperature coefficient of the
resistance of the material of the wire.
For metals, a is positive but for semiconductors it is negative. For constantan and mangan in a is
nearly equal to zero. So, these are used in the making of standard resistances.
The variation of resistance of a wire is due to the variation of resistivity with temperature.
If S0 = resistivity at 00C and S = resistivity at t0C then S = S0 (1+t)
So  is also called the temperature coefficient of resistivity of the material of the wire.
Definition: The temperature coefficient of resistivity of a material can be defined as the fractional
change in its resistivity for unit change of temperature.
The current in a wire is due to the drift of the free electrons. With the increase of temperature, the
mean velocity of the free electrons increases but the drift velocity of the electrons along the length of
the wire decreases. This is the reason why the resistivity of a metal increases with the increase of
temperature.
Superconductivity: For every material there is certain low temperature below which its resistivity
becomes zero. The electrical conductivity at temperatures less than the critical temperature is called
superconductivity. Ex : Critical temperature of Aluminium = 1.75K
Critical temperature of Mercury = 4K
Critical temperature of Zinc = 0.85 K
(1) Thermistor:
A thermistor is a semiconductor device for which the resistance changes very much with tempera-
ture. There are two types of thermistors. One type has high +ve temperature coefficient of resistance
and the second type has high –ve temperature coefficient of resistance.
Thermistors with –ve coefficient are used in the making of thermometers with which temperatures as
low as 10K can be measured to an accuracy of 10-3degree. Thermistors are also used as thermo-
stats. Thermistors are used in electronic circuits to make the current independent of the fluctuations
in temperature.
(2) Light Dependent Resistance (LDR):
It is a device for which the resistance decreases with the increase of the intensity of the light incident
on it.
Combination of Resistances:
(1) Series Combination: If a number of resistances are joined end to end then the combination is said
to be series combination. In this combination, the same current passes through all of them.
I V1 V2 V3 I
A R1 B R2 C R3 D
Let the resistances R1, R2 and R3 be connected in series. Let I be the current passing through all of
them.
The effective resistance of a number of resistances in a series combination is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances i.e. R = R1 + R2+ R3
72
PHYSICS
V1 V2 V3
Since R  R  R , we have V1 : V2 : V3 = R1 : R2 : R3
1 2 3
2) Parallel Combination: If a number of resistances are joined in parallel between the same two
points the combination is called parallel combination. In this combination, the potential difference
is the same across all of them.
Let the resistances R1, R2 and R3 be connected in parallel between A and B. Then the reciprocal of
the effective resistance of number of resistors in parallel combination is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistances.
1 1 1 1
  
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1
Since I1R1 = I2R2 = I3R3, we have I1 : I2 : I3 = R : R : R
1 2 3
Ohm’s law applied to a total circuit:

Cell: Cell is a device, which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Primary cells are those,
which cannot be recharged. A secondary cell gives large current since it has low internal resistance
and can be recharged.
Let a cell of e.m.f. ‘E’ is in series with an external resistance R. Let ‘r’ be the internal resistance of the
cell. Now, the current (I) in the circuit is given by
EMF E
I   E  IR  Ir
Total Resistance R  r
The e.m.f ‘E’ of a cell is the potential difference between its terminals when the cell is in an open
circuit or when no current is drawn from it.
The product ‘IR’ is called the Terminal P.D. The product ‘Ir’ is called the ‘internal P.D.’ or ‘Lost
volts’.
E.M.F. = Terminal P.D. + Lost volts
73
1) Back emf in a cell : While current is drawn from a cell a layer of negatively charged ions is
formed on the +ve terminal and a layer of +vely charged ions is formed on the –ve terminal. This
effect is called polarisation. The P.D. between charge layers (-e) opposes the natural emf (E) of the
cell. This emf (e) is called the back emf of the cell so that the net emf of the cell becomes (E – e).
2) (a) Cells in series: When ‘n’ cells each of emf ‘E’ are connected in series, then the total e.m.f. E’
= nE.
The total internal resistance =nr, then the current through external resistance ‘R’ is given by,
 
 n.E.   E 
I    or  I   
 n.r  R  r R 
 n
E
If R >> r, then I =  R 
n
or I = n
= n times the current due to single cell.
 Series combination of cells is used only when external resistance is very large.
(b) Cells in Parallel : When ‘n’ cells each of emf ‘E’ are connected in parallel, total
internal resistance= ,
then the current
 
 E 
I  
 R r 
 n
E
If r >> R, then I =  r 
n
E
or I = n  
 R
= n times the current due to single cell .
74
PHYSICS
 Parallel combination of cells is used when the internal resistance is very large.
3) EMF and Terminal P.D. of a cell :
Kirchhoff’s laws:
1st Law:
“The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction of an electric circuit is ’’ zero”.
Explanation:
If I1, I2, I3 , I4 and I5 are the currents passing through the different conductors meeting at O, then
according to the above law, we have I1- I2 +I3 – I4 + I5 =0
or
I1 + I3 + I5 =I2 + I4
Sum of the currents reaching the junction = Sum of the currents leaving the junction. This is called the
“Law of currents” or “Law of Junctions”.
75
nd
2 Law:
In any closed mesh of an electric circuit. The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resis-
tances of the various branches of the mesh, is equal to the net E.M.F. of the cells in that mesh.
Explanation:
For the closed mesh KLMNK,
IR+I1R1+I3 R3+Ir = E.
For the closed mesh ABCDA, I2R2 – I1R1 =0
Sign convention: While applying the 2nd law a clock wise or anti-clockwise direction path is to be
selected around the closed mesh.
(a) If the current in any branch is in the direction of the chosen path then the P.D. across the branch is to
be taken +ve instead if it is in the opposite direction, then the P.D. is taken –ve.
(b) If the emf the cell in the mesh is favourable to send the current in the direction of then chosen path
then it is taken +ve. Instead if the emf of the cell is to send the current in the opposite direction, then
the emf is taken -ve.
Wheatstone’s Bridge:
The Wheatstone’s bridge consists of four resistances P,Q,R, and S connected in series to form a
closed circuit ABCD. Between the junctions A and C a cell is connected through a key. Between
the junctions B and D a sensitive galvanometer G and high resistance HR are connected.
Applying Kirchhoff’s 1st law for the junctions B and D, we have
I1 = I3 +Ig and 
 (1)
I2 + Ig = I4  (2)

The Wheastone’s bridge is said to be balanced when no current passes through the galvanometer,
i.e. when there is null deflection in the galvanometer.
When Ig = 0
then I1 = I3 and I2= I4 
 (3)
For Ig to be zero the junctions B and D should be at the same potential. In such a case,
P.D. across AB = P.D. across AD.
I1P = I2R 
 (4)
P.D. across BC = P.D. across DC
I3Q = I4S 
 (5)
But from equation (3) , I3 = I1 and I4 = I2
 I1Q = I2S 
 (6)
Dividing (4) by (6) we get
This is the condition for the balancing of the Wheatstone’s Bridge.
76
PHYSICS
Metre Bridge:
a) Description: The metre bridge consists of two L-shaped and one straight copper strips which are
fixed on a wooden bench forming two gaps 1 & 2. These copper strips are provided with binding
screws for making connections. Between the ends A and B, a resistance wire of uniform cross
section and length one metre is stretched. A metre scale is fixed along the bridge wire. Contact at any
point D on the wire can be made by means of jockey J.
b) Procedure: A cell is connected between M and N through a plug key K. Unknown resistance (x)
is connected in gap-1 and a resistance box in gap-2. A galvanometer is connected between C and J
through a high resistance. With a suitable resistance R in the box, the plug key is closed. The jockey
is successively pressed at A and B when opposite deflections are observed. The jockey is now
taken from A to B pressing it at various points until the deflection in the galvanometer becomes
almost zero. At this stage the high resistance is removed and the point D is located, where when the
jockey is pressed there would be no deflection in the galvanometer. This point D is called balance
or null point. The balancing length AD is noted as l cm. If X = unknown resistance in the first gap,
then
X Resistance of ADcm of the wire


R Resistance of BD cm of the wire
If r = resistance per 1cm of the bridge wire then
77
X lr X l
  
R  100  l  r R  100  l 
Knowing R and l , X can be determined. The experiment is repeated for different values of R and
the mean value of X is found out. The readings are entered in the tabular form as given below.
The average of the values of the last column gives the resistance ‘X’ of the wire.
c) Measurement of the specific resistance (S) : The length ‘L’ of the given resistance wire is
measured. The average radius ‘r’ of the wire is measured using screw gauge. The specific resistance
is calculated using the formula
X  r2
S m  m
L
d) Precautions:
1) High currents are to be avoided.
2) The resistance R in the box must be such that the balancing length is nearly equal to 50cm.
3) During the final stages of locating the balance point the high resistance is to be removed.
Potentiometer – Comparison of EMFs of two cells :
(a) Circuit: The potentiometer wire AB is a uniform resistance wire of length 10m, which is kept
stretched in 10 parallel rows on a wooden bench. A Scale is fixed on the bench to measure the
lengths. The primary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of the cell E to A and the
negative terminal to B through a key K1 and Rheostat Rh. Two cells of emf E1 and E2 are arranged
in the secondary circuit with their positive terminals connected to A and their negative terminal con-
nected to a jockey J through a two way key K2 a high resistance HR and a sensitive galvanometer G.
78
PHYSICS
(b) Procedure: The plug key K1 is closed and the rheostat Rh is adjusted to pass a suitable current
through AB. This produces a potential gradient along AB. Let this potential difference per unit length
of AB be V.
Gap-1 of the key K2 is closed. The first cell of emf E1 is now in the secondary circuit. The jockey J
is pressed alternately at A and B when opposite deflections are to be noticed in the galvanometer.
The jockey is moved from A to B pressing, it at successive points until the deflection becomes almost
zero. Now the high resistance HR is removed and finally a point P called the balance point is located
where when the jockey is pressed there would be no deflection in the galvanometer. The balancing
length AP is measured as  1 .
Potential difference between A and P =  1V 

 (1)
No deflection in the galvanometer is an indication that no current is drawn from the cell (E1) So it is
the emf E1 which is balanced by the potential difference between A and P.
 E1   1 .V 
 (2)
Now gap–1 of K2 is opened and gap-2 is closed. With the second cell of emf E2 in the circuit the
present balancing length is obtained as . While finding utmost care is to be taken not to disturb the
rheostat.
Now E2 = V 
 (3)
From equations (2) and (3)
A number of observations can be taken from different settings of the rheostat and the observations
are entered into the following tabular form
(c) Tabular form:
E1
Average 
E2
Thus the ratio of the emfs of two cells can be obtained.

(d) Precautions:
1) Balancing lengths  1 and  2 are to be taken for the same setting in the rheostat.
2) 4During the final stages of finding the balancing length the high resistance must be removed every
time.
3) High currents are to be avoided through the potentiometer.
Potentiometer – To find the internal resistance of cell :
(a) Circuit: The potentiometer wire AB is a uniform resistance wire of length 10m, which is kept,
stretched in 10 parallel rows on the wooden bench. On the same bench a metre scale is fixed to find
the length of the wire.
The positive terminal of the cell in the primary circuit is connected to A and the negative terminalto B
through a key K1 and a rheostat Rh.
79
The given cell of emf E is arranged in the secondary circuit with its positive terminal connected to A
and the negative terminal to the jockey J through a high resistance HR and a galvanometer G. A
resistance box R is connected parallel to this cell through a key K2.
(b) Procedure: The key K1 is closed and the rheostat Rh is adjusted for a proper current i. With the
key K2 kept opened, the jockey is pressed successively at A and B, then opposite deflections are to
be observed. The jockey is taken from A to B keeping it pressed at successive points until the
deflection in the galvanometer becomes almost zero. The high resistance is removed at this stage
and the balance point P is located where there would be no deflection in the galvanometer when the
jockey is pressed. The balancing length AP is measured as  1 if the potential difference per unit
length along AB is V, then it follows that
E   1V  (1)

Now the key K2 is closed. A suitable resistance R is kept in the resistance box. The terminal
E
potential difference = .R where r = internal resistance of cell.
Rr
Without disturbing the rheostat, the new balancing length is determined as  2
E
 .R   2 V (2)
Rr
Eq  1 Rr 1
gives 
Eq  2  R 2
r 1
1  
R 2
r 1   2
 1  1
R 2 2
   2 
r 1 R (3)


 2 
80
PHYSICS
A number of observations are taken and entered into the following tabular form
The average of the values in the last column gives the internal resistance(r) of the cell.
Precautions:
1) Both  1 and  2 are to be determined with the same setting of the rheostat.
2) During the final stages of finding the balancing length the high resistance should be removed.
3) High currents through AB are to be avoided.
81
ASSIGNMENT
82
PHYSICS
1. The instantaneous current through a conductor is given by I =(4 - 0.04t)amp. The total charge flowed
in 100s is
1) zero 2) 100 coulomb 3) 200 coulomb 4) 400 coulomb
2. The resistance of a hollow cylindrical pipe of length 1m whose inner and outer radii are 10 and 20 cm
respectively (specific resistance is 3.14 x 10-8  -m) is
1) 1.1 x 10-7  2) 2.2 x 10-7  3) 3.3x10-7  4) 4.4x10-  7
3. Two wires of same material having lengths in the ratio 2 : 3 are connected in series. If the potential drops
across them are 4.2V and 3.6V respectively then the ratio of their radii is
1) 3 : 2 2) 7 : 6 3) 2 : 7 4) 7 : 6
4. The number of turns of nichrome wire of specific resistance 10-6 W-m and diameter 1mm that should be
wound around a porcelain cylinder with radius 2.5cm to obtain a resistance of 20  is
1) 100 2) 2000 3) 200 4) 400
5. One kg of copper is drilled into 1mm thick wire and another 1kg of copper is drilled into 2mm thick
wire. The ratio of the resistances of these two wires is
1) 2 : 1 2) 4 : 1 3) 8 : 1 4) 16 : 1
6. A metal block has dimensions 10cm ´ 5cm ´ 2cm. The ratio of maximum to minimum resistance of that
block is
1) 25 : 1 2) 5 : 1 3) 5 : 2 4) 2 : 1
7. A conductor has a resistance R. It is bent in the form of a circle. The effective resistance between two
points on its circumference which subtend an angle 600 at its centre is
1) 5R/6 2) 5R/12 3) 5R/24 4) 5R/36
8. The effective resistance between A and B is
A
12 12
12 B
12 12
1) 15/2  2) 13/2  3) 17/4  4) 19/5 

9. A Wire of length ‘L’ is bent in the form of an equilateral triangle then the effective resistance between any
two vertices of the triangle is R. If the same wire is bent in the form of a square then the effective
resistance across one side is
32R 3R 27 R 2R
1) 2) 3) 4)
27 16 32 9
10. If two wires of conductivity 1 and  2 and of same length and area of cross-section are connected in
series, then the equivalent conductivity is
 1 2 2 1 2 1   2
1)    2)    3) 4)  1   2
1 2 1 2 2
11. The effective resistance of a number of resistors in parallel is x  . When one of the resistors is burnt the
effective resistance is y  . Resistance of the burnt part is
83
 xy   x y  xy 
1)   2) (x-y) 3)   4)  
 x y  xy   yx
12. A carbon filament has a resistance of 120  at 00C. The resistance of a copper filament that must be
placed in series with carbon so that the combination has the same resistance at all temperatures is.........(
acarbon = –7 x 10-4/0C and a copper = 4 x 10-3/oC)
1) 18  2) 20  3) 24  4) 21 
13. The equivalent resistance of a network of three 2  resistors cannot be
1) 0.67  2) 1.5  3) 3  4) 6 
14. The equivalent resistance between points A and B in the figure is
A 4 4 4
3 3 3 .......
B
1) 4  2) 12  3) 6  4) none
15. 4  , 6  , 8  are connected in parallel in a circuit. If current through 4  resistor is 12A then the
current through 8  resistor is
1) 12A 2) 3A 3) 4A 4) 6A
16. When a current of 0.5A is passed through two resistors in series, the P.D between the ends of the series
arrangement is 12.5V, on connecting them in parallel and passing a current of 1.5A the P.D across them
is 6V. The two resistances in ohms are
1) 5, 20 2) 5, 15 3) 5, 10 4) None
17. Three conductors draw respectively currents of 1A, 2A and 4A, when connected in turn across an ideal
battery. If they are connected in series across the same battery, then the current drawn will be
2 3 4 5
1) A 2) A 3) A 4) A
7 7 7 7
18. If the potential difference between A and B is 320V, then the potential difference across the 25 
resistance is
100
100 120 40
100 25
B
1) 20V 2) 50V 3) 25V 4) 40V

19. A cell is connected in series with an external resistance. The current in the circuit is 1A and 0.7A when
84
PHYSICS
external resistance equals 5  and 8  respectively. The internal resistance of the cell is
1) 0.2  2) 0.5  3) 2  4) 0.6 
20. If the external resistance of a circuit is quadrupled then the voltage across the battery terminals increases
from 10V to 30V. The e.m.f. of the battery is
1) 40V 2) 50V 3) 60V 4) 90V
21. The number of cells each of e.m.f. 1.5V and internal resistance 1W to be connected in series to produce
an electric current of 1A through a resistance of 60W is
1) 60 2) 100 3) 80 4) 120
22. The P.D between A and B is
3V 3 A 2V B
1 1
5
1) 2.1V 2) 1.9V 3) 3.1V 4) 5.1V

23. 36 cells each of e.m.f. 2V and internal resistance 0.5W are connected in mixed grouping so as to deliver
maximum current through a resistance of 2W. The maximum current through the 2  is
1) 6A 2) 5A 3) 10A 4) 2A
24. How many cells each marked 6V - 12A should be connected in mixed grouping so that it may be
marked 24V - 24A.
1) 4 2) 8 3) 12 4) 6
25. The current through 3W resistance is
1 2
10V 3 5V
35 10 25 45
1) A 2) A 3) A 4) A
11 11 11 11
26. The P.D between M and N is
0.4A 6V 0.4A 4V 0.4A
M N
6 1 2 1
1) 6 volt 2) -10 volt 3) - 6 volt 4) 2 volt

27. For the circuit shown the reading of voltmeter is
85
12V 100 
100 100
200
V
1) 12V 2) 9V 3) 4.5V 4) 6V
28. The effective resistance between A and B is
r r r
r r
r
A B
1) r/2 2) r 3) 0.4r 4) 2r
29. The effective resistance between A and B in the given figure is
10 B
10 10
10
10 10
10
A
1) 24  2) 1  3) 10  4) 14 
30. The equivalent resistance between A and B is
R
R R
A B
R R
1) R/3 2) 2R/3 3) 3R 4) R
31. The potential difference between the two points A and B, VA - VB in the circuit diagram as shown is
5 5 A
5 5
15V
B
5 5
86
PHYSICS
1) +10 V 2) -10 V 3) +5 V 4) -5 V
32. A potential difference of 220V is maintained across a 12000  rheostat as shown in the figure. The
voltmeter has a resistance of 6000  and the point C is at one fourth of the distance between a and b,
from a. The reading of the voltmeter is
c
E
V
a
1) 20V 2) 40V 3) 110V 4) 55V

33. In a metre bridge with left and right gap resistances x and y balancing length is 40cm. When 20 
resistor is connected in series with x, then balancing length increases by 10 cm. x is
1) 5  2) 10  3) 20  4) 40 
34. In a metre bridge experiment when a resistance wire is connected in the left gap the balance point is
found at the 30th cm, and when the first wire is replaced by another wire the balance point is found at the
60th cm. When the two wires are connected in parallel the balance point will be at
1) 15cm 2) 20cm 3) 25cm 4) 45cm
35. With a uniform resistance wire in the first gap of a metre bridge the balancing length is 75cm. If this wire
was cut into 3 equal parts and the three parts are connected in parallel in the same gap. The new
balancing length is
1) 50cm 2) 75cm 3) 25cm 4) 15cm
36. If the galvanometer G, reads zero, the value of R is
500 G
10V R 2V
1) 25  2) 75  3) 100  4) 125 
37. A potentiometer wire of length 10m and resistance 4 ohm is connected in series to a battery of E.M.F.
4 v and a resistance of 6 ohm. If now a cell of e.m.f 1 volt is connected in the secondary and its e.m.f.
is projected on the potentiometer wire, the balancing length would be
1) 62.5 cm 2) 6.25 cm 3) 625 cm 4) 312.5 cm
38. A cell supplies a current of 0.9 amp through a 2 ohm resistance and a current of 0.3 amp through a 7 
resistance. The e.m.f. of the cell is
1) 2V 2) 2.7V 3) 1.5V 4) 2.25 V
39. In a potentiometer experiment when two cells are joined in series to support each other and then joined
to oppose each other, the balancing points are obtained at 6m and 2m respectively. The ratio of their
e.m.f.s is
87
1) 1 : 1 2) 2 : 1 3) 3 : 1 4) 4 : 1
40. The potential gradient of a potentiometer wire is 0.01 v/cm. A cell is balanced against a length of 140
cm. When a resister of 6  is connected parallel to the cell the balancing length is 120 cm. The internal
resistance of the cell is
1) 1  2) 2  3) 0.1  4) 0.2 
41. The resistance of a potentiometer wire 10m long is 10  . It is connected to a cell of emf 12 volt having
negligible internal resistance through a 30  resistor in series. A cell is balanced by 5m long wire. The
e.m.f of that cell is
1) 2.5 v 2) 0.75 V 3) 1.5 V 4) 0.3 V
42. A current of 2 ampere flows in the primary circuit of potentiometer wire. The resistance of the potenti-
ometer wire is 0.2  per metre. If the potential difference across 1  coil is balanced with 2.5m
length of wire, the current through the coil is
1) 1A 2) 0.1A 3) 0.2A 4) 2.5A
43. A cell of e.m.f of 1.5V is connected in series with a potentiometer wire of 10m length and a resistance
of 2980 in primary circuit. Resistance of potentiometer wire is 2/m. If one junction of thermocouple is
in hot bath and the other in melting ice, the balancing point is 450cm. Thermo e.m.f. generated is
1) 0.0045V 2) 0.045mV 3) 0.45mV 4) 4.5V
44. When a resistance of 2  is connected across the terminals of a battery, the current is 0.5A. When the
resistance across the terminals is 5  , the current is 0.25A. The internal resistance of the cell is
1) 1.5  2) 0.75  3) 0.5  4) 1 
45. There are 48 cells each of emf 2V and internal resistance 1  . To get maximum current through an
external resistance of 3  , they should be connected
1) 8 cells in series, 6 such groups in parallel
88
PHYSICS
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
3 3 3 1 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 4 2 3 4
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
1 3 1 3 4 4 1 1 2 3 3 3 1 4 1
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
4 2 4 3 3 4 2 4 2 1 3 1 3 4 2
89
CHEMISTRY
Contents
1. RATE OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS & EQUILIBRIUM
2. CARBON COMPOUNDS
3. METALLURGY
4. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
5. IAIIAIIIAIVA
90
CHEMISTRY
1 RATE OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS & EQUILIBRIUM
91
Introduction
Chemical reactions form an inevitable part in nature. Life on earth cannot sustain at all without chemi-
cal reactions. Digestion of food, burning of fuel, decomposition of organic matter are some such
reactions which are very essential to the existence of life. The study of the chemical reactions can
have different perceptions, one of the most important aspects of study being ‘rates of reactions’.
Every chemical reaction can be represented in the form of a balanced chemical equation. Neverthe-
less, writing a chemical equation does not imply that the reaction takes place necessarily at all condi-
tions. If that is the case, all gases in the atmosphere would react with each other and also with water.
Obviously, that is not happening. For every reaction to occur, certain conditions are necessary.
Moreover, some reactions may take place within a short time and some may require longer time for
completion. That means different reactions take place at different speeds.
The speed of a reaction determines the time taken for the completion of a reaction. The study of rates
of chemical reactions form an integral part of chemistry. In industry, the time taken for the completion
of a particular reaction and the conditions employed to speed up the reaction only determine the cost
of production of a product and the economic viability of a process. Biological reactions in the pres-
ence of enzymes also take place at different rates. This aspect finds its applications in the field of
medicine and agriculture.
Classification of reactions
Transformation of reactants into products requires some time. Reactions can be classified into 3
categories depending on the time taken for the reactions to go to completion.
(1) Instantaneous reactions
(2) Slow reactions
(3) Moderate reactions
The reactions which are completed within a fraction of a second are called instantaneous reac-
tions.
Examples
(a) When a solution of silver nitrate is added to a chloride salt solution, a precipitate is formed immedi-
ately.
(b) Sodium when exposed to air or water catches fire immediately.
(c) Acid base neutralization reactions
(d) Most of the precipitation reactions
(e) Reactions of active metals
(f) Some biological reactions involving muscle contractions and the transmission of nerve impulses
Contrary to the above category, there are some reactions which take some days or months, or even
years in some cases, for completion. Such reactions are called slow reactions.
Examples
(a) Rusting of Iron (corrosion of metals)
(b) Decomposition of biodegradable organic matter
In between these two extremes, we find many reactions requiring time ranging from a few minutes to
hours to go to completion. Such type of reactions are called moderate reactions.
Examples
92
CHEMISTRY
(a) Digestion of food
(b) Cooking of food
(c) Photosynthesis in plants
In this chapter we mostly confine ourselves to moderate reactions.
Rate of a reaction
During a chemical reaction, the reactants gradually disappear and products gradually generate. As
the reaction proceeds, the concentration of reactants decreases and that of products increases. This
change in the concentration of products or reactants is measured with respect to time. The change in
the concentration of products or reactants in unit time is known as rate of reaction.
Change in the concentration of reactants or products

Rate of reaction =
Time interval
C
If C is the change in the concentration of reactants or products in the time interval t, r = ,
t
where ‘r’ is the rate of reaction.
Units of rate of reaction

Since the change in the concentrations is usually expressed in moles/lt and time interval in seconds, the units of
rate of reaction can be taken as moles lt–1 sec–1.
For a reaction A ® B
C A
r=- . where CA is the concentration of ‘A’.
t
Rate of reaction with respect to reactants is always represented by a negative sign, which indicates
decrease in the concentration of reactants with time.
C B
r=+ , where CB is the concentration of ‘B’.
t
Rate of reaction with respect to products is always represented by positive sign, which indicates
increase in the concentration of products with time
Average reaction rate Vs Instantaneous reaction rate

As the concentrations of reactants and products change continuously, the rate of reaction is not
uniform throughout the reaction. It changes continuously during the course of reaction. Hence, the
rate of reaction is always taken as change in the concentration of reactants or products in a definite
interval of time.
At any instant, the rate of a reaction is proportional to the concentration of reactants at that instant of
time. As time proceeds, the concentration of reactants decreases. With decrease in the concentration
of reactants, the rate of a reaction also decreases. Therefore, the rate of a reaction determined at a
particular instant is called instantaneous reaction rate.
93
For measuring instantaneous reaction rate, a very small interval of time which is almost equal to zero
should be taken and the change in the concentration in that small interval of time must also be taken.
C
Rate of reaction = , where
t
DC = change in concentration
t = time interval
When t 0 (t tends to zero)
C can be taken as ‘dc’ to represent the small change in the concentration in a small interval of time
‘dt’.
dC A dC B
Instantaneous rate (r) =  or 
dt dt
Example
If in a reaction A ® B, DCB is 0.001 1 moles/lt and Dt is 10 seconds.
C B 0.001
Average rate of reaction = = = 10–4 mole lt–1 sec–1
t 10
Graphical representation of average rate and instantaneous rate
Instantaneous rate can be determined by drawing a tangent at time ‘t’ on the curve for the concentra-
tion of A or B versus time.
Change in y - axis
Slope of the tangent =
Change in x - axis
Change in ‘y’ axis = dCA or dCB
94
CHEMISTRY
Change in ‘x’ axis = dt
Concentration of ‘A’ vs t Concentration of ‘B’ vs t
dCA dC B
rinst =-slope = – r inst = slope =
dt dt
Illustrations
(a) Formation of hydrogen iodide
H2 + I2Ì! 2HI
Rate of reaction may not be the same with respect to all the reactants and products. It depends upon
the stoichiometric ratio of different substances in the reaction.
In the above case, one mole of hydrogen and one mole of iodine react to give two moles of hydrogen
iodide. That means
Rate of consumption of hydrogen = Rate of consumption of iodine
 d[H 2 ]  d[I 2 ]
r= =
dt dt
Rate of formation of HI = 2 ´ Rate of consumption of hydrogen or iodine.
1
Rate of consumption of hydrogen or iodine = ´ Rate of formation of HI.
2
 d[H 2 ]  d[I 2 ] 1 d [ HI ]
r= = =+
dt dt 2 dt
(b) Formation of nitrogen dioxide from nitric oxide

2NO + O2 ® 2NO2
 d[O 2 ]
Rate with respect to oxygen =
dt
1
Rate with respect to NO = ´ rate wrt O2
2
1 d [ NO]
=
2 dt
1 d[ NO 2 ]
Rate with respect to NO2 = 
2 dt
95
 d[O 2 ] 1 d[ NO] 1 d [ NO2 ]
r = = =
dt 2 dt 2 dt
Therefore, while writing the equation for the rate of reaction, the stoichiometric coefficients of reac-
tants and products are also taken into consideration.
 For general reaction,
xA + yB zC + D
1 dC A
r= 
x dt
1 dC B
r= 
y dt
1 dC A 1 dCB 1 dCC dC
r = =  =  = D
x dt y dt z dt dt
1 dCC
r= 
z dt
dC D
r = where dCA, dCB, dCC and dCD are small changes in the concentrations of A, B , C and
dt
D in time ‘dt’.
Factors affecting the rate of a reaction
Though every reaction takes place at its own characteristic rate, there are some important factors
which influence the rate of a reaction.
They are (a) Concentration of reactants
(b) Temperature
(c) Presence of catalyst
Effect of concentration
In case of most of the reactions, the rate of a reaction increases with increase in concentrations of the
reacting substances. The basic reason for this lies in the cause for the reaction.
A chemical reaction results from the collisions between the reactant molecules. With increase in
concentrations of reactants, the number of collisions between the molecules also increases. Conse-
quently, the rate of reaction increases.
However, the quantitative estimation of increase in the rate of reactions with the change in the con-
centration of reactants cannot be obtained from balanced chemical equation. This is because all the
reactants participating in the reaction need not necessarily affect the rate of a chemical reaction. The
relation between the rate of a reaction and the concentration of reactants can be established by
96
CHEMISTRY
writing a rate law or rate expression for that reaction.
Type I: A  Products
Case I
If the concentration of ‘A’ is doubled, the rate of reaction is also doubled. Then the rate law can be
written as r = k[A]1
Example:
1
H2O2  H2O + O
2 2
In this reaction representing the dissociation of hydrogen peroxide, when the concentration of hydro-
gen peroxide is doubled, the rate of reaction is also doubled. Hence, the rate law can be written as
r = k[H2O2]1. In this case, the coefficient of the balanced chemical equation represents the rate
expression.
Other examples
(a) C2H5Cl  C2H4 + HCl
r = k[C2H5 – Cl]
(b) N2O5  2NO2 +O2
r = k[N2O5]
Case II
Example:
CH3CHO ® CH4 + CO
This reaction takes place in several steps. These steps take place at different rates. The slowest step
of the reaction is called rate determining step. The overall rate of reaction is determined by the rate
of the slowest step of the reaction. Consequently, the rate law for this reaction does not reflect the
coefficients of the balanced chemical equation.
Rate law for this reaction is
r = k[CH3CHO]3/2
Other examples
CH3OCH3  CH4 + H2 + CO
r = k[CH3OCH3]3/2
Type II: 2A  Products
Case I
If the concentration of ‘A’ is doubled, the rate of reaction is increased by 4 times. Then, the rate law
can be written as
r = [A]2
Example:
2HI  H2 + I2
The decomposition of hydrogen iodide in aqueous solution takes place in the above manner. That
97
means, doubling the concentration of HI quadruples the rate of the reaction. The rate law follows the
stoichiometric equation.
Case II
If the concentration of ‘A’ is increased by two times, the rate of the reaction is also increased by two
times. Rate law can be written
r = k[A]1
Example: 2N2O5  4NO2 + O2
Rate law for the above reaction representing the dissociation of N2O5 can be written as r = k[N2O5]1
This reaction takes place in various steps. Since the slowest step involves one molecule of N2O5, the
rate law of that step becomes the rate law for the overall reaction.
Type III: A + B  Products
Case I
The rate of the reaction is doubled when the concentration of either of the reactants is doubled.
When the concentrations of both the reactants A and B are doubled simultaneously, the rate of the
reaction is quadrupled. The rate law can be written as
r = k[A]1 [B
Example:
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH ® CH3COOH + C2H5OH
The above reaction represents the base catalysed hydrolysis of ethyl acetate. In this reaction, when
the concentration of ethyl acetate is doubled, the rate of reaction is doubled and when the concentra-
tion of the base is doubled, the rate of reaction is doubled. Hence, the rate law can be written as
r = k[CH3COOC2H5] [NaOH]
Case II
If the rate of reaction may depend on the concentrations of two reactants in different ways,
Example:
H2 + Br2 ® 2HBr
In this case, the rate of reaction is doubled when the concentration of hydrogen is doubled or when
the concentration of bromine is quadrupled.
Other examples: CHCl3 + Cl2 ® CCl4 + HCl
r = k[CHCl3] [Cl2]1/2
Case III
The rate of reaction may be independent of concentrations of both the reactants
A and B. Then, the rate law can be written as r = k[A]° [B]°.
Example:
H2 + Cl2 light
  2HCl
In case of the above reaction of the formation of hydrogen chloride from hydrogen and chlorine, the
98
CHEMISTRY
rate of reaction is independent of concentrations of both hydrogen and chlorine. Therefore, the rate
law can be written as
r = k[H2]° [Cl2]°
Case IV
The rate of reaction may depend on the concentration of one reactant and may not depend on the
concentration of the other reactant. The rate law for such reactions can be written as
r = k[A]1 [B]°
Example:

CH3COOC2H5 + H2O H  CH3COOH + C2H5OH

The above reaction represents acid catalysed hydrolysis of ethyl acetate. In this reaction, water is
taken in excess and therefore, the rate of this reaction does not depend on the concentration of
water. It depends only on the concentration of ethyl acetate.
The rate law for this reaction is
r = k[CH3COOC2H5]1
Problem
From the concentrations of reactant ‘A’ at different times given in the table, calculate the average rate
of reaction A ® B at two different intervals of time.
a) The rate of reaction between t1 = 0 sec. and t2 = 20 sec. will be calculated as

CA = (140´ 103) – (200 ´ 103)
= –(60 x 103) moles / –!t
t = t2 – t1 = 20 sec.
  60 103 
Average reaction rate = –  20


 
= 3  103 moles –!t–1 sec–1
(b) Rate of reaction between t1 = 30 sec and t2 = 50 sec

CA = (2.5 ´ 103) – (80 ´ 103) = -77.5 ´ 103 moles / –!t
t = 50 – 30 = 20 sec
99
 77.5 103 
Average reaction rate = -  20 
 
= 3.88 ´ 103 moles –!t–1 sec–1
The above calculations show that the average reaction rate is not same when taken in two different
intervals of time. This shows that the average reaction rate is not uniform throughout. To determine
the instantaneous rate, for a plot of concentration of ‘A’ versus time, the slope of the tangent drawn
at any particular point on the curve gives the rate of reaction at that instant of time.
Effect of temperature
In case of most of the chemical reactions, the rate of a reaction increases with increase in tempera-
ture.
Example:
Coagulation of milk takes place readily in summer. This can be prevented by preserving milk at low
temperature.
It is found that for every 10° C rise in temperature, the rate of a reaction is doubled or even tripled.
But, the increase in average kinetic energy cannot account for such a large increase in the rate of
reaction. The actual reason can be explained on the basis of collision theory of reaction rates.
Since molecules are in constant randon motion, they collide with each other. During these collisions,
molecules acquire large amount of energy. The collisions which result in the attainment of minimum
amount of energy called threshold energy only lead to the formation of products. These collisions are
called effective collisions. The rest of the collisions remain ineffective and do not result in the chemical
reaction.
With the increase in temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases which, in turn, in-
creases the number of effective collisions. As a consequence of this, the rate of reaction increases
enormously.
Experiment to study the effect of temperature and concentration on the rate of reaction.
I. Two boiling test tubes are taken with 3 gm of zinc granules each. Graduated syringes are attached to
the boiling test tubes. 5 ml of 1M HCl and 5 ml of 2M HCl are added into the two test tubes. The
volumes of hydrogen gas evolved in the two syringes at various time intervals are noted. It is ob-
served that the volume of hydrogen gas evolved is more in the second case than in the first case. This
shows that the rate of reaction increases with concentration.
II. The same experiment can be done by taking the same concentration of HCl at two different tem-
peratures. Then, it is found that the volume of hydrogen evolved is more at higher temperature.
Figure
100
CHEMISTRY
Effect of catalyst
Catalysts are substances which alter the rates of reactions without undergoing any net chemical
change by themselves at the end of the reaction.
Working of a catalyst
The rate of reaction can be increased to a great extent by increasing the temperature. However, in
case of certain chemical reactions, increasing the temperature is not feasible.
Example:
Chemical reactions can be carried out in the living cells. These reactions are possible at body tem-
perature due to the presence of enzymes, i.e. the biocatalysts.
Certain chemical reactions which are used for commercial purposes and require high temperature
can be carried out at lower temperature by using a catalyst. Since the process takes place at lower
temperature, the cost of production gets reduced.
The role of the catalyst is to provide alternative path for the reaction which requires lower activation
energy than the uncatalysed reaction.
101
Activation energy
without catalyst
Products
Activation energy
with catalyst
Reactants via new mechanism
In most of the reactions, catalysts increase the rate of reactions. These are called positive catalysts.
Example:
2 SO2 + O2 NO
 2SO3
2 KClO3 MnO
2  2 KCl + 3O2
In case of some reactions, catalyst only acts as a carrier of one of the reactants to the reaction site.
It does not react with the reactant at any stage.
Example:
Hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
H2C = CH2 + H2 Ni

or
Pt
 H3C – CH3
or Pd
Ethylene Ethane
In the above cases, the hydrogen gas gets adsorbed on the metal surface and thus hydrogen gas
comes into contact with the other reactant.
In some reactions, catalyst takes part in the chemical reaction at the initial stage and it is regenerated
at the end of the reaction.
Example:
2SO2 + O2 
NO
 2SO3
In this reaction, nitric oxide reacts with atmospheric oxygen forming nitrogen dioxide (NO2). This
nitrogen dioxide oxidizes sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide. Nitric oxide is again regenerated. That
means nitric oxide acts as an oxygen carrier in this reaction.
2 NO + O2 ® 2 NO2
102
CHEMISTRY
SO2 + NO2 ® SO3 + NO
There are few reactions in which catalysts can slow down the reactions. These are called negative
catalysts.
Example:
Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide can be slowed down if some substances like glycerine, urea,
acetanilide, sodium pyrophosphate, etc. are added to H2O2.
Chemical Equilibrium
It is our common experience that water kept in a closed container undergoes evaporation and so the
level of water reduces in the container after some time. However, we do not find that entire water in
the container gets evaporated. A stage is reached where there is no further fall in water level in the
container. It implies that the number of water molecules going into vapour state becomes equal to the
number of vapour molecules coming back to liquid state and, hence, water level remains steady. This
state is called equilibrium.
Such an equilibrium is not confined to physical processes alone. There are many chemical reactions
which do not go to completion when carried out in a closed system. However, equilibrium is attained
in all such reactions at some stage. Such reactions are called reversible reactions.
Reversible and Irreversible reactions
Reversible reactions
Reactions in which reactants are converted to products and products are converted back to reac-
tants are called reversible reactions.
The reaction in which reactants are converted to products is called forward reaction. The reaction
in which products are converted back to reactants is called backward reaction.
Irreversible reactions
Reactions in which reactants are converted to products but products cannot be converted back to
reactants are called irreversible reactions. They take place only in one direction.
103
Dynamic equilibrium
A reversible reaction proceeds in both the directions. The reaction in which reactants are converted
to products is called forward reaction. The reaction in which products are converted to reactants is
called backward reaction.
We are aware that the rate of a reaction at any instant is proportional to the concentration of the
reactants.
In the beginning, the concentration of the reactants is maximum and, hence, the rate of forward
reaction is also maximum. As reaction proceeds, the rate of forward reaction decreases with de-
crease in concentration of reactants. In the beginning, the concentration of products is minimum and,
therefore, the rate of backward reaction is least. As time proceeds, the concentration of products
increases, thereby, increasing the rate of backward reaction.
At some stage, the rate of forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of backward reaction. Once
this state is reached, there is no net change in the molar quantities of reactants and products. That
means the system has attained the state of equilibrium.
Consider a relation A + B Ë! C + D. At equilibrium, the concentrations of A, B, C and D remain
constant. When the forward and backward reactions take place with equal speeds, the amount of
reactants consumed per unit time becomes equal to the amount of reactants produced per unit time.
At this stage also the composition of A, B, C and D does not vary further. Such an equilibrium is
called dynamic equilibrium. All chemical equilibria are dynamic in nature. When the system is at
dynamic equilibrium, the reaction appears to have come to a standstill. But, it is not so. The reaction
proceeds with no net change in the concentrations of reactants and products.
104
CHEMISTRY
Experiment to show the dynamic nature of chemical equilibrium
Two reactions are conducted separately by taking known amounts of nitrogen and hydrogen in the
first case and nitrogen and deuterium in the second case. Amounts of ammonia, N2 and H2 in the first
reaction and amounts of ND3, N2 and D2 in the second reaction are noted at regular intervals. After
certain time, the composition of
reaction mixture is found to remain unaltered with time. This constancy in composition indicates the
state of equilibrium. At this stage, the reaction mixtures of both the reactions are mixed together and
left for some time. The analysis of mixture resulted in the same concentration of ammonia, but exist-
ence of some deuterium containing forms of ammonia in the reaction mixture. Thus, it can be con-
cluded that the interchange of H and D atoms has taken place because the forward and backward
reactions proceed even after equilibrium is reached.
Characteristics of dynamic equilibrium
1. The observable properties such as concentration, density, colour, pressure, etc. remain constant at
constant temperature.
2. Equilibrium can be attained from either direction.
3. Equilibrium is generally attained in a closed system only. This prevents escape of products from
reaction.
4. Usage of catalyst does not alter the position of equilibrium.
5. Equilibrium state proceeds indefinitely unless it is disturbed by external factors.
Identification of equilibrium
The equilibrium stage can be identified by constancy of some observable properties. Depending on
the nature of various substances, a particular property is taken for observation.
Example:
CaCO3(S) Ì! CaO(S) + CO2(g)
Since there is only one gaseous product in the above reaction, equilibrium can be identified by
constancy of pressure exerted by CO2.
NO2(g) + CO(g) Ì! NO(g) + CO2(g)
Since NO2 is a reddish brown gas, the equilibrium can be identified by constancy of colour.
105
Law of chemical equilibrium or Law of mass action
Guldberg and Wage proposed a law in order to establish a quantitative relationship between the
concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium.
The law of mass action states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the product of molar
concentrations of reactants.
For a reversible reaction A + B Ì! C + D
r f µ [A]x [B]y, where rf is the rate of forward reaction.
rf = Kf [A]x [B]y
rb µ [C]m [D]n, where rb is rate of backward reaction
Equilibrium constant (Kc)
It can be defined as the ratio of the product of concentrations of products to the product of concen-
trations of reactants with all of them raised to the powers of their coefficients in the balanced chemi-
cal equation.
Application of law of mass action to various equilibria
Example:
H2(g) + I2(g) Ì! 2 HI(g)
Example:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) Ì! 2NH3 (g)
 NH3  2
Kc =
 N2   H2  3
These are all homogenous equilibria where all reactants and products are in one phase, i.e. in gas-
eous phase.
In case of heterogeneous equilibria, the reactants and products may exist in different phases. In such
cases, the molar concentrations of only gaseous substances are taken into consideration for writing
106
CHEMISTRY
equilibrium constant. Concentrations of solids and pure liquids are taken as a unity since the rate of
reaction is independent of their concentration.
Example:
CaCO3 (s) Ì! CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
CaO CO 2 
Kc =  CaCO 3 
Since molar concentrations of solids are taken as a unity, Kc = [CO2]

Characteristics of equilibrium constant
1. Equilibrium constant has a constant value for a particular reaction at constant temperature.
2. Equilibrium constant depends on the direction in which the reaction is carried out.
3. The value of equilibrium constant varies with variation in the stoichiometric coefficients of the reac-
tion.
4. The value of equilibrium constant does not depend on the addition of catalyst to a reaction. It only
reduces the time taken to reach equilibrium.
Applications of equilibrium constant
1. The value of equilibrium constant gives us an idea about the extent of reaction. A greater value of Kc
implies that the reaction mostly proceeds towards products, thereby, giving greater yield of prod-
ucts. A lower value of Kc indicates the lesser yield of products.
2. Kc values help us to calculate the equilibrium concentrations of various substances in the reaction.
3. On the basis of Kc values, we can predict the direction of reaction.
Factors affecting the equilibrium
There are different factors which affect chemical equilibrium. The factors are concentration of the
reactants or products, temperature and pressure. The change in the behaviour of the system at
equilibrium due to the alteration of those factors was first enunciated by Lechatelier.
Lechatlier’s principle has been proposed to explain the effect of various factors on the equilibrium.
According to this principle, when a system at equilibrium is subjected to a constraint or change, the
system tends to react in that direction in which the effect of the change is nullified.
Effect of concentration
When the concentration of any of the reactants or products in a reaction at equilibrium is changed,
the composition of the equilibrium reaction mixture also changes in such a way as to compensate the
effect of concentration change.
Example:
H2 + I2 Ì! 2HI
Aqueous solution of potassium chromate which is yellow in colour changes to orange coloured
solution of potassium dichromate by the addition of acid.
107
Example:
K2CrO4 + HCl Ì! K2Cr2 O7 + KCl + H2 O
Addition of HCl to the reaction mixture at equilibrium shifts the reaction in forward direction. This is
indicated by the intensification of colour of the reaction mixture. Addition of water to the equilibrium
mixture shifts the reaction in backward direction. This is marked by fading of orange colour.
Addition of hydrogen or iodine
Addition of hydrogen or iodine at equilibrium disturbs the equilibrium concentration of reactants.
Hence, the reaction proceeds in that direction in which large amount of hydrogen or iodine are
consumed. That means the equilibrium shifts in the forward direction. The yield of HI increases. The
same shift takes place by the removal of HI from the reaction mixture at equilibrium.
However, addition of HI at equilibrium results in the shift of equilibrium in backward direction.
Effect of pressure
According to Boyle’s law, an increase in pressure leads to a decrease in volume at constant tempera-
ture.
When a system at equilibrium is subjected to increase in pressure, the reaction takes place in that
direction which is associated with decrease in volume. Similarly, decrease in pressure makes the
reaction proceed in that direction which is accompanied by increase in volume.
Avagadro’s law states that equal volumes of all gases contain equal number of moles. The reactions
which proceed with a change in the number of moles involve a change in volume.
Therefore, the effect of pressure is applicable to only those reactions accompanied by change in the
number of moles (change in volume). Pressure has no effect on those equilibria which do not involve
a change in the number of moles.
Example:
H2 (g) + I2 (g) Ì! 2 HI (g)
nR = 2 np = 2 Dn = np – nR = 0
where nR and nP represent the number of moles of the reactants and products.
Since the number of moles of reactants is equal to the number of moles of products, change in
pressure has no effect on the position of equilibrium. It results in lower yield of HI.
Reactions associated with a change in the number of moles
Case I
Increase in the number of moles (volume)
Example:
PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2
nR = 1 np = 2 D n = np – nR = 2 – 1 = 1.
The forward reaction proceeds with an increase in the number of moles. That means increase in
volume takes place during the reaction. Therefore, decrease in pressure favours the forward reaction
and speeds up the dissociation process. Increase in pressure shifts the equilibrium in backward
direction, thereby, suppressing the dissociation process.
108
CHEMISTRY
Case II
Decrease in the number of moles (volume)
Example:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g)
nR = 4 np = 2 Dn = nP – nR = –2
The forward reaction proceeds with decrease in the number of moles, i.e. decrease in volume.
Hence, increase in pressure favours the forward reaction and enhances the yield of ammonia. Obvi-
ously, decrease in pressure speeds up the dissociation of ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen. Due
to this reason only high pressure (200 to 1000 atm) is maintained during the process of synthesis of
ammonia by Haber process. (is the favourable condition for getting greater yield of the products).
Effect of temperature
Most of the chemical reactions are associated with absorption or evolution of heat. Hence, change in
temperature changes the state of equilibrium. Increase in temperature makes the reaction proceed in
that direction in which more heat is absorbed. Similarly, decrease in temperature allows the reaction
to take place in a direction associated with the release of heat energy.
Case I
Absorption of heat energy
Example:
N2 + O2 2 NO – heat
Since absorption of heat takes place in forward reaction, increase in temperature shifts the equilib-
rium in forward direction. It can be concluded that for all endothermic reactions, high temperature is
the favourable condition for greater yield of products.
Case II
Evolution of heat energy.
Example:
N2 + 3H2 2 NH3 + heat
Since the forward reaction is accompanied by release of heat energy, decrease in temperature favours
forward reaction. That means for all exothermic reactions, low temperature is the favourable condi-
tion.
109
2 CARBON COMPOUNDS
110
CHEMISTRY
ETHYL CHLORIDE: (Chloro ethane) C 2 H 5 Cl :
Methods of preparation of ethyl chloride:
Ethyl chloride is prepared by
treating ethyl alcohol with conc. HCl and anhydrous ZnCl2 (Lucas reagent). This method
is called the Grove’s Process.
C 2 H 5 OH  HCl anhydrous
  ZnCl 
2 C 2 H 5 Cl  H 2 O
treating ethyl alcohol with PCl3 (or) PCl5 (or) SOCl2
(a) 3C 2 H 5 OH  PCl 3 
 3C 2 H 5 Cl  H 3 PO 3
(b) C2 H 5OH  PCl5 

 C 2 H 5 Cl  POCl3  HCl
(c) C 2H 5OH  SOCl2 pyridine

  C 2 H 5Cl  SO 2   HCl 
the action of HCl on ethylene in presence of anhydrous AlCl3
anhydrous AlCl3
C 2 H 4  HCl        C 2 H 5 Cl
Chemical properties:
Ethyl chloride reacts
with aqueous KOH, forming ethyl alcohol.
C 2 H 5 Cl  KOH aq   C 2 H 5OH  KCl

with alcoholic KCN, to give ethyl cyanide.
C 2 H 5 Cl  KCN  C 2 H 5CN  KCl

with alcoholic silver cyanide, to form ethyl isocyanide.
C 2 H 5 Cl  AgCN  C 2 H 5 NC  AgCl
with KNO2 in Dimethyl formamide to give Nitro ethane.
C 2 H 5 Cl  KNO2 DMF  H 3 C  H 2 C  NO 2  KCl

with hot aqueous ethanolic silver nitrite to give ethyl nitrite as major product.
C 2 H 5 Cl  AgONO 
 C 2 H 5  O  N  O  AgCl
with sodium ethoxide, to give diethyl ether. This reaction is known as “Williamson’s
synthesis”.
C 2 H 5 Cl  NaOC 2 H 5  C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5  NaCl
with sodium in presence of dry ether to give butane. It is called “Wurtz reaction”.
dry ether
C 2 H 5 Cl  2 Na  ClC 2 H 5    C 4 H 10  2 NaCl
with magnesium in presence of dry ether to give ethyl magnesium chloride(Grignard reagent).
111
dry ether
C 2 H 5 Cl  Mg    C 2 H 5 MgCl
with benzene (C6H6 ) in presence of anhydrous AlCl3 to give ethyl benzene. This reaction is known
as “Friedel–craft’s alkylation”.
AlCl3
C 2 H 5 Cl  C 6 H 6   C 6 H 5  C 2 H 5  HCl
with alcoholic KOH to form ethylene (Dehydrohalogenation)
C 2 H 5 Cl  KOH alc.  C 2 H 4  KCl  H 2 O

Ethyl chloride is reduced to ethane by LiAlH4 (or) Zn and HCl
LiAl H (or )
4
C 2 H 5 Cl  2 [ H ]     C 2 H 6  HCl .
Zn& HCl
ethyl chloride react with
a) CH3COOAg(alc).
b) H2 in the presence of Pt.
c) Mg followed by hydrolysis.
a) Ethyl chloride reacts with silver acetate in alcoholic solution to form ethyl acetate.
CH3COOAg+ ClC 2 H 5 
 CH 3COOC 2 H 5  AgCl
b) Ethyl chloride is reduced to ethane with H2 in the presence of Pt.
Pt
C 2 H 5 Cl  H 2  C 2 H 6  HCl
c) Ethyl chloride reacts with Mg in dry ether to give ethyl magnesium chloride which on
hydrolysis gives ethane.
C 2 H 5 Cl  Mg Dry
 ether

 C 2 H 5 MgCl
 C 2 H 6  Mg OH Cl
C 2 H 5 MgCl  H 2 O 
Reaction of ethyl chloride with Ammonia and moist silver oxide:

Ethyl chloride reacts with Ammonia under pressure to give a mixture of primary, secondary and
tertiary amines and quarternary ammonium salts.
C 2 H 5 Cl  NH 3 
 C 2 H 5 NH 2  HCl
 
C 2 H 5 2 NH ( Secondary 2 0 Ami n e )  HCl
C 2 H 5 NH 2  C 2 H 5 Cl 
C 2 H 5 2 NH  C 2 H 5 Cl C 2 H 5  N (Tertiary 3 Ami n e)  HCl

3
0
C 2 H 5 3 N  C 2 H 5 Cl C 2 H 5 4 N  Cl  quarternary 4 0  Ammonium salt.

Ethyl chloride on reacting with silver oxide suspended in boiling water to form ethanol.
Ag 2 O  H 2 O 
 2 AgOH
C 2 H 5 Cl  AgOH 
 C 2 H 5OH  AgCl
112
CHEMISTRY
Q. Give the names of the following compounds according to IUPAC system.
Cl CH 3
| |
(a)
CH 3  CH  CH  CH 2  CH 3
Cl
|
(b) CH 3  C|  CH 3
Cl
(a) 2-chloro–3-methylpentane (b) 2,2-dichloropropane.
Uses of ethyl chloride:
Ethyl chloride is used as
(i) a refrigerant
(ii) a reagent in the preparation of tetra ethyl lead (TEL)
CHLOROFORM: CHCl 3 : IUPAC Name : trichloro methane
Methods of preparation of chloroform:
Chloroform is prepared by the action of moist bleaching powder on ethyl alcohol. The following
steps are involved in the process.
CaOCl 2  H 2 O 
 Ca (OH)2  Cl 2  (Hydrolysis)
CH 3CH 2 OH  Cl 2 
 CH 3 CHO  2 HCl (Oxidation)
ethyl alcohol acetaldehyde
CH 3CHO  3Cl 2 
 CCl 3CHO  3HCl (Chlorination)
trichloro acetaldehyde (or) chloral
 2 CHCl 3  (HCOO)2 Ca (Hydrolysis)

2 CCl 3CHO  Ca ( OH )2 
chloroform calcium formate
Chloroform is obtained on large scale by the reduction of carbon tetrachloride with Iron fillings and
water.
Fe / H O
CCl 4  2 ( H )  2 CHCl 3  HCl
Chloroform can be prepared from Acetone and bleaching powder as follows.
 Ca OH 2  Cl 2 
CaOCl 2  H 2 O 
CH 3COCH 3  3Cl 2 
 CCl 3COCH 3  3HCl
2CCl 3 COCH 3  Ca OH 2 

 2CHCl 3  CH 3COO 2 Ca
Properties :
Chloroform reacts :
113
(a) with conc.HNO3 to form chloropicrin. It is also known as tear gas.
 CCl 3 NO 2  H 2 O .
CHCl 3  HNO 3 
(b) with hot aqueous KOH it undergoes hydrolysis forming potassium formate.
CHCl 3  3 KOH   CH ( OH ) 3  

 HCOOH
 3 KCl  H 2O
HCOOH  KOH 
 HCOOK  H 2O
(formic acid) (potassium formate)
(c) with phenol in presence of NaOH (or) KOH (on heating) to form salicylaldehyde. This reaction is
known as Reimer – Tiemann reaction.
(d) with silver powder (on heating) to form acetylene.


2 CHCl 3  6 Ag  C 2 H 2  6 AgCl .
Q. How pure chloroform is prepared from chloral hydrate?

Pure chloroform is obtained by distilling chloral hydrate with concentrated NaOH solution
CCl 3 CH ( OH ) 2  NaOH 
 CHCl 3  HCOONa  H 2 O
Q. What happens when chlorine reacts with chloroform in presence of U.V. light?
Chloroform reacts with chlorine in presence of sunlight (or) U.V.light to form carbon tetrachloride.
U .V .light
CHCl 3  Cl 2   
 CC l 4  HCl
Q. What happens when chloroform is exposed to air and sunlight? (OR)
Why chloroform is stored in fully filled amber coloured bottles?
Chloroform when exposed to air and sunlight, it forms poisonous phosgene. To prevent this, chloro-
form is stored in fully filled coloured bottles.
CHCl 3  (O) 
 COCl 2  HCl
(phosgene)
Q. What is phosgene? How is its presence in chloroform detected?
COCl 2 is known as phosgene. The presence of phosgene in chloroform is detected by the addition
of AgNO 3 . The formation of white precipitate of AgCl indicates the presence of phosgene formed
along with HCl.
CHCl 3  (O) 
 COCl 2  HCl
AgNO 3  HCl 
 AgCl   HNO 3
114
CHEMISTRY
(white ppt.)
Q. Why 1% ethyl alcohol is added to chloroform?
(1) Ethyl alcohol acts as a negative catalyst in the oxidation of chloroform to phosgene.
(2) Ethyl alcohol converts poisonous phosgene into harmless ethyl carbonate.
 (C 2 H 5 ) 2 CO 3  2 HCl .
2 C 2 H 5 OH  COCl 2 
Q. What is carbyl amine reaction? (OR) What is isocyanide test? (OR)

By which test primary amines are detected ? Write the corresponding equation.
Primary amines are detected by using carbyl amine reaction.
Chloroform when heated with primary amines like aniline in presence of alcoholic KOH forms phe-
nyl isocyanide, which has a very offensive smell.

C 6 H 5 NH 2  CHCl 3  3 KOH  C 6 H 5 NC  3 KCl  3 H 2 O
(aniline) ( phenyl isocyanide)
Uses of chloroform:
It is used as :
General anesthetic
solvent for fats, oils and resins
reagent for testing primary amines
Chloroform is treated with:
a) Zn+HCl(alc.) b) Zn+H2O
a) When chloroform is reduced with Zn and HCl in alcoholic solution methylene dichloride is formed.
 alc.
2 H   CHCl 3 Zn
 HCl
  CH 2 Cl 2  HCl
b) Chloroform is reduced to methane on treatment with Zn and H2O.
CHCl 3  6H  Zn
 H
2O
  CH 4  3HCl
Q. What product is formed when chloroform reacts with acetone in presence of
NaOH? Give its use.
The product formed is Chloretone. It is used as hypnotic drug.
ETHYL ALCOHOL: C 2 H 5 OH ; IUPAC name : Ethanol

Methods of preparation of ethyl alcohol:
(1) Ethyl alcohol is prepared by the hydrolysis of ethyl bromide with aqueous KOH.
C 2 H 5 Br  KOH (aq.) 
 C 2 H 5 OH  KBr
115
(2) Industrial method:
Industrially ethyl alcohol is prepared by the hydration of ethylene. In this process ehtylene gas is
passed through conc. H 2 SO4 and then allowed to react with water to produce ethyl alcohol.
H O
 CH 3  CH 2  HSO4 2 CH 3CH 2 OH  H 2 SO4
CH 2  CH 2  H 2 SO4 
boil
(ethyl hydrogen sulphate)

(3) Ethyl alcohol is prepared by the hydrolysis of ethyl acetate with aqueous KOH.
CH 3COOC 2 H 5  KOH (aq) 

 CH 3COOK  C 2 H 5OH
(ethyl acetate) (potassium acetate) (ethyl alcohol)
(4) Ethyl alcohol is prepared by the reduction of acetaldehyde with H 2 in presence of Ni (or) Pd (or)
with LiAlH 4 .
CH 3 CHO  H 2 Pd

 CH 3 CH 2 OH
4 LiAl H
CH 3CHO  2 [ H ]   CH 3CH 2OH
(1) Ethyl alcohol reacts
with PCl3 (or) PCl5 to form ethyl chloride.
3 C 2 H 5 OH  PCl 3 
 3 C 2 H 5 Cl  H 3 PO 3
C 2 H 5 OH  PCl 5 
 C 2 H 5 Cl  POCl 3  HCl
with acetic acid in presence of conc. H 2 SO 4 to form ethyl acetate, an ester. This reaction is known
as “esterification reaction”.
Conc.
CH 3  CH 2  OH  CH 3COOH   H 2 SO4

   CH 3 COOC 2 H 5  H 2 O
(ethyl acetate)
with acidified K2Cr2O7 ,it undergoes oxidation to form acetaldehyde and then to acetic acid.
K 2Cr2O7 H 2 SO4
CH 3  CH 2  OH  (O)      CH 3CHO 
O
CH 3 COOH
H O 2
(acetaldehyde) (acetic acid)

with Al2O3 at 3500C : when ethyl alcohol vapours are passed over Al 2 O 3 at 350 0 C it forms
ethylene loosing water molecule.
Al O
C 2 H 5  OH 2 3
0
 C2H 4  H 2O
350 C
with active metals like Na liberating hydrogen.
2 C 2 H 5 OH  2 Na 
 2 C 2 H 5 ONa  H 2
(sodium ethoxide)
116
CHEMISTRY
with methyl magnesium iodide (grignard’s reagent) to form methane.
I
C 2 H 5 OH  CH 3 MgI 
 CH 4  Mg
OC 2 H 5
with SOCl2 in presence of pyridine to form ethyl chloride.
pyridine
C 2 H 5  OH  SOCl 2    C 2 H 5 Cl  SO 2   HCl 
with bleaching powder (or) Cl2 in presence of NaOH to form chloroform.
Cl  NaOH
C 2 H 5 OH 2  CHCl3
(or)
CaOCl2
with HCl in presence of ZnCl 2 to form ethyl chloride.
ZnCl
C 2 H 5 OH  HCl  2  C 2 H 5 Cl  H 2 O
when ethyl alcohol is heated with iodine and NaOH, iodoform is formed.
C 2 H 5 OH  4 I 2  6 NaOH 
 CHI 3  HCOONa  5 NaI  5 H 2 O
when ethyl alcohol vapours are passed over hot copper at 300 0 C , acetaldehyde is formed.
CH 3CH 2 OH Cu

0
CH 3CHO  H 2
300 C
Manufacture of ethyl alcohol by fermentation process of molasses:

Molasses is the mother liquor left after the crystallisation of sugar from sugarcane juce. It contains
30-40% uncrystallised sugar.
Molasses is diluted and ammonium sulphate or ammonium phosphate is added, which acts as food
for the yeast.
The contents are transferred into a fermentation tank, acidified, and yeast is added. The solution is
kept for 2-3 days at 30 0 C .
Yeast produces two enzymes namely “invertase” and “zymase” which act as catalysts in the
following reactions.
Invertase
C12 H 22 O11  H 2 O    C 6 H 12 O 6  C 6 H 12 O 6
(sucrose) (glucose) (fructose)
Zymase
C 6 H 12 O6   2 C 2 H 5 OH  2 CO 2
glucose (or) fructose ethyl alcohol
The liquid wash produced in the fermentation process contains about 6-10% ethyl alcohol.
It is fractionally distilled to get 95.6% ethyl alcohol called “rectified spirit”. The rectified spirit is
treated with quick lime to get 100% ethyl alcohol called “absolute alcohol”.
117
Reaction of ethyl alcohol with conc. H 2 SO 4 under different conditions :
Ethyl alcohol reacts :
with conc.H2SO4 at 700C-1100C to form “ethyl hydrogen sulphate”.
0
C 110 C 0
C 2 H 5 OH  H 2 SO4 70
   C 2 H 5 HSO4  H 2 O
with conc.H2SO4 at 1400C to form “di ethyl ether”, (when ethyl alcohol is in excess).
1400 C
C 2 H 5 OH  HOC 2 H 5    C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5  H 2 O
H 2 SO4
with excess sulphuric acid at 1700C to form “ethylene”.

0
C 2 H 5 OH 170
 C
  C 2 H 4  H 2O .
H2SO4
Q. How can you prepare ethanol from formaldehyde and Grignard’s reagent?
Formaldehyde on reaction with Methyl magnesium Bromide gives an adduct which on hydrolysis
gives ethanol.
Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols:

Primary alcohols:
Alcohols which contain the characteristic group –CH2OH. The general formula is RCH2-OH.
Eg : CH3CH2OH (Ethyl alcohol)
Secondary alcohols : R
Alcohols which contain the characteristic group CH–OH. The general formula is CH–OH.
Tertiary alcohols :
R
Alcohols which contain the characteristic group – C–OH. The general formula is R– C – OH.
Eg : CH3 R
CH3 – C – OH
(Tert.butyl alcohol)
Lucas reagent:
118
CHEMISTRY
A mixture of anhydrous ZnCl 2 and conc. HCl is called Lucas reagent.
Q. How is Lucas reagent useful in distinguishing the primary, secondary and tertiary
alcohols?
On treating with Lucas reagent :
(1) teritiary alcohols produce turbidity immediately.
(2) secondary alcohols produce turbidity after a few minutes.
(3) primary alcohols produce “no turbidity”.
This test is called “Lucas test”.
Preparation of ethyl alcohol by the fermentation of starch:
Starch is generally obtained from Potatoes, Wheat, Barley, Maize, etc. Starch is a polysaccharide
(C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n .
During the fermentation of starch the following reactions take place.
iastase
2 (C 6 H 10 O5 )n  n H 2 O d  n C12 H 22 O11
starch maltose
C12 H 22 O11  H 2 O maltase

  2 C 6 H 12 O6
glucose
zymase
C 6 H12 O 6   2 C 2 H 5 OH  2 CO 2
ethyl alcohol
Q. Write the IUPAC name of the following compounds.
Cl
CH 3  CH  CH  CH 2  CH 2  OH
(a) CH 3  C  CH 2  OH (b)
CH 3 CH 3
Cl
(a) 2, 2-dichloro-1-propanol (b) 3, 4-dimethyl-1-pentanol.

Q. (a) Why the boiling point of ethyl alcohol is more than other compounds of
comparable molecular weight?
(b) Being an organic compound why ethyl alcohol is soluble in water?
(a) because of intermolecular hydrogen bonding present in ethyl alcohol.
(b) because of its ability to form intermolecular hydrogen bonding with water.
Fermentation:
The process of decomposition of organic compounds into simpler compounds by enzymes is called
fermentation.
Ethyl alcohol is produced by the fermentation of cane sugar.
Q. What are the two enzymes of yeast that convert cane sugar into ethyl alcohol?
Invertase converts sugar into glucose and fructose.
Zymase converts glucose and fructose to ethyl alcohol.
119
Q. (a) What is rectified spirit and absolute alcohol?
(b) How is absolute alcohol obtained from rectified spirit?
(a) 95.6% ethyl alcohol is called rectified spirit.
100% ethyl alcohol is called absolute alcohol.
(b) absolute alcohol is obtained from rectified spirit by distilling it in presence of quick lime.
Q. (a) What is functional isomer of ethyl alcohol?
(b) What is methylated spirit?
(a) Dimethyl ether is the functional isomer of ethyl alcohol.
(b) Ethyl alcohol containing methyl alcohol (9.5%) and pyridine (0.5%) is called methylated spirit.
Uses of ethyl alcohol:
Ethyl alcohol is used :
(a) as a solvent, (b) in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages,
(c) in the preparation of C 2 H 5 Cl , CHCl 3 , CH 3 CHO etc.
Canned Heat:
Ethyl alcohol with saturated calcium hydroxide is known as canned heat. It is used as a solid fuel.
Q. Ethyl alcohol can not be dried by using anhydrous calcium chloride. Why?
Because it reacts with anhydrous calcium chloride and forms an addition compound CaCl2. 3C2H5OH.
DIETHYL ETHER: C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5 IUPAC name : Ethoxy ethane.

Methods of preparation of diethyl ether:
ethyl chloride reacts with sodium ethoxide on heating to form diethyl ether (Williamson’s synthe-
sis).
When excess of ethyl alcohol is heated with conc. H 2 SO 4 at 140 0 C , diethyl ether is formed.
Reactions:
when diethyl ether reacts with Cl2 in absence of sunlight, a-hydrogens are replaced by chlorine
atoms.
when diethyl ether vapours are passed over Al2O3 at 3600C, it forms ethylene.
Al O
C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5 2
0
3
 2C 2 H 4  H 2 O
360 C
when diethyl ether is treated with CO in presence of BF3 at 1500C. and 500 atm. pressure
gives ethyl propanoate.
120
CHEMISTRY
0
C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5  CO BF
3 /
150 C
 C 2 H 5 COOC 2 H 5
500 atm.
Diethyl ether undergoes hydrolysis in presence of dil. H 2 SO 4 to form ethyl alcohol.
C2 H 5  O  C2 H 5  H 2 O 
 2 C2 H 5OH
Symmetrical and unsymmetrical ethers:

If two similar alkyl groups are present in ether, it is called “symmetrical ether” or “simple ether”.
Ex: C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5
Diethyl ether (or) ethoxyethane.
If two different alkyl groups are present in ether, then it is called “unsymmetrical ether” or “mixed
ether”.
Ex: CH 3  O  C 2 H 5
Ethyl Methyl ether (or) methoxyethane.
Q. How diethyl ether is prepared from ethyl iodide?
Ethyl Iodide reacts with silver oxide to form diethyl ether.
2 C 2 H 5 I  Ag 2 O 
 C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5  2 AgI
Q. What happens when diethyl ether is heated with PCl5 ?

On heating with PCl 5 , diethyl ether forms two moles of ethyl chloride.
C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5  PCl 5 
 2 C 2 H 5 Cl  POCl 3
Q. What are the products obtained when diethyl ether reacts with cold HI and hot
Conc. HI ?
(a) With cold HI, diethyl ether gives a mixture of ethyl iodide and ethyl alcohol.
C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5  HI 
 C 2 H 5 I  C 2 H 5 OH
(cold)
(b) With hot conc.HI, diethyl ether gives 2 moles of ethyl iodide.
C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5  2 HI 
 2 C 2 H 5 I  H 2 O
(hot.conc)
Q. Why ethyl alcohol is soluble in water where as diethyl ether is not?
Ethyl alcohol can form intermolecular hydrogen bonding with water molecules, so ethyl alcohol is
soluble in water.
Where as diethyl ether cannot form intermolecular hydrogen bonds with water molecules and so is
not soluble in water.
Q. What happens when diethyl ether combines with atmospheric oxygen?
Diethyl ether combines with atmospheric oxygen in presence of sunlight to form explosive diethyl
peroxide.
121
O
1 sun light 
C 2 H 5  O  C 2 H 5  O 2   C 2 H 5  O
..  C 2 H 5
2
(peroxide)
Natalite:
The mixture of alcohol and ether is known as “natalite”.
It is used as a substituent for petrol.
Uses of diethyl ether:
It is used as :
(a) Solvent in Grignard and Wurtz reactions, fats and oils,
(b) Refrigerant.
Halothane & its use:
HCClBr.CF3. Used as a general anesthetic.
Diethyl ether reaction with
a) CH3COCl in the presence of AlCl3 b) (CH3CO)2O in the presence of ZnCl2
Esters are formed when diethyl ether reacts with Acetyl chloride and acetic anhydride in the pres-
ence of anhydrous AlCl3 and anhydrous ZnCl2 respectively.
AlCl
C 2 H 5 OC 2 H 5  CH 3 COCl 3  CH 3COOC 2 H 5 (Ethyl acetate)  C 2 H 5 Cl
ZnCl
C 2 H 5 OC 2 H 5  CH 3CO 2 O  2  2CH 3 COOC 2 H 5 (Ethyl acetate).
Q. ‘A’ reacts with aqueous KOH to give ‘B’. ‘B’ in excess reacts with con. H2SO4 at
0
140 C to give ‘C’. ‘C’ reacts with hot HI to give C2H5I and H2O. What are A, B and C?
C2H5 Br +KOH Aqueous
  C 2 H 5 OH  KBr
(A) (B)
2C 2 H 5 OH Con
. H 2 SO4
0
 C 2 H 5OC 2 H 5  H 2 O
140 C
(C)
C 2 H 5 OC 2 H 5  2 HI Hot
. con
 2C 2 H 5 I  H 2 O
‘A’ is ethyl halide, ‘B’ is ethyl alcohol and ‘C’ is diethyl ether.
Q. Whether we take A or B it does not make any difference that when we heat any of
them with Al2O3 at 3600C the product formed is C2H4. What are A and B.
Al2 O3
C 2 H 5 OH   0
 C2 H 4  H 2O
360 C
(A)
C 2 H 5 OC 2 H 5 Al
2O3
0
 2C 2 H 4  H 2 O
360 C
(B)
122
CHEMISTRY
A is ethanol and B is diethyl ether.
Q. What is the action of strong oxidising agents on diethyl ether?
With strong oxidising agents like K2Cr2O7 diethyl ether gives acetaldehyde first and then acetic acid.
O  O 
C 2 H 5 OC 2 H 5  2CH 3CHO  2CH 3COOH
ALDEHYDES & KETONES:

Methods of preparation of acetaldehyde:
1. Ethyl alcohol (Primary) on oxidation with acidified potassium dichromate gives acetaldehyde.
CH 3CH 2 OH O  PDC

 or PCC
 CH 3 CHO
ethyl alcohol acetaldehyde + H O

10 alcohol  2
2. Acetaldehyde is prepared by passing the vapours of ethyl alcohol over heated copper at 3000C.
3. Acetaldehyde is prepared by the dry distillation of a mixture of calcium acetate and calcium formate.
H 3CCOO 2 Ca  HCOO 2 Ca 
 2CH 3CHO  2CaCO3 
calciumacetate calcium formate acetaldehyde calciumcarbonate
4. Acetaldehyde is prepared by passing acetylene gas through a dilute solution of H2SO4 in the pres-
ence of Hg SO4 at 600c .
Addition reactions:
1. Acetaldehyde reacts with concentrated sodium bisulphite solution to form acetaldehyde so
dium bisulphite.
H H
| |
H3C - C = O + NaHSO3 ----> H3C - C - OH acetaldehyde sodium bisulphite
|
SO3Na
2. It reacts with HCN to form acetaldehyde cyanohydrin.
H H
| |
H3C - C = O + HCN --------> H3C - C - OH acetaldehyde cyanohydrin
|
CN
3. It reacts with ammonia to form acetaldehyde ammonia.
123
H H
| |
H3C - C = O +H. NH2 --------> H3C - C - OH acetaldehyde ammonia
|
NH2
4. Acetaldehyde reacts with hydroxyl amine to form acetaldoxime.
H H
| |
H3C - C = O +H2 . NOH --------> H3C - C = NOH+H2O
hydroxylamine acetaldoxime
5. Acetaldehyde reacts with hydrazine to form acetaldehyde hydrazone.
H H
| |
H3C - C = O +H2 N -NH2 --------> H3C - C = N - NH2 + H2O
hydrazine acetaldehyde hydrazone
6. It reacts with phenyl hydrazine to form acetaldehyde phenyl hydrazone.
H H
| |
H3C - C = O +H2 N -NH.C6H5 --------> H3C - C = N - NH.C6H5 + H2O
phenyl hydrazine acetaldehyde phenyl hydrazone
7. Acetaldehyde on reduction with Ni/H2 or LiAlH4 gives ethyl alcohol.
H /Ni
CH 3 CHO 2 
 CH 3 CH 2 OH
or
LiAlH4
8. Acetaldehyde on oxidation with acidified potassium dichromate gives acetic acid.

K 2Cr2O7
H 3C  CHO   O    CH 3COOH (acetic acid)
H 2 SO4
Methods of preparation of acetone:

1) Isopropyl alcohol (secondary alcohol) on oxidation with acidified potassium dichromate gives ac-
etone.
K Cr O
CH 3 CHOHCH 3  (O ) 2 2 7  CH 3 COCH 3  H 2 O
H2 SO 4
Isopropyl alcohol ( 2 0 ) acetone
2) Acetone is prepared by the dry distillation of calcium acetate.
124
CHEMISTRY
H 3 CCOO 2 Ca dry distillation
   H 3 C COCH 3  CaCO 3
acetone
3) Acetone is prepared by passing the vapours of isopropyl alcohol over heated copper at 3000C.
Cu
CH 3 CHOHCH 3  
0
 CH 3 COCH 3  H 2
Isopropyl alcohol 300 C acetone
or 2 propanol
4) Acetone is obtained by passing propyne into a solution of 40% sulphuric acid and 1% mercuric
sulphate at 600C.
O
40% H 2 SO 4 , 60 o C ||
CH 3 C  CH  H 2 O       CH 3  C  CH 2 CH 3  C  CH 3
1% HgSO 4 |
OH
O
|
CH 3  C  CH 3
Addition Reactions:
1) Acetone reacts with sodium bisulphite solution giving acetone sodium bisulphite crystals.
CH3 CH3
| |
H3C - C = O + NaHSO3 --------> H3C - C - OH
|
SO3 Na
acetone sodium bisulphite
2) Acetone reacts with HCN to form acetone cyanohydrin
CH 3 CH 3
| |
H 3 C - C = O + H CN --------> H 3 C - C - O H
|
CN
acetone cyanohydrin
3) Acetone reacts with ammonia to form acetone ammonia
125
OH
|
CH3COCH3 + NH3  CH3 – C – CH3
|
NH2
acetone ammonia
4) It reacts with hydroxyl amine to form acetoneoxime.
CH3 CH 3
| |
H 3 C - C = O +H 2 . N O H --------> H 3 C - C = N O H +H 2 O
hy droxy lam ine acetoneoxim e
5) Acetone reacts with hydrazine to form acetone hydrazone.
CH3 CH3
| |
H3C - C = O +H2 N -NH2 --------> H3C - C = N - NH2 + H2O
hydrazine acetone hydrazone
6) Acetone reacts with phenyl hydrazine to form acetone phenyl hydrazone.
CH3 CH3
| |
H3C - C = O +H2 N -NH.C6H5 --------> H3C - C = N - NH.C6H5 + H2O
phenyl hydrazine acetone phenyl hydrazone
7) Acetone on reduction with H2/Ni or LiAlH4 forms isopropyl alcohol.
Ni
CH 3 COCH 3  H 2  CH 3 CHOHCH 3
 iso propyl alcohol
8) Acetone on oxidation with acidified K2Cr2O7 forms acetic acid, (carboxylic acid with less number of
carbon atoms)
2 Cr2O7  H 2 SO4
CH 3COCH 3  4(O ) K   CH 3COOH  CO2  H 2 O
acetic acid
Aldol condensation:
Aldehydes or ketones having a-hydrogen condense in presence of a dilute base to form b hydroxy
aldehydes or ketones commonly called aldols. This reaction is known as aldol condensation.
Example :
1) Two molecules of acetaldehyde condense in presence of dilute NaOH to form -
hydroxybutyraldehyde.
126
CHEMISTRY
2) Two molecules of acetone condense in presence of Ba(OH)2 to form diacetone alcohol.
Polymerisation reaction of acetaldehyde:

In presence of conc. H2SO4 acetaldehyde undergoes polymerisation to form paraldehyde.
CONC . H 2 SO4 / ROOM TEMPERATURE
3CH 3CHO    CH 3CHO 3
Acetone does not undergo polymerisation.

IUPAC and common names:
a) HCHO b) CH3CHO c) CH3CH2CHO d) CH3COCH3
Aldehyde Common Name IUPAC Name
a) HCHO formaldehyde methanal
b) CH3CHO acetaldehyde ethanal
c) CH3CH2CHO propionaldehyde propanal
d) CH3COCH3 acetone propanone
Acetaldehyde distinguished from acetone:
1) Reaction with Tollen’s reagent [Silver mirror test]:
“ammonical silver nitrate “ solution is known as Tollen’s reagent.
Acetaldehyde on warming with Tollen’s reagent in water bath produces silver mirror on the inner
walls of the test tube.
CH3CHO + Ag2O CH3COOH + 2Ag¯
silver mirror
2) Reaction with Fehling’s reagent :
A mixture of alkaline copper sulphate and sodium potassium tartrate solutions is known as Fehling’s
reagent.
Acetaldehyde reacts with Fehling’s reagent to form red precipitate of cuprous oxide.
Acetone is treated with
i) dry HCl ii) Na in ethyl alcohol
127
i) Wit h hydrochloric acid acet one gives mesityl oxide and phorone as fol-
lows.
ii) Acetone is reduced to secondary alcohol with sodium in ethanol.
Q. Explain a) i) Clemmensen reduction ii) Wolff-Kishner reduction.

b) i) Formic acid and acetic acid mixture.
ii) Acetic acid are passed over MnO at 3000C.
a) The carbonyl group is reduced to –CH2- group in these two reduction methods is as follows.
i) Clemmensen reduction:-
Zn  Hg / Hcl
CH 3 CHO    CH 3 CH 3

CH 3 COCH 3 Zn Hg / HCl
  CH 3 CH 2 CH 3
ii) Wolff- Kishner reduction:- Here the reagent of reduction is hydrazine and potassium hydrox-
ide in a high boiling alcohol.
NH 2 NH 2
CH 3 CHO   CH 3 CH  N  NH 2 KOH
 CH 3  CH 3  N 2
Alcohol
b) i) Acetaldehyde is obtained when a mixture of vapours of formic acid and acetic acid are passed
over manganous oxide at 3000C
0
HCOOH  CH 3 COOH MnO
 , 300 C
 CH 3 CHO  CO 2  H 2 O
ii) Acetone is obtained by passing the vapours of acetic acid over MnO at 3000C.
0
2CH 3 COOH MnO
 , 300 C
 CH 3 COCH 3  CO 2  H 2 O
Q. Explain (a) (i) Wacker process (ii) Rosenmund’s reduction.

(b) Reactions of acetaldehyde with semi carbazide and 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine.
(a) (i)Wacker Process : Acetaldehyde is obtained by passing ethylene through an acidified aque-
ous solution of palladium chloride and cupric chloride.
2 CuCl
CH 2  CH 2  PdCl 2  H 2 O    CH 3 CHO  Pd  2 HCl
H
Acetone is prepared by passing propylene through an acidified aqueous solution of palladium chlo-
ride (PdCl2) and cupric chloride (CuCl2).
128
CHEMISTRY
O
||
CuCl 2
CH 3  CH  CH 2  PdCl 2  H 2 O   CH 3  C  CH 3  Pd  2 HCl
H
(ii) Rosenmund’s reduction : Acetaldehyde is prepared by the reduction of acetyl chloride with
hydrogen in the presence of palladium catalyst which is supported on barium sulphate.
Pd  BaSO
4
H 2  CH 3 COCl    
  CH 3 CHO  HCl
(b) With semicarbazide : Acetaldehyde gives acetaldehyde semicarbazone with semicarbazide.
With 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine : Acetaldehyde gives 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone with 2,4-

dinitrophenylhydrazine
( This is used as a test to identify carbonyl compounds.)

Q. Find A, B, C, D, E, F, G & H in the following equations.
(1) CH 3 CHCl 2 CH 3 2

KOH
( A) ( B )
H 2O
(2) CH 3COCH 3  H 2 N NHCONH 2 

(C )
(3) CH 3 COCH 3  H 2 N NH C 6 H 3 (NO 2 ) 2 

(D )
(4) CH 3 CHO  PCl 5 

 E  POCl 3

(5)  F H
CH 3 CHO  CH 3 MgCl   G

Conc.H SO
(6) 3CH 3 COCH 3   2
4
H
A = CH 3  C (OH ) 2  CH 3 B = CH 3  CO  CH 3
H3C  C  N  NHCONH 2 H3C  C  N  NHC 6 H 3 (NO 2 )2

C= | D= |
CH 3 CH 3
E = CH 3 CHCl 2
129
CH3 OMgCl CH3 OH
F= C G= C
H CH3 H CH3
H = C 6 H 3 (CH 3 ) 3
Uses of Acetaldehyde:
a) It is used in the preparation of silver mirrors.
b) It is used in the preparation of acetic acid, ethyl alcohol, dyes, drugs etc.,
Uses of Acetone:
a) It is used in the preparation of chloroform, Iodoform etc.,
b) As a solvent for cellulose, nail polish etc.
Q. Explain the reaction of acetaldehyde and acetone with I2 in alkali.
Acetaldehyde and acetone both give iodoform when treated with I2 in alkali.
CH 3 CHO  3I 2  4NaOH 
 HCOONa  CHI 3  3H 2 O  3NaI
CH 3 COCH 3  3I 2  4NaOH 
 CH 3 COONa  CHI 3  3H 2 O  3NaI
Tests for acetone:

(a) Legal test: If aqueous solution of acetone is treated with freshly prepared sodium nitroprusside in
NaOH solution wine red solution is formed which on standing changes to yellow.
(b) Indigo test: When acetone is treated with orthonitrobenzaldehyde and KOH solution blue colour of
indigotin is observed.
Benedict solution and Schiff’s base:
Alkaline CuSO4 solution with citrate ions is called Benedict solution.
p-rosaniline hydrochloride pink aqueous solution decolourised with sulphur dioxide is called Schiff’s
base.
structures of Paradehyde, metaldehyde, mesitylene:
Q. Write the common and IUPAC names of CH 3  CH  CH  CHO .

Crotonaldehyde, 2-butenal
130
CHEMISTRY
Acetaldehyde Acetone
PREPARATIONS PREPARATIONS
1. Oxidation : 1. Oxidation :
CH 3CH 2 OH O  PDC
 or PCC
 CH 3 CH O K2Cr2O7
ethyl alcohol acetaldehyde
CH3 CHOHCH3  (O)  CH3COCH3  H 2O
H 2SO4
0

1 alcohol  Isopro pylalcohol(20 ) a ceton e
2. Distillation: 2. Distillation:
H 3CCOO 2 Ca  HCOO 2 Ca 
 2CH 3 CH O  2CaCO 3  H CCOO  C a   H C COCH  C aCO
3 2
dry di sti ll at io n
3 3 3
ca lciu m acetate calci um for mate acetaldehyd e cal cium car bon ate ace tone
3. Dehydrogenation : 3. Dehydrogenation :
Cu or Ag
CH 3 CH 2 OH  
 CH 3 CHO  H 2 CH 3CHOHCH 3 Cu
or Ag
 H 3 C COCH 3  H 2
ethyl alcohol 300 0 C acetaldehyde isopropylalcohol 300 0 C acetone
4. Hydration : 4. Hydration :
5. From Saturated monocarboxylic acids : 5. From Saturated monocarboxylic acids :

0
MnO, 300 C
HCOOH  CH 3COOH CH 3CHO  CO2  H 2O MnO, 300 0 C
2CH 3 COOH 
 CH 3 COCH 3  CO2  H 2 O
6. Wacker process : 6. Wacker process :
CH 2  CH 2  PdCl 2
 H 2 O  CuC
 
l2
 CH 3 CHO  Pd  2 HCl
H
7.Hydrolysis: 7.Hydrolysis:
8. Rosenmund's Reduction: Acetone can't be prepared by using this

Pd  BaSO 4 reduction.
H 2  CH 3 COCl    
 CH 3CHO  HCl
131
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1.Addition of sodium bisulphite 1.Addition of sodium bisulphite
CH3 CH3
| |
H3C - C = O + NaHSO3 --- --- --> H3C - C - OH
|
S O3 Na
acetone sodium bisulphite
2.Addition of Hydrogen cyanide 2.Addition of Hydrogen cyanide

CH 3 CH 3
| |
H 3 C - C = O + HCN - ---- --- > H 3 C - C - O H
|
CN
acetone cyanoh ydrin
3. Addition of Ammonia: 3. Addition of Ammonia:

H H OH
| | |
H 3C - C = O +H. NH2 --------> H3 C - C - OH acetaldehyde ammonia
| CH3COCH3 + NH 3  CH3 – C – CH3
NH2 |
NH2
acetone ammonia
4. Reaction with Hydroxylamine: 4. Reaction with Hydroxylamine:

H H CH 3 CH 3
| |
| | H 3 C - C = O + H 2 . N OH ---- ----> H 3 C - C = N OH +H 2 O
H 3C - C = O +H2 . NOH --------> H3 C - C = NOH+H2O hyd roxyla m in e ace toneoxim e
hydroxylamine acetaldoxime
5. Reaction with Hydrazine: 5. Reaction with Hydrazine:

H H CH 3 CH3
| | | |
H 3C - C = O +H2 N -NH2 --------> H 3C - C = N - NH2 + H2O H 3C - C = O +H2 N -NH 2 -------- > H3 C - C = N - NH 2 + H2 O
hydrazine acetaldehyde hydrazone h ydrazine acetone hydrazone
6. Reaction with Phenyl hydrazine : 6. Reaction with Phenyl hydrazine :

H H
| |
H 3 C - C = O +H2 N -NH. C6 H 5 --------> H 3 C - C = N - NH.C 6H 5 + H2O
phenyl hydraz ine acetaldehyde phenyl hydrazone
7. Reaction with 2,4-DNP: 7. Reaction with 2,4-DNP:
132
CHEMISTRY
7. Reaction with 2,4-DNP: 7. Reaction with 2,4-DNP:
Acetaldehyde 2,4 – dinitro

Acetone 2,4 –
phenyl hydroz one
dinitro
phenyl
hydrozone
8.Reaction with Semicarbazide : 8.Reaction with Semicarbazide :
H
C H3 – C + H 2 NNHCONH2  H 3C – C H = N – NHCONH 2
O
Acetaldehyde semi Acetone

carbazone semi carbazone
9. Action of PCl5: 9. Action of PCl 5:
Ethylidene chloride
Isopropyl
idene chloride
10. Addition of Grignard's Reagent : 10. Addition of Grignard's Reagent :
Isopropyl Tertiary butyl alcohol

alcohol
11. Aldol condensation : 11. Aldol condensation :
12. Reduction 12. Reduction

H2 / Ni Ni
CH 3CHO  CH 3CH 2OH CH 3 COCH3  H 2  CH3 CHOHCH3
or
LiAlH 4  iso  propyl alcohol
13. Clemmensen reduction 13. Clemm ensen reduction
Ethane Propane
14. Wolff- Kishner reduction 14. Wolff- Kishner reduction
NH2 NH2 KOH
CH 3CHO 
 CH 3CH  N  NH 2  CH 3  CH 3  N2
Alcohol
Ethane
Propane
133
15. Oxidation : 15. Oxidation :

O H SO
K 2C r2O7 CH3 COOCH3  4( O) KCr
2
2
 CH 3COOH  CO 2  H 2 O
7 2 4
H 3 C  CHO  O    CH 3 COOH acetic acid

H 2SO 4
Acetic acid
Acetic acid
16. Iodoform Test : 16. Iodoform Test :
CH 3 CHO  3 I 2  4 NaOH 
 HCOON a  CHI 3  3 H 2 O  3 N aI CH 3COCH 3  3I 2  4Na OH 
 CH 3COONa  CH I 3  3 H2 O  3NaI
Iodoform Iodoform
17. Polymerisation : 17. Polymerisation :
CONC.H 2 SO4 /ROOM TEMPERATUR E
CH 3CHO 3
3CH 3CHO          Acetone does not undergo polymerisation.
Paraldehyde On heating with concentrated Sulphuric acid
/ O 0C
mesitylene is formed.
4CH 3 CHO Conc
 CH 3CHO 4
. H 2SO4
3CH 3COCH 3 Conc
 C 6 H 3 CH 3 3
.H 2SO4
Metaldehyde
mesitylene
ACETIC ACID, CH3COOH IUPAC Name : Ethanoic acid

Preparation of acetic acid:
Methyl alcohol and Carbon monoxide combine to give acetic acid in the presence of cobalt or
Rhodium catalyst.
CH 3OH  CO Cobalt
 CH 3COOH
or Rh / Pr essure
Dilute ethyl alcohol undergoes biochemical oxidation in air by the bacteria called micoderma aceti to
give 6 to 10% acetic acid.
CH 3CH 2 OH  O2 Micoderma
  aceti CH 3 COOH  H 2 O
NITROBENZENE:
Method of preparation of nitrobenzene:
Preparation:
1) Nitrobenzene is prepared by the nitration of benzene using a mixture of conc.H2SO4 and
conc.HNO3 below 600C.
H SO Conc.
C 6 H 6  HNO 3 2 4  C 6 H 5 NO 2  H 2 O
conc.  60 0 C nitrobenzene
1) Nitrobenzene on reduction with Sn+HCl (acidic medium)gives aniline.
Sn  HCl
C 6 H 5 NO 2  6H  C 6 H 5 NH 2  2 H 2 O
aniline
2) It on reduction with Zn+KOH (basic medium) forms hydrazobenzene.
134
CHEMISTRY
Zn  KOH
2C 6 H 5 NO 2  10H  
C 6 H 5  NH  NH  C 6 H 5  4H 2 O
hydrazobenzene
3) It on reduction with Zn+Aq.NH4Cl (neutral medium) gives first nitrosobenzene, and then
N-phenyl hydroxyl amine.
H 
C 6 H 5 NO 2  2H  Zn
aq .NH 4 Cl
 C 6 H 5 NO 2  C 6 H 5 NHOH
H2O
nitrosoben zene Zn aq . NH 4 Cl N phenyl hydroxyla min e
4) On reducing with lithium aluminium hydride, nitrobenzene forms azobenzene.
LiAlH
2C 6 H 5 NO 2  8[ H ]   4 C H  N  N  C H  4 H O
6 5 6 5 2
azobenzene
5) Nitrobenzene on nitration at above 600C gives m – dinitrobenzene
NO 2 NO2
Uses of nitrobenzene:
a) It is used in the preparation of azodyes, floor polishes, aniline etc.,
b) As an oxidising agent in organic synthesis.
Reaction of Nitrobenzene with (a) H2 it presence of Ni (b) Cl2 in presence of Fe
(a) Nitrobenzene gives aniline with H2 in presence of Ni.
Ni
C 6 H 5 NO 2  3H 2  C 6 H 5 NH 2  2H 2 O
(b) Nitrobenzene gives metachloro nitrobenzene with Cl2 in presence of Fe.
ANILINE:
Methods of preparation of Aniline:
1) Aniline is prepared by the reduction of nitrobenzene with Sn+HCl
135
C 6 H 5 NO 2  6H Sn
HCl
C 6 H 5 NH 2  2H 2 O
aniline
2) It is prepared by heating phenol with ammonia in presence of zinc chloride at 3000C
ZnCl
C 6 H 5 OH  H  NH 2 
0
2
 C 6 H 5 NH 2  H 2 O
300 C
3) Chlorobenzene on heating with NH 3 at 2000C under pressure in presence of Cu2O gives aniline.
C 6 H 5Cl  2 NH 3 Cu
 2O
 C 6 H 5 NH 2  NH 4 Cl
1) Aniline reacts with conc. HCl forming a salt called aniline hydrochloride.
C 6 H 5 NH 3 Cl 
C 6 H 5 NH 2 HCl 
2) Aniline reacts with CH3I forms N-methyl aniline and N, N-dimethylaniline (alkylation).
CH I
C6H5NH2    C H NH CH  CH
3
 C6H5 N (CH3)2 + HI
I 3
 HI 6 5 3
3) Aniline reacts with acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride to form acetanilide. This is called acetylation.
C6 H5 NH2 + ClCO . CH3 Pyridine
  C6H5 NH COCH3 + HCl
acetyl chloride acetanilide
C6H5NH2 + (CH3CO)2O® C6H5NHCOCH3+ CH3COOH
4) Aniline reacts with benzoyl chloride to form benzanilide. This reaction is known as
benzoylation.
C6H5 NH2 + Cl CO C6H5  C6H5 NH CO C6H5 + HCl
benzanilide
5) Aniline reacts with NaNO2 + HCl at O - 50C to form benzene diazonium chloride. This reaction is
known as diazotisation reaction.
C6H5NH2 + NaNO2 +2HCl 0

 C H N Cl + 2H O + NaCl
- 50 c 6 5 2 2
benzendiazonium chloride
6) Aniline (primary aromatic amine) reacts with chloroform and alcoholic KOH to form phenyl isocya-
nide (carbyl amine) which has intolerable smell.
C6H5NH2 + CHCl3 + 3KOH 
 C6H5NC + 3 KCl + 3H2O
phenyl isocyanide
7) Aniline on reaction with bromine water gives 2,4,6 – tribromoaniline.
136
CHEMISTRY
Amines:
Alkyl or aryl derivatives of ammonia are called amines.
There are three types of amines : -
a) primary amines b) secondary amines c) tertiary amines
Primary amines :- The amines formed by the replacement of one hydrogen of ammo
nia by alkyl or aryl group are called primary amines.
Example : CH3NH2, C6H5 NH2
Secondary amines : - The amines formed by the replacement of two hydrogens of am
monia by alkyl or aryl groups are called secondary amines.
Example : (CH3)2NH, (C2H5)2NH
Tertiary amines : The amines formed by the replacement of three hydrogens of ammo
nia by alkyl or aryl groups are called tertiary amines.
Example : (CH3)3N
Common and IUPAC names of the following amines
a) CH3NH2 b)C2H5NH2 c) (CH3)2NH d)(CH3)3N
Compound Common Name IUPAC Name
a) CH3NH2 methyl amine aminomethane
b) C2H5NH2 ethyl amine aminoethane
c) (CH3)2NH dimethyl amine N-methyl aminomethane
d) (CH3)3N trimethyl amine N, N- dimethylaminomethane
Reaction of aniline with
(a) benzene sulphonyl chloride (b) nitration mixture (c) conc.H2SO4.
(a) Aniline gives N-phenyl benzene sulphonamide with benzene sulphonyl chloride.
(b) Aniline gives paranitro aniline with nitration mixture.
137
Uses of aniline:
i) It is used in the preparation of dyes, synthetic drugs like sulphanamide.
ii) It is used in the vulcanisation of rubber.
1. What are primary, secondary and tertiary alkyl halides? Give one example for each. (Ref. Ethyl
chloride from text)
2. Write any four nucleophilic substitution reactions of ethyl chloride.
3. How can you distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols by oxidation method?
4. What is Rosenmund’s reduction?
5. What is Clemmensen’s reduction?
6. Show with equations how would you bring the following conversions?
a) acetaldehyde 
 ethylacetate b) acetaldehyde ethane
7. Complete the following equations
a) CH3COOH LiAlH
 4  b) CH3COOH P
2 O5

c) CH3COOH + NH3 
 d) CH3COOH + C2H5OH H
2SO 4

138
CHEMISTRY
139
3 METALLURGY
140
CHEMISTRY
The whole process of obtaining a pure metal from one of its ores is known as metallurgy.
In order to extract the metal from ores, several physical and chemical methods are used. The method
used depends upon the nature of the ore, the properties of the metal and the local conditions, Thus,
it is not possible to have a universal method for the extraction of all the metals from their ores.
However, the metallurgy of a metal involves three main operations:
1. Concentration or dressing
2. Reduction
3. Purification or refining
1. Concentration or dressing of ores : Ores usually contain soil, sand, stones and other useless
silicates. These undesired impurities present in ores are called Gangue or Matrix. The removal of
these impurities from the ores is known as concentration. Before the ore is subjected to concentra-
tion, it is crushed into small pieces in gyratory crushers. The crushed ore is then grinded with the help
of rollers or in the stamp mill to powder form.
Physical Methods
The following physical methods are generally employed for the concentration of the ores depending
upon the nature of the ore.
Gravity separation : The separation is based on the difference in the specific gravities of the
gangue particles and the ore particles. The powdered ore is agitated with water or washed with a
running stream of water. The heavy ore particles settle down while the lighter particles of sand, clay,
etc., are washed away. For this either Wilfley table is used. It a wooden table having slanting floor on
which long wooden strips called riffles are fixed. The powdered ore is suspended in a stream of
water. The heavier ore particles collect behind the riffles and the gangue particles are carried away
with the stream of water. Hydraulic classifier is shown in this. Powdered ore is dropped from the top
of classifier and strong stream of water is introduced from the bottom. The lighter gangue particles
are carried away by the water while the heavier ore particles settle down. Generally, Oxide and
carbonate ores are concentrated by this method. For example, tin ore (cassiterite) and iron ore
(haematite) are concentrated by gravity method.
1.
141
Electromagnetic Separation : When one component either the ore or impurity is magnetic in
nature, this method can be used for separation. A magnetic separator consist ing a belt mov-
ing on two rollers is used. One of which is a strong magnet. The powdered ore is dropped on the belt
from one end (non-magnetic) and at the other end (magnetic), the magnetic particles are attracted
and fall nearer the roller while non-magnetic particles fall away from the roller. Ferro-magnetic ores
are concentrated by this method. For example, wolframite (FeWO4) - a magnetic ore, is separated
from the non-magnetic ore, cassiterite SnO2, by this method.
Froth floatation process : This method is used for the concentration of sulphide ores. The method
is based on the preferential wetting properties with the frothing agent and water. The powdered ore
is added to water containing pine oil (frothing agent) and sodium ethyl xanthate (collecting agent). A
vigorous stream of air is now passed through, which thoroughly agitates the mixture and disposes the
oil into colloid sized particles. As a result of this, the sulphide particles of the ore stick to the oil
droplets and rise to the surface in the form of froth supported by air bubbles. Water wets the gangue
particles which sink to the bottom. With this method, it is possible to concentrate the dense ores such
as galena and zinc blende.
142
CHEMISTRY
Chemical methods
1. Calcination : It involves heating of the ore below its fusion temperature in absence of air. This step
expels organic matter and moisture from the ores. It can remove moisture from hydrated oxides or
carbon dioxide from carbonates. For example :
Al2O3·2H2O Al2O3 + 2H2O

2Fe2O3·3H2O2Fe2O3 + 6H2O
CuCO3·Cu(OH)22CuO + CO2 + H2O
Calcination makes the ore porous. The step is generally performed in reverberatory furnace.
2. Roasting : It is also heating of the ore either alone or with some other material usually in presence of
air below its fusion temperature. roasting is generally done in a reverberatory furnace or in a blast
furnace. In roasting definite chemical changes like oxidation, chlorination, etc., take place while in
calcination these occurs only expulsion of organic matter, water, carbon dioxide etc., i.e., it does not
involve any major chemical change.
The roasting process may be any one of the following types :
1. Oxidising roasting : This is very common type of roasting in metallurgy and is carried
out to remove sulphur and arsenic in the form of their volatile oxides such as SO2 and
As2O3 respectively. The ores are simultaneously converted into corresponding oxides.
This type of roasting is generally applied in ores of lead, zinc, nickel, copper, etc.
S + O2 SO2
4As + 3O22As2O3
2PbS + 3O22PbO + 2SO2
2CuS + 3O22Cu2O + 2SO2
2. Partial oxidising or sulphating roasting : This type of roasting is carried out at a
temperature below the melting point of the charge and air is admitted. Part of the sul phide
ore is oxidised to sulphate and the rest is converted into oxide. For example, the roast-
ing of galena leads to the formation of a mixture of lead oxide and lead sulphate.
2PbS + 3O22PbO + 2SO2
143
PbS + 2O2PbSO4
3. Chlorinating roasting : This type of roasting is done in the case of silver ore. The ore,
argentite is mixed with common salt and the mixture is heated in the presence of air. The
final product is the chloride of the metal.
Ag2S + 2NaCl2AgCl + Na2S
Leaching : It involves the treatment of the ore with a suitable reagent as to make it soluble while
impurities remain insoluble. The ore is recovered from the solution by suitable chemical method. For
example, bauxite ore contains ferric oxide, titanium oxide and silica as impurities. When the pow-
dered ore is digested with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at about 150°C under pressure,
the alumina (Al2O3) dissolves forming soluble sodium meaaluminate while ferric oxide (Fe2O3), TiO2
and silica remain as insoluble part.
Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O
Pure alumina is recovered from the filtrate
NaAlO2 + 2H2OAl(OH)3 + NaOH
2Al(OH)3Al2O3 + 3H2O
Gold and silver are also extracted from their native ores by Leaching (Mac-Arthur Forrest cyanide
process). Both silver and gold particles dissolves in dilute solution of sodium cyanide in presence of
oxygen of the air forming complex cyanides.
Out of these carbon reduction and aluminium reduction are important processes.
(i) Carbon reduction process : It is generally called as smelting. The oxides of the less electropositive
metals are reduced by strongly heating them with coal or coke.
PbO + C Pb + CO
PbO + COPb + CO2
Similarly,
Fe2O3 + 3C2Fe + 3CO
Fe2O3 + 3CO2Fe + 3CO2
The ores, even after concentration, contain some gangue. To remove gangue, certain substances are
mixed with concentrated ore which combine with gangue to form fusible material which is not soluble
in molten metal. The substances used are called fluxes and the fusible material formed during re
duction process is called slag. Slag is usually lighter and floats on the surface of the molten metal. An
acidic flux (e.g., silica, borax, etc.) is the chemical substance which removes the basic impurities.
(ii) Reduction by aluminium (Goldschmidt aluminothermic process) : This process is employed in
the case of those metals which have very high melting points and are to be extracted from their
oxides. Their reduction with carbon is not satisfactory. A mixture of concentrated oxide ore and
aluminium powder, commonly called as thermite, is taken in a steel crucible placed in a bed of sand.
The reaction is started by the use of an ignition mixture containing magnesium powder and barium
peroxide.
Cr2O3 + 2Al 2Cr + Al2O3
3Mn3O4 + 8Al 9Mn + 4Al2O3
Large amount of heat energy is released during reduction, which fuses both the alumina and the
metal.
(b) Self reduction process : This process is also called autoreduction process or air reduction pro-
cess. The sulphide ores of less electropositive metals like Hg, Pb, Cu, etc., are heated in air as to
144
CHEMISTRY
convert part of the ore into oxide or sulphate which then reacts with the remaining sulphide ore to
give the metal and sulphur dioxide. No external reducing agent is used in this process.
2HgS + 3O2 2HgO + 2SO2 Extraction of Hg
2HgO + HgS 3Hg + SO2 from cinnabar ore
2PbS + 3O2 2PbO + 2SO2 Extraction of lead
2PbO + PbS 3Pb + SO2 from galena ore
(c) Electrolytic reduction : The oxides of the highly electropositive metals like Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al,
etc., cannot be reduced easily with carbon at moderate temperatures. For reduction, a very high
temperature is required at which the metal may combine with carbon to form a carbide. These metals
are thus extracted by the electrolysis of their oxides, hydroxides or chlorides in fused state. Some-
times, a small amount of some other salt is added as to lower the fusion temperature or to increase
the conductivity or both. The metal is liberated at the cathode. Sodium is obtained by the electrolysis
of fused mixture of NaCl and CaCl2 (Down’s process) or by electrolysis of fused sodium hydroxide
(Castner’s process).
(d) Hydrometallurgy : This process is based on the fact that more electropositive metal can displace
less electropositive metal from its salt solution. The ore is teated with such chemical reagents which
convert it into soluble compound. By the addition of more electropositive metal to the filtrate, the
metal present in the ore can be precipitated. The following two examples illustrate this process.
(i) Extraction of copper : Malachite ore is first roasted.
CuCO3·Cu(OH)2 2CuO + H2O + CO2
Copper oxide obtained is dissolved in sulphuric acid.
CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O
(Soluble)
To the solution of copper sulphate, scrap iron is added which precipitates copper
CuSO4 + Fe Cu + FeSO4
ppt. Soluble
(ii) Extraction of silver : The ore is dissolved in sodium cyanide solution.
Ag2S + 4NaCN 2NaAg(CN)2 + Na2S
By the addition of zinc turnings, Ag is precipitated
2NaAg(CN)2 + Zn Na2Zn(CN)4 + 2Ag
Soluble ppt
e) Amalgamation process : This method is used for the extraction of noble metals like gold, silver,
etc., from the native ores. The finely powdered ore is brought in contact with mercury which com-
bines with the particles of the metal present in the ore and form amalgam. The metal is recovered
from the amalgam by subjecting it to distillation, where the mercury distills over leaving behind the
metal.
145
3. Third operation-Refining or purification : The metals obtained by the application of above re-
duction methods from the concentrated ores are usually impure. These impure metals may be asso-
ciated with small amounts of (a) unchanged ore, (b) other metals produced by the simultaneous
reduction of their compounds originally present in the ore, (c) non-metals like silicon, carbon, phos-
phorus, etc. (d) residual slag, flux, etc. The impure metal is thus subjected to some purifying pro-
cesses known as refining in order to remove the undesired impurities. The following refining pro-
cesses may be applied depending upon the nature of the metal under treatment and the nature of the
impurities.
(a) Liquation process : This process is based on the difference in fusibility of the metal and impurities.
When the impurities are less fusible than the metal itself, this process is employed. The metal melts
and flows down leaving behind the impurities on the hearth. This method is used to purify the metals
like Bi, Sn, Pb, Hg, etc.
(b) Distillation : This process is used for those metals which are easily volatile. The impure metal is
heated in a retort and its vapours are separately condensed in a receiver. The non-volatile impurities
are left-behind in the retort. This is used for the purification of Zn, Cd, Hg, etc.
(c) Pyrometallurgical oxidation process : This process is used when the impurities have a rgeater
affinity for oxygen than the metal itself. This method is usually employed for refining the metals like
Fe, Cu, Ag, etc. The oxidation is done by various ways.
(i) Cupellation : The impure metal is heated in a cupel or oval shaped crucible made of bone ash
or cement and a blast of air is passed over the molten mass. The impurities get oxidised and removed
with the blast of air. For example the impurity of lead present in silver is removed by cupellation
process.
(ii) Bessemerisation : The impure-metal is heated in a furnace and a blast of compressed air is
blown through the molten mass. The impurities get oxidised. For example, the molten pig iron is
taken in a bassemer converter and compressed air is passed which oxidises the impurities.
2Mn + O2 2MnO, Si + O2 SiO2
2C + O2 2CO, MnO + SiO2 MnSiO3
Slag
(iii) Poling : The impure metal containing oxides as impurity can be purified by this method. The
molten impure metal is stirred with green poles of wood. The green poles of wood release the
hydrocarbon gases which reduce the oxide impurities. This method is especially used in the purifica-
tion of copper. (old method)
(d) Electrolytic refining of metals : Many of the metals such as copper, silver, gold, aluminium, lead,
etc., are purified by this method. This is perhaps the most important method. The impure metal is
made anode while a thin sheet of pure metal acts as a cathode. The electrolytic solution consists of
generally an aqueous solution of a salt or a complex of the metal. On passing the current, the pure
metal is deposited on the cathode and equivalent amount of the metal gets dissolved from the anode.
Thus, the metal is transferred from anode to cathode through solution. The soluble impurities pass
into the solution while the insoluble one, especially less electropositive impurities collect below the
anode as anodic mud or anode sludge,. Some examples are given below
i) Purification of copper
Impure metal—Anode; Thin sheets of copper—Cathode
146
CHEMISTRY
Electrolyte—An aqueous solution of copper sulphate containing H2SO4.
A current of 1.3 volt is used. Anodic mud contains Ag, Au, Pt, Pd, etc., and impurities like Fe, Zn,
Ni, etc., pass into the solution. 99.9% pure copper is obtained.
(ii) Purification of lead
Impure metal—Anode; Thin sheets of pure lead—Cathode
Electrolyte—A solution of lead silico fluoride PbSiF6 containing 8 – 10% of H2<>/
subSiF6
e) Special methods
(i) Mond’s process : Nickel is purified by this method. Impure nickel is treated with carbon mon-
oxide at 60–80°C when volatile compound, nickel carbonyl, is formed. Nickel carbonyl decom-
poses at 180°C to form pure nickel and carbon monoxide which can again be used
(ii) Van-Arkel process : This methods is generally applied for obtaining ultrapure metals. The
impure metal is converted into a volatile compound while the impurities are not affected. The volatile
compound is then decomposed electrically to get the pure metal. Ti, Zr, Hf, Si, etc., have been
refined by this method. The method is quite expensive.
OCCURRENCE OF METALS
(iii) Zone refining of Fractional crystallisation : Elements such as Si, Ge, Ga, etc., Which are
used as semi-conductors are refined by this method. Highly pure metals are obtained. The method is
based on the difference in solubility of impurities in molten and solid state of the metal. A movable
heater is fitted around a rod of the impure metal. The heater is slowly moved across the rod. The
metal melts at the point of heating and as the heater moves on from one end of the rod to the other
end, the pure metal crystallises while the impurities pass on the adjacent melted zone.
147
Different metallurgical processes can be broadly divided into three main types.
(i) Pyrometallurgy : Extraction is done using heat energy. The metals like Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn, Ni, Cr,
Hg, etc., which are found in nature in the form of oxides, carbonates, sulphides are extracted by this
process.
(ii) Hydrometallurgy : Extraction of metals involving aqueous solution is known as hydrometallurgy.
Silver, gold, etc., are extracted by this process.
((iii) Electrometallurgy : Extraction of highly reactive metals such as Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al, etc., by
carrying electrolysis of one of the suitable compound in fused or molten state.
FURNACES
Furnace is a device in which high temperature is produced either by burning a fuel or by using
electricity. Several types of furnaces are used in the extraction of metals. The important ones are
described below :
(i) Reverberatory furnace : This is the kind of a furnace in which fuel does not come in direct contact
with the charge. The flames are deflected from the roof of the furnace to the charge undergoing
reaction. Thus, this furnace can be used for reduction as well as for oxidation purposes.
148
CHEMISTRY
The furnace consists of three main parts namely fire place, hearth and chimney. The fire place is
builtat one end of the furnace at slightly lower level than that of the hearth. The roof is made slanting
and connects with the chimney on the other end. The hot gases from the fire place are reflected by
the concave ceiling over the hearth. The furnace is surrounded on all sides by walls of fire bricks.Air
supply can be controlled by vents and direct blast.
The furnace is used for smelting (reduction) and roasting of the ores. The reduction is done by the use
of some suitable reducing agent. The furnace is used (a) for reducing the roasted tin stone (SnO2) to
molten tin metal by the use of coke (b) for roasting the galena ore (PbS) as to convert it into PbO and
PbSO4 by the use of air (c) for roasting of copper pyrites (CuFeS2) as to convert it into Cu2O and
FeO by means of air.
ii) Blast furnace : It is a huge chimney like structure which can be between 25 and 60 meters in height
and 5 to 10 metres in diameter. It is constructed of steel plates and the inner regions lined with fire-
bricks. It has a double cup and cone arrangement at the top for the introduction of charge. Preheated
air at a temperature of about 600°C is injected into the furnace through a number of pipes called
tuyeres in the bottom of the furnace. It is provided with two tap holes plugged with clay; molten metal
is tapped from the lower one and molten slag from the other. The temperature range in the furnace is
from 1500°C at the bottom and 200–300°C at the top. Carbon and carbon monoxide reduce the
metallic oxides to the free metals.
Blast furnace is frequently used for the extraction of iron and copper from their ores. Slag formation
plays an important role in the blast furnace as it covers the melted metal and thus protects the metal
149
from being reoxidised.
(iii) Muffle furnace : This furnace is used when high temperature is required and the fuel and its prod-
ucts of combustion are not to be desired to come into contact with the material to be heated. The
muffle is a chamber made of refractory material. The muffle is surrounded by hot flames and hot
gases all around. In an electric muffle furnace, the closed chamber is surrounded by heating electric
coils. Such a furnace is used for the extraction of zinc, for annealing and gold and silver assaying.
OCCURRENCE OF ME TALS
(iv) Electric furnaces : In these furnaces, electrical energy is converted into heat energy. Such furnaces
are largely used where cheap power is available and very high temperatures are required and also for
carrying electrolytic reduction. The electric furnaces are generally of three types :
(a) Induction furnace (b) Arc furnace and (c) Resistance furnace.
(a) Induction furnace : In this furnace the charge lying on the furnace bed or in a crucible constitute the
secondary coil of an induction unit and the induced currents produced by making and breaking the
primary circuit, heat up the material.
(b) Arc furnaces : Heat is generated by arcs and a temperature over 3000°C may be obtained. Car-
bon electrodes are used to carry the current and an arc is struck between them and the charge. Arc
furnaces are of two types :
(i) Direct-heat (ii) Indirect-heat.
In the direct heat arc furnaces, arc is used to heat up a gas in which the arc is burning and in indirect
heat arc furnace, the arc burns above the charge i.e., the arc radiates heat towards the charge.
(c) Resistance furnaces : Heat is generated by the resistance in the electric circuit. In some cases the
material forming the charge may act as the resistance and in other cases, the body of furnace is made
up of resistance material and this material cause heating. In some cases, rods of poorly conducting
material are embedded into the charge which become intensely hot on passage of the current.
RREFRACTORY MATERIALS
The materials which can withstand very high temperatures without melting or becoming soft are
known as refractory materials. These are not affected by slags formed during the extraction of met-
als. These are used in the form of bricks for the internal linings of furnaces. Refractory materials used
are of three types:
(i) Acid refractories (ii) Basic refractories (iii) Neutral refractories
Silica, quartz, silicious Lime, dolomite, magnesite, Graphite, chromite,
sand stones, etc. etc., are the examples. bone ash, etc., are the
are the examples. examples.
Silica (92% SiO2, 2.7% Al2O3) and quartz can tolerate temperatures upto about 1750°C, bauxite
upto 1800°C, alumina upto 2000°C and magnesite, chromite, etc., upto 2200°C. Some carbides
such as silicon carbide is used as refractory for special purposes.
SINTERING
The conversion of small pieces of substance into large one. The substance is partially fused so that
smaller pieces join together to form larger one.
COLLECTORS
These compounds adsorb themselves on polar groups to grains of ores and thus derive them on the
surface to pass on into the froth eg. ethyl xanthate
150
CHEMISTRY
ACTIVATORS AND DEPRESSANTS
These compounds activate or depress the floating property of one of the components of the ore and
thus help in the sepration of different minerals present in the same ore. CuSO4 is an example of
activators, while sod and pot cyanides are the examples of depressants eg. in galena (PbS) is usually
associated with sphalerite (ZnS) and FeS22. Floatation is carried out in presence of potassium ethyl
xanthate (collector) and sod. Cyanide and alkali (depressants) the later compounds depress the
floatation property of ZnS and FeS22 particals and hence only PbS particals go into the froth when
air is blown in. After the removal of galena the procen is repeated by adding CuSO4 (activators)
which activates the floating character of ZnS particals and thus time ZnS comes with the froth. The
acidification of remaining slurry leads to the floatation of FeS22.
151
4 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
152
CHEMISTRY
Introduction
Organic chemistry is the branch of science which touches almost every aspect of material civilization
today. The age old classification of chemical compounds into two broad categories as organic and
inorganic compounds originated on the basis of the conception that they basically differ in their
source of origin. Inorganic compounds were supposed to take their origin from mineral kingdom
whereas organic compounds were believed to have their origin from plant and animal kingdom. This
concept leads to the assumption of vital force theory according to which the synthesis of organic
compounds could be carried out only in the presence of a mysterious vital force available in living
systems. The name ‘organic’ originated from this concept.
The accidental synthesis of urea from an organic compound, ammonium cyanate was a major break-
through in the field of organic chemistry. A German scientist Fredrich Wohler prepared urea, a com-
ponent of human urine, by heating ammonium sulphate and potassium cyanate. Since then, the devel-
opment of organic chemistry has proceeded at a tremendous pace. With the advent of synthesis of a
large number of organic compounds, the definition of organic chemistry lost its significance.
The modified definition of organic chemistry was stated as the chemistry of carbon compounds. This
definition stemmed from the basic fact that all the compounds in living systems barring water invari-
ably contain carbon. However, this definition was considered ambiguous because many inorganic
compounds like CO2, CaCO3, etc. containing carbon are available. Later on, the principal charac-
teristic of carbon compounds in living systems was that carbon is essentially associated with hydro-
gen. This idea paved the way for the precise definition of organic chemistry as the chemistry of
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
Though the name ‘organic’ is slightly misleading in the context of the present status of chemistry, the
sharp line of distinction between inorganic and organic compounds continues to remain as such till
today. Nevertheless, in the present scenario, the special status of organic chemistry owes not to the
source of origin but to the remarkable properties exhibited by the compounds of carbon which
clearly distinguish them from compounds of the rest of the hundred odd elements in the periodic
table.
Unique properties of carbon compounds
Organic compounds differ from inorganic compounds in most of the general properties.
1. Number of compounds: The number of organic compounds is much more than that of inorganic
compounds. In fact, the organic compounds comprise about 90% of all known compounds.
2. Composition of compounds: Composition of organic compounds is confined to very few el-
ements of the periodic table like carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, halogens and sulphur. In con-
trast to these, inorganic compounds are composed of almost all the elements in the periodic table.
3. Techniques of analysis: The methods used for the analysis of organic compounds like steam
distillation, solvent extraction, etc. are not generally employed for inorganic compounds.
4. Systematic study: A very systematic study of organic compounds is possible because they have
been divided into groups of homologuous series. Since each series is characterized by a general
formula and the members show a regular trend in physical and almost similar chemical properties.
Among inorganic compounds, the trends are not as regular as those of organic compounds.
All these properties distinguish organic compounds from the inorganic compounds. In view of these
characteristics, the study of carbon compounds as a separate branch of organic chemistry is justifi-
able. These properties of organic compounds are due to some special features possessed by car-
bon.
1. Tetravalency
Carbon exhibits a covalency of four due to the presence of four half filled orbitals in its excited state.
153
Carbon electronic configuration ® 2, 4
2. Catenation
Carbon has a remarkable property of forming covalent bonds with other carbon atoms, thus, form-
ing long chains. This ability of forming long chains with atoms of the same element is called catena-
tion. Among all the elements, carbon shows maximum catenation capacity due to the maximum
strength of carbon–carbon bonds. This catenation property of carbon accounts for the formation of
innumerable number of compounds.
3. Multiplicity of bonding
Due to its small size, carbon can easily form multiple bonds with carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, etc. This
bond multiplicity also is responsible for the formation of a wide variety of carbon compounds.
4. Isomerism
The molecules of all organic compounds can be represented by two types of formulae. They are
(i) Molecular formula: It indicates the actual number of atoms of various elements present in
one molecule of an organic compound. However, it does not give us any idea regarding the type of
bonds in the molecule.
Example: C2H 6
In one molecule of ethane, there are two carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms.
(ii) Structural Formula: It gives the exact arrangement of the atoms of different elements present
in the molecule.
154
CHEMISTRY
In case of organic compounds, it is quite probable that two or more organic molecules may possess
the same molecular formulae but different structural formulae. That means the molecules may differ in
the structural arrangement of atoms. This phenomenon is called isomerism.
5. Homologous series
A series of organic compounds belonging to a specific class and having the same chemical properties
when arranged in an increasing order of their molecular weights is called a homologous series.
Characteristics of homologous series:
(1) All the members of the series possess the same functional group.
(2) All the members are represented by the same general formula.
(3) The members can be prepared by similar methods.
(4) The adjacent members of a series differ by 14 in their molecular weights or
– CH2 group
(5) The members show a regular gradation in physical properties.
Homologous series of alkanes
Sl. IUPAC Nam e Molecular

Structural formula
No. of the alkane formula
H

1. Methane CH 4
H CH

H
H H
 
2. Ethane C2H 6 HC C H
 
H H
155
H H H
  
3. Propane C3H 8 H CCC H
  
H H H
H H H H
   
4. n-butane C4H 10 H C CCC H
   
H H H H
H H H H H
    
5. n-pentane C5H 12 H  C C  C  CCH
    
H H H H H
Homologous series of alkenes
Sl.
Name of Molecular
No. Structural formula
the alkene formula
H H
 
1. Ethene C 2H 4
H C =C  H
H H H
  
2. Prop-1-ene C 3H 6 H C =C  C H

H
H H H H
   
3. But-1-ene C 4H 8 H C C C = CH
 
H H
H H H H H
    
4. Pent-1-ene C 5H10 H  C C  C  C= C
   
H H H H
156
CHEMISTRY
Homologous series of alkynes
Sl. Molecular
IUPAC Structural formula
No. formula
1. Ethyne C 2 H2 H C  C H
H

2. Prop-1-yne C 3 H4 H C  C C  H

H
H H
 
H C C  C C  H
3. But-1-yne C 4 H6
 
H H
H H H
  
4. Pent-l-yne C 5 H8
H C  C C  C C  H
  
H H H
Classification of hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are a major class of organic compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen as
the constituent elements.
Hydrocarbons are broadly classified into two categories on the basis of the skeleton of carbon chain.
(a) Aliphatic hydrocarbons or open chain hydrocarbons
The hydrocarbons which contain straight chain or branched chain of carbons are called aliphatic
hydrocarbons.
157
(b) Aromatic hydrocarbons or closed chain hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons which contain a ring or rings of carbon atoms are called aromatic or closed chain
hydrocarbons. Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons:
These are further classified as saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons based on the nature of
carbon-carbon bonds present in the hydrocarbon molecules.
(i) Saturated hydrocarbons: In the molecules of saturated hydrocarbons, all the valencies of all car-
bon atoms are satisfied by single bonds. These are called alkanes. General formula of this class of
compounds is CnH2n + 2.
158
CHEMISTRY
(ii) Unaturated hydrocarbons: The molecules of these hydrocarbons contain one or more carbon-
carbon multiple bonds. These are called unsaturated hydrocarbons. Based on the type of multiple
bond, unsaturated hydrocarbons are further classified into two categories.
Alkenes:
The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain a carbon-carbon double bond in their molecules are
called alkenes. General formula of alkenes is CnH2n (assuming that one double bond is present in the
molecule)
Alkynes:
These are unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain a carbon-carbon triple bond in their molecules.
General formula of alkynes is CnH2n – 2. (assuming that one triple bond is present in the molecule)
Nomenclature of hydrocarbons
Nomenclature implies assigning proper names for the various compounds on the basis of certain
criteria. In case of organic compounds, two systems of nomenclature are in use.
a. Trivial system: In the earlier period when vital force theory was in effect, the names of organic
compounds were given on the basis of the source of origin of the compounds. But, with the advance-
ment of synthetic organic chemistry and discovery of enormous number of organic compounds, this
system of nomenclature lost its significance.
b. IUPAC system: The need for a more systematic method of naming the organic compounds re-
sulted in framing certain rules for nomenclature of organic compounds by IUPAC
(i) Longest chain rule: In the given structural formula, the longest possible carbon chain is selected.
This carbon chain is called parent carbon chain. Based on the number of carbon atoms in the longest
chain, a root word is assigned. The root words for the first four members take their origin from trivial
names. For the later members, Greek numerals are used for giving root words.
Example:
159
C  C  C  C  C C

C

C
Longest chain with 7 carbon atoms.

Root word corresponding to seven carbons – hept.
(ii) Rule of primary suffix: The extent of saturation or unsaturation in the carbon chain is indicated by
primary suffix which is added to the root word.
In case of unsaturated hydrocarbon, the parent carbon chain selected should include multiple
bond.
It is also essential to mention the position of multiple numbered bond in the carbon chain. This is done
by numbering the carbon chain from one end to the other. The chain is in that direction in which the
multiple bonded carbons gets the least number. The number of multiple bonded carbon is mentioned
either before the root word or before the primary suffix.
Root word for 6 carbon chain – hex

Primary suffix – ane
Name – Hexane
Root word for 5 carbon Chain - pent

Primary suffix - ene.
Position of double bond - 1
160
CHEMISTRY
Name: 1 - Pentene or Pent – 1- ene
Root word – But

Primary suffix – yne
Position of triple bond - 2
Name: 2 - butyne or but - 2 - yne
In case of branched chain hydrocarbon, univalent group formed after the removal of one hydrogen
atom from alkane remains attached to the parent carbon chain. This univalent group is called alkyl
group.
(iii) Rule of substituents: Substituents are the alkyl groups which are linked to the parent carbon
chain. The prefix corresponding to the alkyl group is added to the root word by mentioning the
position number of the carbon is attached to. The carbon chain is numbered in that direction in which
the carbon linked to the substituent gets the least number.
H H H H H H
| | | | | |
Example: H C  C  C  C  C  C  H
7  6  5  4  3  
H H H H 2 CH2 H
1 
CH3
Root word – hept

Prefix – methyl
Position number – 3
Name – 3 – methyl heptane
Isomerism in alkanes
Long chain alkanes differ in the arrangement of carbon atoms in the chain. Two or more alkanes may
possess the same molecular formula, but they may differ in the arrangement of carbon atoms in the
chain. This type of isomerism exhibited by alkanes is known as chain isomerism and the molecules
are called chain isomers. The straight chain isomer is called n-alkane. The isomer with a single branch
at a carbon atom is called iso-isomer. The isomer with two branches on the same carbon atom is
161
called neo-isomer.
Example:
Butane.
Molecular Formula : C4H10
Chain isomers of butane
Example:
Pentane
Molecular formula: C5H12
Chain isomers of pentane
Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons represented by a general formula CnH2n+2, where ‘n’ is the
number of carbon atoms.
Methane
Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon of the homologous series of alkanes. Trivial names for methane
are marsh gas and fire damp.
Occurrence
Being the most volatile of all alkanes, it is available in earth’s crust in the form of natural gas. Biogas
or gobar gas, which is supposed to meet 75% of the domestic energy needs in the rural areas, also
contains methane as the chief constituent.
162
CHEMISTRY
Laboratory preparation of methane
Principle: In general, all alkanes can be prepared by the decarboxylation of sodium or potassium
salts of corresponding carboxylic acids. Decarboxylation involves removal of carbondioxide. Car-
boxylic acids are a class of organic compounds containing -COOH group where the hydrogen is
acidic in nature and can be replaced by sodium or potassium. The reagent used for decarboxylation
is soda lime (NaOH + CaO).
CaO
RCOONa  NaOH  R .H  Na 2CO 3
(alkane)
Methane can be prepared by taking the sodium salt of the carboxylic acid containing two carbon
atoms. The carboxylic acid containing two carbon atoms is ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), and its
sodium salt is (CH3COONa), i.e. sodium ehtanoate.
CH3COOH + NaOH ® CH3COONa + H2O
CaO
CH 3COONa  NaOH  CH 4  Na 2CO 3
(methane)
Process
The mixture of sodium ethanoate and soda lime is heated in a hard glass test tube and methane gas is
evolved and is collected by downward displacement of water.
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Combustibility:
163
Methane burns in excess of oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water. This reaction is called com-
bustion and it is an exothermic reaction. It burns with a pale blue flame.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
In an inadequate supply of oxygen, methane undergoes incomplete combustion to give carbon mon-
oxide and water.
2CH4 + 3O2  2CO + 4H2O
Structure:
Methane molecule has four carbon hydrogen bonds which are arranged tetrahedrally. The shape of
the molecule is tetrahedral with a bond angle of 109.5º.
Alkenes and alkynes
Comparative study of alkenes and alkynes
Ethene and Ethyne
Preparation method of ethene

Ethene can be prepared by cracking kerosene.
Cracking
Cracking is the process of breaking up long chain hydrocarbons into smaller chain hydrocarbons by
heating at high temperature. Basically, cracking is an important method of preparing simpler alkanes
from higher alkanes.
Cracking is of two types
a. Thermal Cracking: The process involves heating the compound to a high temperature in the
absence of catalyst.
b. Catalytic cracking: The process involves heating the compound in the presence of catalyst.
Preparation of ethene by cracking
Principle: Long chain alkane with six carbon atoms, i.e. hexane when subjected to cracking gives
butane and ethene.
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3  CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 + CH2 = CH2
164
CHEMISTRY
Hexane Butane Ethene
Process: Kerosene is one of the major products obtained during the fractionation of petroleum. It is
composed of long chain hydrocarbons usually in the range of C10 - C18. Kerosene is mixed with little
amount of sand. Few pieces of broken porcelain or pumice stone are introduced into the reactor. By
heating the porcelain pieces and kerosene with sand alternatively by a wavy flame, the kerosene is
vaporised and is passed over heated pumice stone where decomposition takes place to give ethene
as one of the products. The ethene gas so obtained is collected by downward displacement of water.
Laboratory preparation of ethyne
Ethyne can be prepared in the laboratory by taking little amount of calcium carbide in a conical flask.
To this, a few drops of water are added. The ethyne gas evolved is collected by downward displace-
ment of water.
CaC2 + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2 + HC º CH
Ethyne
Comparative study of ethene and ethyne
Ethene Ethyne
Physical properties
a) Colourless, tasteless gas a) Colourless, tasteless gas
b) Peculiar odour b) Characteristic garlic odour
c) Insoluble in water c) Insoluble in water

d) Soluble in non polar solvents d) Soluble in non polar solvents
e) Vapour densit y 14 e) Vapour density 13
f) Slightly lighter than air f) Slightly lighter than air
165
Chemical Properties
(a) Combustion
Burns with pale blue, sooty flame in Burns in excess of air with evolution
excess of air. of large amounts of CO 2
CaO air
C 2H 4  2CO 
 2CO  2H2 O 2C 2 H2  5O2  4CO2  2H 2O
air Excess
(b) Hydrogenation
When equal volumes of ethene gas Adds two molecules of hydrogen. When a
and hydrogen is passed over mixture of ethyne and hydrogen in 1 : 2
heated nickel or platinum at 300ºC, ratio is passed over heated nickel at 300ºC,
one molecule of hydrogen is two molecules of hydrogen is added.
added.
H H
H H  
  Ni
H  C  C  H + H 2  H  C = C  H
Ni
H – C = C – H + H2  H  C  + H2
C H 300°C
  300°C   300ºC Ni
H H H
H H H
 
HCCH
| |
H H
Product may be ethene or ethane.
166
CHEMISTRY
(c) Addition of bromine

Decolourisation of bromine water Decolourisation of bromine water takes
takes place when ethene gas is place when ethyne gas is passed
passed through bromine water and through bromine water and two
one molecule of bromine is added. molecules of bromine is added.
H H H H Br Br
     
H  C = C  H + Br2  H  C  C  H  C = C  H + Br2  H  C = C  H
H dibromo ethene
 
Br Br H H Br Br
dibromo ethane    
H  C = C  H + Br2  H  C  C  H
 
Br Br
tetrabromo ethane
(d) Polymerisation
Number of ethene molecules add to Three molecules of ethyne add to each
each other at high temperature other forming benzne.
forming long chains called 3HC  CH 300 C
 C 6 H6
polythene. Cu tube
nH 2C = CH2  ( CH 2 – CH2 ) n
Applications of chemical properties

(i) Hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons: This reaction is made use of in the hydrogenation
of vegetable oils. Some vegetable oils containing unsaturation, when subjected to hydrogenation in
the presence of nickel catalyst at 473K and 5 atm pressure get solidified and produce vanaspati
ghee.
Ni
Vegetable oils + H2  Vanaspati ghee.
473K
Example: Groundnut oil, Mustard Oil, Cotton Seed Oil.

(ii) Decolourisation of bromine water: This reaction is used for testing the unsaturation in organic
compounds.
Uses of hydrocarbons
167
Natural sources of energy

Energy is the one and only basic requirement for the existence of life on earth. Solar energy, hydel
energy and wind energy are some sources of energy which are inexhaustible. This is because they
can be generated continuously and can replace the used up energy from time to time. They are,
therefore, called renewable sources of energy. On the other hand, there are some energy sources
which get exhausted over a period of time as they can not be replenished from time to time so easily.
Coal and Petroleum are two major non-renewable sources of energy.
Coal and petroleum are apparently non living materials since they are obtained from earth’s crust.
But they are organic because they are formed by the degradation of dead plants and animals.
Formation
Millions of years ago, the dead plants and animals were buried beneath the surface of earth. Owing
to the high temperature and pressure existing in the bottom most strata of earth’s crust, the organic
matter in the remains of plants got converted to coal while small marine animals and plants got
converted into petroleum. Hence, these are called fossil fuels.
Coal and petroleum as non renewable energy sources
Coal as well as petroleum are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons being combustible,
coal and petroleum also undergo combustion producing large amounts of energy. Therefore, they act
as sources of energy. Though biomass is a renewable source of energy, coal and petroleum which
are fossil fuels are considered as non-renewable sources of energy. This is because the degradation
of organic matter to form coal and petroleum is a very slow process and takes millions of years.
Moreover, certain specific conditions of temperature and pressure are required for the process to
take place. These two are not only the major reservoirs of energy which meet 90% of the energy
requirements of the world, but also the main sources for the synthesis of many useful organic chemi-
cals.
Coal
Composition of coal:
Coal is mainly composed of carbon and also some hydrocarbons. In addition to these, coal contains
some inorganic compounds of nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
Different varieties of coal are available which differ in percentage of carbon.
168
CHEMISTRY
Extraction of Coal:
The technique used for the extraction of coal from mines depends upon the mode of occurrence of
coal in the earth’s crust. Coal, when present in the upper layers, is extracted by open cast mining
technology. Coal available in the deeper layers of earth’s crust can be extracted by using under-
ground mining technology.
Destructive distillation of coal:
When coal is subjected to heating at high temperatures upto 1300 - 1700 K in the absence of air, a
number of volatile products are obtained along with a non-volatile residue called coke. The process
of heating of coal in the absence of air is called destructive distillation or carbonization. The
volatile products are mainly composed of three components, namely, coal gas, ammonia and coal
tar.
Isolation of products:
The volatile products are first passed through water. Ammonia gets dissolved in water and is re-
moved. Coal tar, being insoluble in water, settles down as oily liquid. Coal gas which is also insoluble
in water escapes out. It consists mainly of methane, carbonmonoxide and hydrogen.
Coal tar a black viscous liquid, when subjected to fractional distillation gives different products.
These products on further distillation give various aromatic compounds like benzene. These com-
pounds are the parent compounds for the preparation of various industrially useful products such as
dyes, drugs, polymers, pesticides, etc.
Petroleum
It is a dark viscous oily liquid generally known as rock oil or crude oil. The word petroleum origi-
nated from Greek words–petra meaning rock and oleum meaning oil.
Composition of petroleum:
The precise composition of petroleum cannot be specified since it depends on the place of origin.
Nevertheless, petroleum can be considered as a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, composed
predominantly of alkanes and cycloalkanes. Some petroleum deposits also contain reasonable amounts
of aromatic hydrocarbons and alkenes. Trace amounts of oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur are also
present since it is obtained from the remains of dead plants and animals.
Extraction of petroleum:
Under earth’s surface, petroleum deposits are found to be associated with a layer of natural gas.
Petroleum is found floating on the surface of salt water. It can be drawn out by drilling deep wells
through the various layers of earth till the oil bearing strata are reached. Due to the process of drilling,
pressure is developed in those layers. Consequently, the gases are fizzed out of the solution and the
crude oil is gushed out.
As the oil drawn out by this method is only 20 percent, water or compressed air is pumped through
the outer pipe and oil is drawn out through the inner pipe. By this way, it is possible to draw greater
proportion of petroleum out.
169
Processing of petroleum:
Since the crude oil is drilled out from earth’s crust, it obviously consists of lots of impurities. In
addition to this, petroleum being a complex mixture of various hydrocarbons, it is necessary to
separate the components. The process of removal of undesirable impurities followed by the separa-
tion into different useful fractions is called refining of petroleum.
Refining of Petroleum:
The basic principle involved in refining petroleum is fractional distillation of the crude oil over a
specific range of temperature as the different hydrocarbons have different boiling points. The refining
is carried out in a fractionating tower. The fractionating tower is a tall cylindrical tower made up of a
number of horizontal stainless steel troughs.
The crude oil which is free from impurities is fed at the base of the fractionating tower at 675K. At
this temperature, all the volatile components vapourise and pass through the fractionating tower. The
non-volatile part of the crude oil remains in the tower in the form of solid residue called asphalt. As
the vapour is passed through this column, they get condensed at different heights of the tower. The
components which have higher boiling points get condensed first and the components having lower
boiling points are carried to the top. Thus, the various fractions formed by condensation are col-
lected in different trays separately.
Before subjecting crude oil to fractional distillation it should be freed from inorganic impurities. This
is done by passing the raw crude oil between highly charged electrodes which remove all water from
the sample. It is, then, treated with copper oxide to remove the sulphur compounds.
170
CHEMISTRY
Important fuels obtained from Petroleum

The various components obtained by the process of fractional distillation of petroleum contains
mixtures of hydrocarbons having different lengths of carbon chains. These fractions are used as fuels
for different purposes after further purification. Purification makes the fuels devoid of corrosive con-
stituents and unpleasant odours.
(i) Natural gas: Since all petroleum deposits are associated with natural gas, extraction of petroleum
inevitably involves the collection of natural gas. Natural gas is composed of highly volatile alkanes,
predominantly methane. Consequently, it undergoes rapid combustion releasing large amount of
heat.
Natural gas has a wide range of applications in domestic and industrial activities.
171
(a) Compressed natural gas can be used as an automobile fuel, i.e. as a substitute for petrol and diesel.
It shows greater fuel efficiency and is available at a lower cost.
(b) Natural gas can also be used as domestic fuel.
(c) Natural gas can be used as a raw material for the manufacture of carbon black and hydrogen. The
hydrogen so obtained can be made use of in the synthesis of ammonia which is the most important
component of nitrogenous fertilizers.
CH4 + H2O 1100


K
 CO + 3H2 + 11.7KJ
high temperature
N2 + 3H2 and pressure 2NH3
    
Fe + Mo
(ii) Petroleum gas: This is the most important by–product of petroleum processing. The major pro-
portion of petroleum gas is n-butane, the minor components being ethane and propane. Petroleum
gas, when subjected to high pressure, can easily pass into liquid state. This easy liquefaction of
petroleum gas renderes it a very useful domestic fuel in the form of LPG (liquefied petroleum gas).
LPG as a domestic fuel: It has a high calorific value and burns in air with a blue non luminous flame.
It is associated with very low ignition temperature and can be lighted easily. This, being a colourless
and odourless gas, is mixed with small amounts of ethyl mercaptan which imparts a characteristic
unpleasant odour to LPG, thus, rendering easy detection of leakages.
(iii) Petrol or Gasoline: The most important product of petroleum processing is petrol or gasoline
which is used as fuel for automobiles. In addition to this, it is also used for dry cleaning of clothes.
Applications of coal and petroleum

Most of the applications are based upon the principle of combustibility of hydrocarbons. Combus-
tion being a highly exothermic process, the large amounts of energy released can be either directly
used or can be trapped and converted into another form and used.
1. Domestic uses: For domestic uses, LPG and kerosene are the most important fuels. The com-
bustion of these fuels results in the release of a large amount of thermal energy which is directly used
for cooking.
2. Industrial uses:
(i) Generation of electricity: Coal is the most important fuel for the generation of electricity. In ther-
mal power plants, coal is subjected to combustion. The thermal energy so produced is converted to
electrical energy and, then, transmitted.
(ii) In combustion engines: These are devices used for transformation of thermal energy to me-
chanical energy. The basic principle of working of these combustion engines is the conversion of
thermal energy coming from the combustion of hydrocarbons into mechanical energy.
Depending on the mode of conversion, combustion engines are of two types.
Internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the fuel burns in small chamber called combus-
tion chamber. The combustion of fuel is an exothermic process and this process produces gases of
high temperature and pressure which are permitted to expand. When the exhaust gases are expelled
out, combustion chamber gets filled up with the mixture of fuel and air. This operation gets repeated
and, in this repeated operation, thermal energy produced by the burning of fuel gets converted to
mechanical energy which helps in the movement of the piston. The movement of the piston helps run
the vehicle. Fuel used can be petrol, diesel, LPG, CNG, etc.
172
CHEMISTRY
Examples: Engines in automobiles, diesel engines in trains.
An external combustion engine is a heat engine where the fuel burns to heat a separate fluid, i.e.
water. Water gets converted to super-heated steam. The expansion of high temperature steam exerts
force upon the piston whose motion helps in turning wheels or driving other machinery. Thermal
energy of the steam gets converted to the mechanical work. Fuels used here are wood, coal or
nuclear fuel.
Examples: Steam engines used for trains.
Coal and petroleum however are associated with one major drawback i.e. – they are non-renew-
able sources of energy. These days due to the excess demand for energy and need to preserve the
fossil fuels, the usage of renewable sources of energy like solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectric
energy, biogas, etc. is encouraged.
Biogas
Composition: Major proportion of methane and minor amounts of other gases like hydrogen, nitro-
gen and CO2.
Process of production: Anaerobic degradation of organic wastes.
Devices used
(a) Fixed dome apparatus.
(b) Floating gas holder.
173
Process:
A slurry of animal dung and water is taken in the digester tank made up of concrete or steel. The dung
undergoes an aerobic degradation and the gas released is collected in the dome type gas tank or
steel gasholder depending on the apparatus used. The gas is sent out through pipes and is supplied.
The slurry left in the tank after removal of the gas is rich in compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus
which are used as natural fertilizer.
With the tremendous industrial and technological development of society, hydrocarbons continue to
have more and more significant applications. Petroleum is the most important raw materials for the
manufacture of hydrocarbons. Therefore, it is a high time to realise that the rational and judicious use
of exhaustible natural resources can go a long way in achieving sustainable development coupled
with conservation of environment.
174
CHEMISTRY
ASSIGNMENT
175
1. The organic compound giving silver mirror, with Tollen’s reagent is
1) Diethylether 2) Acetic acid 3) Acetone 4) Acetaldehyde
2. Paraldehyde is:
1) A monomer 2) A dimer 3) A trimer 4) A tertramer
3. When Calcium acetate is dry distilled it yields
1) Acetic acid 2) Acetaldehyde 3) Acetone 4) Formaldehyde
4. Dry distillation of a mixture of Calcium acetate and Calcium formate mainly yields:
1) HCHO 2) CH3CHO 3) CH3COCH3 4) CH3COOH
5. Schiff’s reagent is
1) Ammonical silver nitrate 2) Ammonical cuprous chloride
3) Rosaniline solution in water decolourised by SO2
4) Alkaline copper tartarate
6. Acetaldehyde on treatment with ammonia gives
1) formalin 2) diacetaldehyde amine
3) acetaldehyde amine 4) urotropine
7. List – I List – II
A) Ammonical silver nitrate 1) Schiff’s reagent
B) Alkaline Cu2+ complexed with tartarate 2) Benedict’s reagent
2+
C) Alkaline Cu complexed with citrate 3) Tollen’s reagent
D) Para rosaline hydrochloride de colourised by SO2 4) Fehling solution
5) Grignard reagent
The correct match is
A B C D A B C D
1) 4 2 3 5 2) 4 2 1 5
3) 3 4 2 1 4) 1 2 3 5
8. Acetaldehyde and acetone undergo addition reactions with
1) HCN 2) NaHSO3
3) both 1 & 2 4) Ammonical silver nitrate
9. The isomerism shown by acetone and propionaldehyde is known as:
1) Chain isomerism 2) Position isomerism
3) Functional isomerism 4) Metramerism
CH 3 CH CH 2 CHO
10. The IUPAC name of the compound | is
OH
1) b hydroxybutyraldehyde 2) Butan-2-ol-3-al
3) 2-hydroxybutanal 4) 3-hydroxybutanal
11. The reagent that can distinguish acetaldehyde and acetone is

1) Schiff’s reagent 2) Fehling’s solution 3) Tollen’s reagent 4) all are correct
12. Chlorination of acetaldehyde gives
1) HCOOH 2) CH3 - COOH 3) CCl3 - CHO 4) C2H5OH
13. Which of the following is produced when ethanol vapours are passed over red hot copper at 3000C?
176
CHEMISTRY
1) CH3CHO 2) C2H4 3) CH3COOC2H5 4) C2H6
14. The reagent with which both acetaldehyde and acetone react easily is:
1) Fehling’s solution 2) Grignard reagent 3) Schiff’s reagent 4) Tollen’s reagent
15. When Acetaldehyde is heated with Fehiling solution, it gives a precipitate of
1) CuO 2) Cu 3) Cu2O 4) Cu + CuO
16. Isopropyl Alcohol on passing through red hot copper tubes at 3000C gives
1) CH3CHO 2) CH3COCH3 3) HCHO 4) C2H6
17. In the following sequences of reactions the end product is
Hg 2  CH MgX ( O)
H 2O  A 3  B 
CaC 2  X HSO  C
(H O 2 4 2
1) Acetaldehyde 2) Isopropyl alcohol 3) Acetone 4) Ethyl alcohol

Pd / H
2  X.
18. CH 3 COCl   Here X along with the anme of this reaction are
BaSO 4
1) Acetaldehyde, Rosenmonds reaction 2) Propanaldehyde, Wacker’s process

3) Acetone, Rosenmonds reaction 4) Acetic anhydride, Wacker’s process
19. Carbonyl compounds react with phenyl hydrazine to form

1) Oxime 2) Phenyl hydrazone
3) Hydrazone 4) Semicarbazone
20. Condensation of two molecules of acetaldehyde in the presence of dil.NaOH solution is known as
1) Polymerisation 2) Clemmenson’s reduction
3) Aldol condensation 4) Williamson’s synthesis
21. Carbonyl compounds react with hydroxyl amine to form a/an

1) substitution product 2) addition product
3) resin-like product 4) condensation product
O C 0

1) CH3CHO con  Metaldehyde 2) CH3COCH3 con .H SO 4
.H SO 2 4
 2  Mesitylene
Room Temp
3) CH3CHO    Paraldehyde
con .H 2SO 4
4) CH3COCH3 con .HCl
  Aldol
23. An aldehyde and a ketone are best distinguished by action with:
1) Phenyl hydrazine 2) 2,4-D.N.P. 3) Schiff’s reagent 4) HCN

24. Which statement is incorrect in the case of acetaldehyde and acetone?
1) Both react with hydroxylamine 2) Both react with NaHSO3
3) Both react with hydrazine 4) Both reduce ammonical silver nitrate
25. Acetaldehyde and Acetone give Alkanes their reaction with

1) Zinc in HCl 2) LiAlH4
3) Wolf Kishner reduction 4) Both 1 and 3
177
26. The molecular formula of acetaldehyde semicarbazone is
1) CH3 – CH = N – CO – NH – NH2 2) CH3 – CH = N –NH – CONH2
3) CH3 – CH = N – OH 4) CH3 – CH = N – NH2
27. Aldehyde can undergo the aldol condesation, if it contains

1) an aromatic ring 2) no a-hydrogen atom
3) at least one b-hydrogen atom 4) at least one a-hydrogen atom
28. The compound formed when acetaldehyde reacts with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis is
1) Primary alcohol 2) Secondary alcohol
3) Tertiory alcohol 4) Carboxylic acid
A) Acetone 1) Rubber accelerator
B) Acetaldehyde 2) Natalite
C) Diethyl ether 3) Cordite
D) Chloretone 4) Canned heat
5) Hypnotic drug
A B C D A B C D
1) 4 2 3 5 2) 3 1 2 5
3) 2 3 1 5 4) 1 2 3 5
30. Assertion: - Acetaldehyde and acetone undergo nucleophilic addition reactions
Reason: - Acetaldehyde and acetone are isomers
1) Both A and R are true, and R is correct explanation for A
2) Both A and R are true, and R is incorrect explanation for A
3) A is true but R is false
4) A is false but R is true
31. Which of the following reactions is used for detecting the presence of carbonyl group?
1) reaction with hydrazine
2) reaction with 2,4-dinitro phenyl hydrazine
3) reaction with hydroxylamine
4) all the above
32. When propyne is treated with aqueous sulphuric acid in presence of mercuric sulphate the major prod-
uct is:
1) propanal 2) Propyl hydrogen sulphate
3) propanol 4) propanone
33. The reaction of Acetaldehyde with Tollen’s reagent gives
1) silver 2) acetic acid 3) both 4) None

34. A compound A has molecular formula C2Cl3OH. It reduces Fehling’s solution and on oxidation gives a
monocarboxylic acid B. ‘A’ is obtained by the action of Cl2 on ethyl alcohol. A is
1) chloral 2) chloroform
3) chloromethane 4) chloroacetic acid
178
CHEMISTRY
35. Aldehydes can not exhibit
1)Chain 2) Metamerism 3) Functional 4) Tautomerism

36. In presence of alkali ethanal undergoes self addition to give 3-hydroxybutanal. The reaction is;
1) Reimer Tiemann reaction 2) Williamson’s syntehsis
3) polymerisation 4) aldol condensation
37. X + CHCl3 ® Y (Hypnotic drug) :

‘X’ is the major product in which of the following reactions?
1) CCl3 CH(OH)2 + NaOH  2) (CH3 COO)2 Ca dry

distillati on

H SO
 24  0C
3) C2H2 + H2O HgSO 4 / 60 0 C
4) C2 H5 OH + H2 SO4 140
 
38. The following are some statements about acetaldehyde and acetone.
I. Acetaldehyde on reduction with LiAlH4 gives Ethanol
II. Both Acetaldehyde and acetone reduce Fehling’s solution
III. Acetone gives a white crystalline ppt. with sodium bisulphite
IV. Propanone gives mesitylene on heating with conc. H2SO4
The correct combination is
1) I, III 2) II, III 3) I, III, IV 4) II, III, IV
39. 2CH3CHO dil NaOH
  ‘X’ In this reaction ‘X’ is:
1) CH3 – CH(OH) – CH2 CHO 2) CH3 – CH(OH) – CH2 – CO – CH3
3) CH3 – CH2 OH 4) CH3 COOH
40. The sodium salt of a carboxylic acid, on heating with soda lime gives methane. The calcium salt of the
same carboxylic acid on dry distillation gives
1) an alcohol that readily gives turbidity with Lucas reagent
2) a hydrocarbon that decolourises Bayer’s reagent
3) a carbonyl compound that gives orange ppt. with 2,4 - DNP
4) a carbonyl compound that gives red ppt; with Fehling solution
179
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
4 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 1 3 1 2 3
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
2 3 1 2 3 4 4 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
4 4 3 1 2 4 2 3 1 3
180
CHEMISTRY
1. A Grignard reagent may be prepared by treating magnesium with :
1) methylamine 2) diethyl ether 3) ethyl chloride 4) ethylalcohol
2. The reaction between PCl5 and ethyl alcohol gives :
1) ethyl chloride 2) ethylene chloride 3) ethylidene chloride 4) trichlooethane
3. Which of the following is used as an anaesthetic ?
1) carbon tetrachloride 2) chloroform 3) chloropicrin 4) carbon disulphide
4. Ethylchloride can be prepared by the action of HCl on :
1) ethane 2) ethene 3) ethyne 4) ethanal
5. Chloroform can be obtained from chloral hydrate by the action of
1) Conc. H2SO4 2) NaOH 3) H2O 4) Cl2
6. When an alkylhalide reacts with AgCN the main product formed is :
1) aklyl cyanide 2) alkyl isocyanide 3) alkyl cyanate 4) alkyl isocyanate
7. CHCl3 is stored in amber-coloured stoppered bottles filled up to the neck to prevent it from getting :
1) oxidised 2) reduced 3) hydrolysed 4) decomposed
8. When treated with alcoholic KOH ethylchloride gives :
1) Ethanol 2) Ethene 3) Ethyne 4) Chloroform
9. Ethyl chloride reacts with Benzene in presence of anhydrous AlCl3 to give :
1) Toluene 2) Ethyl benzene 3) chlorobenzene 4) None
10. To convert an alkyl halide into an alkyl cyanide the reagent to be used is :
1) KCN 2) AgCN 3) KCNO 4) KNCO
11. Assertion (A): CHCl3 is tested before it is used for anaesthesia
Reason (R): It may be contaminated with phosgene.
12. 2 CHCl3 + O2 

X
 2 COCl2 + 2HCl
In this reaction(X) stands for :

1) an oxidant 2) a reductant 3) light and air 4) None
13. The reaction of alkylhalides with metallic Na to give higher alkanes is known as :
1) Frankland reaction 2) Wurtz synthesis
3) Williamsons synthesis 4) Kolbe’s reaction
A) Na 1) Dehydrogenation
B) Mg 2) Wurtz reaction
C) Cu 3) Grignard reagent
D) Ag 4) Bayer’s reagent
5) Acetylene
181
15. Which would be formed by boiling CHCl3 with caustic soda ?

1) sodium acetate 2) sodium formate 3) sodium oxalate 4) methanol
16. Ethyl chloride is
1) Primary halide 2)Secondary halide 3) Tertiary halide 4) Quaternary halide
17. Which reagent cannot be used to prepare an alkyl halide from alkanols ?
1) HCl + ZnCl2 2) PCl5 3) NaCl 4) SOCl2
18. Ethanol reacts with thionyl chloride to give C2H5Cl and
1) S and SO2 2) SO2 and HCl 3) Cl2 and SO2 4) S and HCl
19. Ethyl Chloride on reduction with zinc and hydro chloric acid forms
1) Chloro ethane 2) Ethane 3) Chloroform 4) Ethylene
20. Chloro picrin is
1) CHCl3 2) CCl3NO2 3) CHCl2NO2 4) CCl3OH
21. The IPUAC name of the compound, (CH3)2 C(Br) CH2CH2Br is :
1) 3-methyl-1, 3-dibromobutane 2) 2-methyl-2, 4-dibromobutane
3) 3-methyl-1, 2-bromobutane 4) None
22. When CHCl3 is warmed with alc. KOH and aniline an offensive odour is noticed which is due to the
formation of :
1) C6H5CN 2) C6H5NC 3) C6H5OH 4) C6H5NO2
23. Ethyl chloride can be converted into nitroethane by reaction with :
1) Conc. HNO3 2) Conc. HNO3 + Conc. H2SO4
3) KNO2 4) HNO2
24. On distillation with moist bleaching powder ethylalcohol gives :
1) methyl chloride 2) chloroacetone 3) chloroform 4) chloretone

25. The solvent used in Wurtz reaction and in the preparation of Grignard reagent is;
1) Water 2) Dry ether 3) Moist ether 4) Ethyl alcohol
26. An organic compound (A) reacts with PCl5 to give (B). The compound(B) reacts with Na metal to give
n-Butane. The compounds (A) and (B) are :
1) C2H5OH and C2H5Cl 2) C2H5Cl and C2H5O Na
3) C3H7OH and (C2H5)2O 4) C4H9OH and (C2H5)2 O
27. Ethyl Chloride reacts with potassium sulphide and forms

1) chloro ethane 2) Ethyl sulphide
3) Diethyl sulphide 4) Hydrogen Sulphide
28. The purpose of pyridine in the chemical reaction C 2 H 5 OH  SOCl 2 Pyridine
  C 2 H 5 Cl  SO 2  HCl
1) Ascatlayst 2) To absorb C2H5Cl
3) To absorb SO2 4) To absorb HCl
29. An ester is formed when ethyl chloride is heated with
182
CHEMISTRY
1) Sodium ethoxide 2) Silver acetate
3) Sodium bromide 4) Sodium in dry ether
30. Which of the following statements is correct ?

1) C2H5Cl reacts with alc. KOH to form ethanol
2) C2H5Cl reacts with sodium metal to give ethane
3) C2H5Cl reacts with sodium ethoxide to give diethyl ether
4) C2H5Cl reacts with AgCN to give ethyl cyanide
31. In dihalogen derivatives if two halogen atoms are attached to the same carbon atom the compound is
called
1) gem dihalide 2) vicinal dihalide 3) alkyl halide 4) alkenyl halide

Zn Cu couple
32. C2H4 + HCl ® [A] C   B. A & B compounds are
2 H 5OH
1) C2H5Cl, C2H5Oh 2) C2H5Cl, C2H6 3) C2H5Cl, C2H4 4) C2H5Cl, C2H2

33. Treatment of ammonia with excess of ethyl chloride will yield the end product
1) diethyl amine 2) ethane
3) tetraethyl ammonium chloride 4) methyl amine
34. Which of the following does not respond to haloform test
1) C2H5Oh 2) CH3CHO 3) CH3COCH3 4) CH3CH2CHO

35. Hydrolysis of ethyl chloride with aqueous NaOH is
1) substitution reaction 2) addition reaction
3) elimination reaction 4) rearrangement reaction
36. Carbylamine is formed when primary amine is warmed with alcoholic KOH and
1) chloromethane 2) dichloromethane
3) trichloromethane 4) tetrachloromethane
37. Which of the following compound can not be prepared from ethyl chloride in a single step ?
1) C2H6 2) C2H5NC 3) C2H5OH 4) CH3CN

38. The intermediate product obtained during the manufacture of chloroform from Acetone using bleaching
powder is
1) Trichloro acetone 2) Chloral 3) Chloropicrin 4) Chloretone
39. During the distillation of ethanol with bleaching powder the correct sequence of reactions are :
1) oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis 2) hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction
3) hydrolysis, oxidation, chlorination 4) oxidation, chlorination, hydrolysis
40. Identify “Z” in the reaction series
NaOH
CH2 = CH2 HBr Hydrolysis   Z
 X     Y I2 excess
1) C2H5I 2) C2H5OH 3) CHI3 4) CH3CHO
183
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
3 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 3 2 3 2
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
1 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 1 3 4 2 3
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
1 2 3 4 1 3 4 1 3 3
184
CHEMISTRY
1. The reaction between an alcohol and an acid is known as
1) Saponification 2) Esterification 3) Hydrolysis 4) Hydrogenation
2. When nitrobenzene is reduced with Zn dust and methanolic caustic soda, the final product formed is
1) Aniline 2) Azobenzene 3) Hydrazobenene 4) Azoxybenzene
3. The boiling point of acetic acid is higher than expected from its molecular weight, because of
1) solubility in water
2) non-polar character
3) strong oxidising character
4) association through hydrogen bonding
4. The product (B) in the following reaction is CH3COOH NH

 3  A heat
 B
1) CH3NH2 2) CH3CN 3) CH3NC 4) CH3CONH2

5. The diazonium salts are reaction products between HNO2 and
1) primary aliphatic amines 2) primary aromatic amines
3) secondary aliphatic amines 4) secondary aromatic amines
6. The basic character of amines is due to the

1) presence of Nitrogen atom
2) tetrahedral structure of the amines
3) lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom
4) high electro negativity of nitrogen
7. Primary aliphatic amines can be distinguished from secondary and tertiary amines by reacting with:
1) CHCl3 and Alc. KOH 2) methyl Iodide
3) CHCl3 alone 4) Zn dust
8. Vinegar is a solution of ............

1) 10 to 20% acetic acid 2) 11% acetic acid
3) 3 to 7 % acetic acid 4) 100% acetic acid
9. Which of the following is used to convert nitrobenzene to hydrazobenzene ?
1) Zn/NH4Cl 2) Zn/NaOH 3) Sn/HCl 4) LiAlH4

10. Nitrobenzene on reduction in acid medium gives:
1) Aniline 2) Azobenzene 3) Hydrazobenzene 4) Hydroxyl amine
11. Aniline and Diphenylamine may be distinguished by
1) Lassaigne’s test 2) Schiff’s test
3) Cabylamine reaction 4) Solubility test 5% HCl
12. Aniline on treatment with excess of methyl iodide forms

1) N-methyl aniline 2) N, N – dimethyl aniline
3) Trimethyl Phenylammorium iodide 4) P – Amino toluene
185
1) Metamers 2) Functional isomers
3) position isomers 4) None of these
1) primary amine 2) secondary amine 3) tertiary amine 4) quaternary salt

15. Which is steam volatile ?
1) phenol 2) chlorobenzene 3) benzene 4) aniline
soda lim e
16. CH3COOH + NaOH (aq.)    B, in this reaction, A & B are
 A 
1) CH3COONa, C2H6 2) CH3COONa, CH4

3) CH3ONa, C2H6 4) CH3ONa, CH3OCH3
17. When Aniline is treated with NaNO2 + dil. HCl at 00C the product got is
1) p-nitrosoaniline 2) N-nitrosoaniline
3) Benzene Diazonium Chloride 4) Diazobenzene
18. Aniline reacts with chloroform in presence of KOH to give
1) o-chlorobenzene 2) phenyl cyanide 3) phenyl carbylamine 4) aminophenol

19. Aniline is used in
1) bleaching of wool 2) dyeing industry
3) making of glue 4) fast drying varnishes
A) Ethyl alcohol ®acetic acid 1) hydrolysis
B) Ethane nitrile ® acetic acid 2) reduction
C) Nitrobenzene ® aniline 3) oxidation
D) Aniline ® 2,4,6 - Tribromo aniline 4) Elimination
5) Substitution
A B C D A B C D
1) 4 2 3 5 2) 4 3 2 5
3) 3 1 2 5 4) 1 2 3 5
21. When treated with SOCl2, in presence of pyridene, Acetic acid gives
1) Chloroacetic acid 2) Dichloroacetic acid
3) Trichloro Acetic acid 4) Acetyl Chloride
22. The final product obtained when Acetic acid is heated with Cl2 and a little red Phosphorous is
1) Trichloro Acetic acid 2) Acetyl Chloride
3) Trichloroacetyl Chloride 4) Chloroacetic acid
23. In Benzene solution Acetic acid exists in Dimeric form because
186
CHEMISTRY
1) like dissolves like 2) addition takes place
3) H-bonding takes place in Acetic acid 4) H-bonding takes place with Benzene
24. The final product obtained when nitrobenzene is heated with Zn + NaOH is
1) Hydrozobenzene 2) Azobenzene
3) Azoxybenzene 4) Nitrosobenzene
25. When heated with Zn + aq.NH4Cl nitrobenzene is converted into

1) Aniline 2) Phenyhydroxylamine
3) Azoxybenzene 4) Hydrazobenzene
26. Aniline on treating with bromine solution gives a white precipitate of

1) Aniline bromide 2) P - bromoaniline
3) 0 - bromoaniline 4) 2,4,6 - tribromoaniline
27. When heated with Acetic Anhydride in Acetic acid aniline gives
1) C6H5NHCH3 2) C6H5NHCOCH3 3) C6H5N(CH3)2 4) C6H5CONHCH3

28. Reduction of nitrobenzene in the presence of Zn/NH4Cl gives
1) Azobenzene 2) Aniline
3) N-phenyl hydroxylamine 4) Hydrazobenzene
29. Nitrobenzene on reduction with Sn/HCl gives A which on reaction with acetyl chloride forms B, which
of the following is B
1) C6H5 – CO – CH3 2) C6H5 – NH – CO – CH3
3) C6H5 – NHCl 4) C6H5 – O – CO – CH3
1) 1-methyl-1-aminopropane 2) 2-Aminobutane
3) 2-methyl-2-Aminopropane 4) None
31. Ethanenitrile on hydrolysis gives
1) Methanoic acid 2) Ethanoic acid 3) Ethanal 4) Propanone

32. How many primary amines are possible for the formula C4H11N.
1) 1 2) 2 3) 3 4) 4
33. Which gives offensive smell with CHCl3 and KOH ?
1) Primary amine 2) Secondary amine 3) Tertiary amine 4) All

34. By which of the following reactions one can get N-methyl aniline from aniline ?
1) Alkylation 2) Acylation 3) Benzoylation 4) Bromination
35. In which of the following reactions a-hydrogens take part?
1) CH3COOH+Cl2+red P 2) CH3COOH +Na
3) CH3COOH +PCl3 4) CH3COOH +NaHCO3
187
36. Acetic acid reacts with ethanol in presence of H2SO4 to form X and water, which of the following is X
?
1) CH3CH2COOC2H5 2) CH3COCH3 3) CH3COC2H5 4) CH3COOC2H5

37. The functional Isomer of acetic acids is
1) Methyl formate 2) Methyal acetate
3) Ethyl methanoate 4) Methyl ethananoate
38. Oil of Mirbane is

1) Nitrobenzene 2) Chlorobenzene
3) Benzene sulphonic acid 4) Phenol
A) Sn + HCl 1) Azobenzene
B) Zn + NH4Cl 2) hydrazobenzene
C) Zn + NaOH 3) phenyl hydroxyl amine
D) LiAlH4 4) aniline
5) acetanilide
The correct match regarding the reduction of nitro benzene is.
A B C D A B C D
1) 4 2 3 5 2) 4 3 2 1
3) 2 3 1 5 4) 1 2 3 5
40. Assertion (A): - Aniline responds to both isocyanide test and diazotisation
Reason (R): - It is a very weak Lewis base.
188
CHEMISTRY
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
2 3 4 4 2 3 1 3 2 1 3 3 2 1 4
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
2 3 3 2 3 4 1 3 1 2 4 2 3 2 2
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
2 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 2
189
5 IAIIAIIIAIVA
190
CHEMISTRY
ALKALI METALS
(IA GROUP ELEMENTS)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IA GROUP ELEMENTS:

Lithium (Li); Sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs) and francium (Fr) of IA
group are collectively called alkali metals. They and their oxides react with water and produce
alkalies. So they are called alkali metals. Francium is the radioactive alkali metal.
Electronic configuration:
The general configuration of alkali metals is ns1.
Oxidation State:
The common Oxidation State of alkali metals is +1.
Atomic size:
From Na to K, there is an unusual increase in atomic size due to the presence of vacant 3d orbital in
Potassium so the density of potassium is lower than that of sodium
Reducing property:
a) Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents because of high electro-positivity. (i.e they can lose va-
lence electron easily).
b) Reducing property increases from Na to Cs. However Li has the highest reducing ability in aqueous
solution.
Melting& Boiling points:
Alkali metals are soft metals. They have low m.p and b.ps. This is because they have weak metallic
bonding.
Ionic compounds:
Alkali metals are the most electropositive elements. So, they form ionic compounds.
Flame colours:
Q. How do the following properties vary down the IA group elements ?

a) I. P b) M.Ps & B.Ps c) Softness d) Reactivity
a) I. P value decreases from Li to Cs, due to increase in atomic size.
b) M.P & B.Ps decrease from Li to Cs, due to decrease in metallic bond strength.
c) Softness increases from Li to Cs, due to decrease in metallic bond strength.
d) Reactivity increases from Li to Cs, due to increase in atomic size.
191
Chemical properties of oxides, halides and carbonates:
· Lithium does not form peroxides and super oxides readily because Li+ ion has small size. The small
Li+ ion cannot stabilize the larger peroxide or super oxide ion.
· Super oxides are paramagnetic and coloured due to the presence of unpaired electron in super oxide
(O2-) Ex:- KO2 (Orange)
· When heated with oxygen Lithium readily forms Lithium monoxide (Li2O), sodium forms sodium
peroxide (Na2O2), Potassium, Rubidium and Cesium form super oxides (KO2, RbO2, CsO2)
· The basic strength and solubility in water increases from Li2O to Cs2O and from LiOH to CsOH.
· Lithium forms covalent halides due to small size of its cation.
· Stability increases from Lithium carbonate to cesium carbonate due to increase in electro positive
nature of metal. Except Li2CO3, other carbonates of this group do not undergo thermal decomposi-
tion.
· Solubility of carbonates increases from Li2CO3 to Cs2CO3
Extraction of sodium:
Important ores of sodium:
1) Rock salt : NaCl
2) Chile salt petre : NaNO 3
3) Mirabilite : Na2SO 4
4) Borax : Na2B4O710H2O (Tincal)
5) Sajimitti : Na 2CO 3
Castner’s process:
Sodium is extracted by the electrolysis of fused sodium hydroxide at 3300C. During electrolysis
sodium metal is formed at cathode and oxygen gas is liberated at anode.
Electrode reactions:
0 + -
NaOH 330
 C
 Na + OH (ionisation) O2
Reactions at Cathode:
Na++1e-  Na (Reduction)
Reaction at anode:
4OH-  2H2O + O2 + 4e- (oxidation)
Process:
The electrolytic cell consists of a cylindrical iron tank.
Fused sodium hydroxide is taken in it. This acts as electrolyte.
The iron rod introduced from the bottom of the tank acts as cathode.
192
CHEMISTRY
The hollow cylindrical nickel surrounding the iron rod acts as anode.
Cathode and anode are separated by a wire gauge.
On passing electricity through molten sodium hydroxide, sodium collected at cathode and oxygen at
anode.
Extraction of sodium by Down’s process:
Sodium is extracted by the electrolysis of fused sodium chloride at 6000C. The melting point of
sodium chloride is reduced by the addition of calcium chloride, potassium chloride and potassium
fluoride.
During electrolysis sodium metal is formed at cathode and chlorine gas is liberated at anode.
Electrode reactions: 2NaCl  2Na+ + 2Cl- (ionisation)
At cathode: 2Na+ + 2e-  2Na (reduction)
At anode: 2Cl-  -
 Cl2 + 2e (oxidation)
Process:
The electrolytic cell consists of an iron tank lined with refractory material.
A graphite rod introduced from the bottom of the tank acts as anode.
The ring shaped iron cathode is present around the anode.
A conical hood is placed above the anode acts as exist for Cl2. An iron gauge separates the anode
and cathode.
It prevents mixing up of sodium with chlorine.
On passing electricity through molten NaCl, Sodium metal collects at cathode and Cl2 gas liberates
at anode.
193
Advantages of addition of calcium chloride (or KCl and KF) to the electrolyte in Down’s
process:
a) The melting point of sodium chloride is reduced from 8000C to 6000C
b) The possibility of burning sodium is minimised.
c) The dissolution of sodium in the electrolyte (NaCl) is reduced.
Wavelengths of spectral lines in sodium spectrum:
D1 (5890 A0) and D2 (5896 A0)
Chemical reactions:
Sodium is exposed to moist air:
It reacts with oxygen present in air to form sodium oxide.
4Na + O2  2Na2O
Sodium oxide reacts with moisture of air and forms sodium hydroxide
Na2O + H2O  2NaOH
Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide present in air and forms sodium carbonate
2NaOH + CO2  Na2CO3 + H2O
Sodium with O2:
When heated with oxygen, depending on the quantity of sodium, sodium monoxide or peroxide is
formed.
4Na + O2  2Na2O
0
2Na + O2 300
 C
 Na2O2
* Sodium with water:
It reacts vigorously with water to give sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.
194
CHEMISTRY
2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2
Sodium reacts vigorously with water liberating heat and hydrogen, which is inflammable.
Sodium with non-metal:
It reacts with non-metals like hydrogen, chlorine, sulphur and phosphorous to give sodium hydride,
sodium chloride, sodium sulphide and sodium phosphide respectively.
0
i) 2Na + H2 300
 C
 2NaH ii) 2Na + Cl2 
 2NaCl
iii) 2Na + S Na2S iv) 3Na + P Na3P
Sodium with Ammonia:
It reacts with ammonia in the presence of iron catalyst to give sodamide and hydrogen
2Na + 2NH3 2NaNH2 + H2
Reducing properties of sodium:
Sodium reduces carbon dioxide to carbon
4Na + 3CO2  2Na2CO3 + C
Sodium carbonate
It reduces silica to silicon
4Na + SiO2  2Na2O + Si
It reduces aluminium oxide to aluminium.
6Na + Al2O3  2Al + 3Na2O
Uses of sodium:
Sodium is used
As a reducing agent
In wurtz reaction to prepare higher alkanes
As catalyst in rubber industry
In the preparation of sodium peroxide, sodamide etc.
MANUFACTURE, PROPERTIES AND USES OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE:
Nelson’s cell method (Perforated diaphragm method):
Sodium hydroxide is manufactured by the electrolysis of brine solution. During electrolysis Cl2
is liberated at anode and NaOH and H2 are formed at cathode.
NaCl Na+ + Cl- (Ionisation)
Electrode reactions
At anode: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e- (oxidation)
At cathode: 2H2O + 2e- 2OH - + H2 (reduction)
195
steam
Na+ + OH- NaOH
Nelson cell consists of a U-shaped perforated steel vessel lined inside with asbestos. This acts as
cathode.
Asbestos lining separates the cathode and anode.
The U-shaped tube is filled with aq. Solution of NaCl (Brine), which acts as electrolyte.
A Graphite rod suspended in brine acts as anode.
The vessel is placed in a large iron tank provided with a steam inlet at its bottom. An outlet for H2 gas
is provided at the top.
The passage of steam helps in maintaining the pores clean and to keep the
substances hot.
Castner-Kellner process:
Castner-Kellner cell consists of a rectangular iron tank, which is divided into three compartments by
two non-porous slate partitions.
A layer of mercury is placed at the bottom of the cell. Mercury acts as an intermediate electrode. It
acts as a cathode in outer compartments and as anode in middle compartment.
The slate partitions are arranged in such a way that they touch the surface of mercury but not bottom
of the cell.
196
CHEMISTRY
Bunch of iron rods

Slate partition
H2
Cl2 Cl2
Aqueous NaCl Rectangular
iron tank
Graphite rod Mercury
Eccentric wheel
dil. NaOH
Electrolytes:
Outer compartments: aqueous NaCl
Middle compartment: Very dilute NaOH
Electrodes:
a) in outer compartments: i) Mercury cathode ii) carbon anode
b) in middle compartment: i) Mercury anode ii) Iron cathode
Fluorine reacts with (a) cold, dilute and (b) hot, concentrated sodium hydroxide.
Fluorine
a) With cold dilute sodium hydroxide gives sodium fluoride, oxygen di fluoride and water.
2F2 + 2NaOH 2NaF + OF2 + H2O
b) With hot and concentrated sodium hydroxide gives sodium fluoride, water and oxygen.
2F2 + 4NaOH 4NaF + 2H2O + O2
Chlorine gas is passed through (a) cold and dilute sodium hydroxide
(b ) hot and concentrated sodium hydroxide solutions.
When Cl2 gas is passed through cold and dilute NaOH solution, sodium chloride, sodium hy-
pochlorite and water are formed.
197
2 NaOH + Cl2 NaCl + NaClO + H2O
Cold and dilute Sodium hypochlorite
b) When Cl2 gas is passed through hot and concentrated NaOH solution sodium chloride, sodium
chlorate and water are formed.
6NaOH + 3Cl2 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O
Sodium chlorate
Chemical properties of sodium hydroxide:
Sodium hydroxide reacts with metals:
With metals like Zn, Al, Sn it liberates H2 gas
Zn + NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2
Sodium zincate
2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O 

 2Na AlO2 + 3H2
Sodium meta aluminate
2Al + 6NaOH 
 2Na3AlO3 + 3H2
Sodium aluminate
Sodium hydroxide reacts with sulphur:
With sulphur it forms sodium sulphide and sodium thio sulphate
6NaOH + 4S 
 Na2S2O3 + 2Na2S + 3H2O
Sodium thio sulphate

Sodium hydroxide reacts with white phosphorous:
With white phosphorous it gives sodium hypophosphite and phosphine gas
4P + 3NaOH + 3H2O  3NaH2PO2 + PH3
Sodium hydroxide reacts with fused carbon:
When fused with carbon it gives sodium, sodium carbonate and H2 gas.
6NaOH + 2C  2Na + 2Na2CO3 + 3H2
Sodium hydroxide reacts with ammonium salts:
When warmed with ammonium salts it liberates ammonia gas
NH4Cl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O + NH3
NaOH reacts with FeSO4:
With aqueous ferrous sulphate, it gives a green precipitate of ferrous hydroxide
FeSO4 + 2NaOH  Fe (OH)2 + Na2SO4
Green
198
CHEMISTRY
NaOH reacts with FeCl3:
With aqueous ferric chloride it gives a red precipitate of ferric hydroxide
FeCl3 +3NaOH  Fe (OH)3 + 3NaCl
Red
NaOH reacts with AlCl3:
with aluminium chloride it first give a white precipitate of aluminium hydroxide. This dissolves in
excess of NaOH to form sodium meta aluminate
AlCl3 + 3NaOH  Al (OH)3  3NaCl
White
Al(OH)3 + NaOH  NaAlO2 + 2H2O
NaOH reacts with ZnSO4:
With zinc sulphate it first gives a white precipitate of zinc hydroxide. This dissolves in e x -
cess of NaOH to form sodium zincate.
ZnSO4 + 2NaOH  Zn (OH)2 + Na2SO4
White
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH  Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O
NaOH reacts with aluminium sulphate:
Aluminium sulphate reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce a white precipitate of aluminium hy-
droxide. It dissolves in excess of sodium hydroxide solution to give sodium meta aluminate.
Al2 (SO4)3 + 6NaOH  2Al(OH)3 ¯+3Na2SO4
Al (OH)3 + NaOH  NaAlO2 + 2H2O.
Precautions in preparation of NaOH:
In the preparation of NaOH the anode and cathode are to be separated by asbestos lining. Other-
wise the products formed at anode and cathode reacts with one another as follows.
2NaOH + Cl2 
 NaCl + NaOCl + H2O
Caustic soda:
Sodium hydroxide is known as caustic soda. When it falls on skin, it decomposes the muscle pro-
teins and makes a pulp. Hence it is given the name caustic soda.
Uses of sodium hydroxide:
It is used
In soap, paper, rayon industries
in petroleum refining
In mercerising cotton
199
As a reagent in laboratory
SODIUM CARBONATE - PREPARATION, PROPERTIES AND USES:
Leblanc process:
In this process, the raw materials used are NaCl, concentrated H2SO4, limestone and coke.
a) sodium chloride reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at high temperature to form sodium sul-
phate. This is called salt cake.
2NaCl + H2SO4 

 Na2SO4 + 2HCl
Salt cake
b) Salt cake is heated with coke to form sodium sulphide and carbon monoxide
Na2SO4 + 4C  Na2S + 4CO
c) Sodium sulphide is heated with limestone to form black ash (impure sodium carbonate)
Na2S + CaCO3  Na2CO3 + CaS
The black ash is treated with water, which is subsequently crystallised to get Na2CO3.
Solvay process:
Principle:
The process is based on low solubility of sodium bicarbonate in the presence of excess of carbon
dioxide.
Raw materials:
a) Ammonia gas (b) aqueous sodium chloride (brine) (c) lime stone
1) The brine solution (NaCl) is saturated with ammonia in the presence of little CO2.
2) NH3, CO2 and H2O interact together and forms ammonium carbonate. In this step, the calcium and
magnesium impurities (MgCl2, CaCl2) of brine are removed as their carbonates or hydroxides.
3) In carbonation process, ammonical brine is allowed to react with CO2 to get low soluble NaHCO3
crystals. This can be removed by filtration.
4) Sodium bicarbonate on heating decomposes to form sodium carbonate.
Reactions of sodium carbonate:
1) Na2CO3 with acids like HCl (or) H2SO4, liberates CO2 gas.
Na2 CO3  2HCl 

 2NaCl  H 2 O  CO2
Sodium chloride
Na2 CO3  H 2 SO4 

 Na2 SO4  H 2 O  CO2
Sodium sulphate
2) S and SO2 on reaction with sodium carbonate give sodium thio sulphate.
200
CHEMISTRY
Na2 CO3  SO2 
 Na2 SO3  CO2
Na2 SO3  S 
 Na2 S 2 O3
3) When CO2 is passed through aqueous solution of Na2CO3 gives sodium bicarbonate.
Na2 CO3  H 2 O  CO2 

 2NaHCO3
4) Silica, on fusion with sodium carbonate gives sodium silicate (‘water glass’).
Na2CO3 + SiO2 
 Na2SiO3 + CO2
5) With aqueous MgCl2, it gives magnesium carbonate precipitate.
MgCl2  Na2 CO3 

 MgCO3  2NaCl
Magnesium carbonate
6) With aqueous ZnSO4, it gives zinc carbonate precipitate.
ZnSO4  Na2 CO3 

 ZnCO3   Na2 SO4
Zinc sulphate zinc carbonate sodium sulphate

Washing soda:
Sodium carbonate deca hydrate i.e. is called washing soda.
· Sodium carbonate, gives pink colour with phenolphthalein but not with NaHCO3. This is be-
cause the extent of hydrolysis of CO32- ion is more than that of HCO3-
Uses of sodium carbonate.
Sodium carbonate is used
In the manufacture of glass, soap powder etc.
In laundries as washing soda
In softening the water
in paper and dye industries
Baking soda:
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is called baking soda.
It is prepared by passing CO2 gas through sodium carbonate solution.
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 

 2NaHCO3
It is used as 1) an antacid in medicine. (2) in fire-extinguishers.

Nature of aqueous solution of (1) sodium bicarbonate and (2) sodium carbonate The aq.
Solution of sodium bicarbonate is alkaline due to hydrolysis of ion.
The aq. Solution of sodium carbonate is also alkaline due to hydrolysis of carbonate ion.
CO32   2H 2 O  H 2 CO3  2OH 
201
ALKALINE EARTH METALS

(II A GROUP ELEMENTS)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium(Ca), strontium(Sr), barium(Ba) and radium(Ra) of IIA
group are called alkaline earth metals.
The oxides of these are alkaline in nature and found in the earth’s crust. Hence they are called
Alkaline earth metals. Radioactive element of IIA group is Radium.
General outer electronic configuration:
The general outer electronic configuration of IIA group elements is ns2.
Common oxidation states:
They exhibit a common oxidation state of +2.
EXTRACTION OF MAGNESIUM - PROPERTIES AND USES:
Names and formulae of ores of magnesium:
1) Magnesite - MgCO3 5) Keiserite: MgSO4H2O
2) Dolomite - CaCO3MgCO3 6) Kainite: K2SO4MgSO4MgCl26H2O
3) Carnallite - KCl.MgCl2 .6H2O 7) Asbestos: CaMg3 (SiO3)4
4) Epsom salt: MgSO47H2O
Extraction of magnesium from its ores:
Extraction of magnesium from its ores involves two stages
1. Preparation of anhydrous MgCl2 from magnesite or carnallite
2. Electrolysis of fused MgCl2
I. From magnesite (MgCO3):
Magnesite on calcination gives magnesium oxide.
0
MgCO 3 450
 C
 MgO  CO 2 
MgO is heated with carbon at 10000C and a current of chlorine gas is passed over it to get anhy-
drous magnesium chloride.
0
MgO  C  Cl 2 1000
 C
 MgCl 2  CO 
II. From carnallite (KCl MgCl2 6H2O) :
Carnallite is heated at 1760C. KCl separates as solid, leaving MgCl2 2H2O in molten form.
MgCl2 2H2O in presence of dry, conc. HCl becomes anhydrous MgCl2.
0
MgCl 2 2H 2 O 350
 C
 MgCl 2  2H 2 O
dry HCl
Electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride:
202
CHEMISTRY
Electrolysis of anhydrous, fused MgCl2 (with little NaCl) at 7000C gives Mg at cathode and Cl2 gas
at anode.
Mg Cl2 700 0C
Mg 2  2Cl  (ionisation)
Electrode reactions:
At cathode : Mg 2  2e 
 Mg (reduction)
molten MgCl2
At anode : 2Cl 
 Cl 2  2e  (oxidation)
1) Fused MgCl2 along with NaCl is taken in an iron vessel, which acts as cathode.
2) Graphite rod placed in it acts as anode.
3) A porcelain hood surrounds graphite rod. This separates the cathode from anode.
4) The air in the cell is replaced by an inert gas.
5) On electrolysis Mg forms at cathode and Cl2 liberates at anode.
Hydrated MgCl2 should not be used for electrolysis because it undergoes hydrolysis and forms
magnesium compounds, which are insulators.
MgCl2 + H2O 
 MgO + 2HCl + H2O
MgCl2 + H2O 
 Mg(OH) Cl + HCl
Q. Using elements of your choice, give chemical equations to convert MgO into Mg.
When MgO is mixed with coke and heated to about 20000C in an electroe furnace Mg is obtained.
Q. MgO is a non-conductor, how is the electrolysis carried out with it?

1) MgO is a non-conductor. To lower its melting point and to increase its conductivity a mixture of
magnesium, barium and sodium fluorides are added.
2) This molten mixture is electrolysed in a steel tank at 9000 - 9500C using iron rods as cathode and
203
graphite rods as anode.
3) Magnesium is formed at cathode.
Extraction of magnesium from seawater:

Seawater contains about 0.12% Mg2+ ions. By the addition of a slurry of Ca (OH)2, Mg 2+ ions are
precipitated as Mg (OH)2.
Mg 2  Ca OH 2 
 Mg OH 2   Ca 2
The Mg (OH)2 is dissolved in 10% HCl and crystallized to MgCl2. 6H2O.
For preparation of anhydrous MgCl2 and electrolysis refer S.A.Q. 1.
i) When burnt in air it forms magnesium oxide and magnesium nitride.
2Mg  O 2 
 2MgO
3Mg  N 2 
 Mg 3 N 2
ii) It reacts with hot water or steam to form magnesium oxide and hydrogen.
Mg  H 2 O 
 MgO  H 2 
iii) With dilute HCl or H2SO4 it liberates hydrogen.
Mg  2HCl 
 MgCl 2  H 2 
Mg  H 2 SO 4 
 MgSO 4  H 2 
iv) With very dilute HNO3 it produces magnesium nitrate, ammonium nitrate and water
 4Mg NO 3 2  NH 4 NO 3  3H 2 O .
4Mg  10HNO 3 
v) With concentrated HNO3 it gives NO2 gas.
Mg  4HNO 3  Mg ( NO3 ) 2  2 NO2  2 H 2O

magnesium nitrate nitrogen dioxide
204
CHEMISTRY
vi) With conc. H2SO4 it liberates SO2 gas

Mg  2 H 2 SO4  MgSO4  SO2  2 H 2O
magnesium sulphate
vii) It precipitates silver from AgNO3.
 Mg NO 3 2  2Ag 
2AgNO 3  Mg 
Reduction reactions of magnesium:
It reduces B2O3 to B; K2O to K.
i) 3Mg  B 2 O 3 
 3MgO  2B

ii) Mg  K 2 O 
 MgO  2 K
Potassium oxide
iii) Burning Mg continues to burn in CO2, SO2 or NO.
2Mg  CO 2 
 2MgO  C
3Mg  SO 2 
 2MgO  MgS
Magnesium sulphide

5Mg  2 NO 
 2 MgO  Mg 3 N 2
Magnesium nitride
Grignard reagent:
Alkyl magnesium halide is called Grignard reagent. (R-Mg-X).
Preparation:
Grignard reagent is prepared by the action of Mg on alkyl halide in presence of dry ether.
R-X + Mg dry  R-Mg-X.
ether

Ex: C2H5Cl + Mg dry  C2H5 - Mg - Cl.
ether

Ethyl chloride Ethyl magnesium chloride
Composition and alloys of magnesium:
Uses of magnesium:
It is used
in the preparation of alloys
in flash light photography
in fire works
205
in the preparation of grignard reagent
Epsom salt:
It is prepared by the action of dilute Sulphuric acid on magnesium oxide or magnesium carbonate
MgO + H2SO4  
 MgSO4 + H2O
MgCO3 + H2SO4 
 MgSO4 + H2O + CO2
Concentration of the solution, gives the crystals of MgSO4.7H2O.

It is used (i) as purgative (ii) in making fire proof materials (iii) in tanning process
Gypsum, plaster of paris, mortar
Plaster of Paris:
Hemi hydrated calcium sulphate is called plaster of Paris.
Its formula is CaSO4 1/2 H2O or 2CaSO4 . H2O
It is prepared by heating gypsum to 1200C.
1 3
1200 C
CaSO4 2H2O   CaSO4 . 2 H2O + 2 H2O
Setting stage of plaster of paris and the chemical changes that take place during this stage
1) When plaster of paris is mixed with water it sets to a hard mass.
2) This whole process involves two stages.
3) In the first stage, plaster of paris changes to orthorhombic gypsum. This is called setting stage.
4) In the second stage, orthorhombic gypsum changes to monoclinic gypsum. This is called hardening
stage.
3
 H 2O
CaSO4 1 H2O 2
CaSO42H2O 

hardening stage
CaSO4 2H2O
setting stage
2
orthorhombic gypsum monoclinic dihydrate
Dead burnt gypsum:
When gypsum or plaster of Paris is heated to 2000C it becomes anhydrous. It is called dead burnt
gypsum.
Uses of plaster of Paris:
Plaster of Paris is used
(i) in making black board chalks
(ii) in surgical bandages
(iii) in making moulds
Slaking of lime:
206
CHEMISTRY
Quick lime on mixing with water forms slaked lime. This process is known as slaking of lime
CaO + H2O 

 Ca(OH)2 + heat
Slaked lime
When CO2 gas is passed through milk of lime a long time first produces a ppt of calcium carbon-
ate. Afterwards it is soluble in water to produce calcium bicarbonate.
Ca (OH)2 + CO2 
 CaCO3  + H2O
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 
 Ca (HCO3)2
Calcium bicarbonate
Mortar or lime mortar:
Mortar is a mixture of sand, slaked lime (3: 1) and water.
It is used for the construction of buildings as binding material.
Function of sand in mortar:
Sand makes the mass porous, hard and prevents the cracking.
Hydraulic mortar:
Hydraulic mortar is prepared by burning limestone containing 10% aluminium silicates.
It is used as antiseptic and in bleaching purposes.
207
III A GROUP ELEMENTS

(BORON FAMILY)
GENERAL PROPERTIES:
Boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In) and thallium (Tl) are the elements of IIIA group.
General outer electronic configuration:
General outer electronic configuration of IIIA group elements is ns2 np1.
Common Oxidation State:
They exhibit the common oxidation state +3
Inert pair effect:
The reluctance of ns2 electrons to participate in bond formation is called inert pair effect. It is more
prominent in heavier elements of p-block.
Ex:- Tl, Pb and Bi
Thallium exhibits +1 as stable oxidation state due to inert pair effect.
Boron:
Boron is more reactive, due to its small size and high electro negativity. Hence it does not exist in
nature in Free State.
Nature of B2O3 is an acidic oxide while Al2O3 is an amphoteric oxide.
Boron differs from aluminum in some properties. This is due to the difference in number of electrons
in their penultimate shells.
Differences between Boron and Aluminium:
Similarities between Boron and Aluminium:

Boron and aluminium shows similar properties due to similar outer electronic configuration.
Similarities:- Both Boron and Aluminium
1) Form same type of trihalides. They are covalent, electron deficient and Lewis acids.
2) Form nitrides which on reaction with water liberate ammonia.
3) Liberate H2 with alkalies.
ALUMINIUM:
208
CHEMISTRY
Minerals of aluminium:
1. Bauxite : Al2O3. 2H2O
2. Dias pore: Al2O3. H2O
3. Corundum: Al2O3
4. Cryolite: Na3AlF6
5. Felspar: K2O. Al2O3. 6SiO2
6. Alunite: K 2 SO 4 .Al 2 SO 4 3 4AlOH 3
7. Turquoise: AlPO4 . AOH 3 .H 2 O
Red bauxite and white bauxite:
Bauxite containing Iron oxide as impurity is called red Bauxite.
Bauxite containing Silica (SiO2) as impurity is called white Bauxite.
EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
Purification of bauxite:
Red bauxite is purified either by Bayer’s method or Hall’s method.
(i) Purification of red bauxite by Bayer’s method:
Red Bauxite is powdered and roasted. During roasting of ferrous oxide changes to ferric oxide.
The roasted mass is digested with a strong solution of caustic soda (NaOH) under pressure at
1500C. Al2O3 alone reacts with NaOH and forms water soluble sodium meta aluminate. Fe2O3
remains unchanged, so removed by filtration.
Al2O3 + 2 NaOH 
 2NaAlO2 + H2O
The solution containing NaAlO2 on hydrolysis gives aluminium hydroxide precipitate.
Al  OH 
NaAlO2 + 2H2O   3  Al(OH)3¯ + NaOH
as a seed
Calcinations of Al (OH)3 gives pure anhydrous alumina
2Al(OH)3

 Al2O3 + 3H2O
(ii) Purification of red bauxite by Hall’s process:
Red Bauxite is powdered and fused with Na2CO3. Al2O3 alone reacts with Na2CO3 to form water
soluble sodium meta aluminate. Fe2O3 remains unchanged, so removed by filtration.
2 NaAlO 2
Al2O3 + Na2CO3   Sodium metaaluminate + CO2
The solution containing NaAlO2 is hydrolysed by passing CO2 to get aluminium hydroxide precipi-
tate.
0
2NaAlO2 + 3H2O + CO2 50 
C
 2Al(OH)3¯ + Na2CO3
Calcinations of Al OH 3 gives pure anhydrous alumina.
209
2Al(OH)3  
 Al2O3 + 3H2O
(iii) Purification of white bauxite by Serpeck’s process:
1. White Bauxite is mixed with coke and heated to 18000C in presence of N2 gas to get Aluminium
nitride.
Al2O3 + 3C + N2 2073K
 2AlN + 3CO
The Silica (SiO2) impurity is reduced to Silicon (Si) which escapes out as a vapour.
2. Aluminium nitride on hydrolysis gives Al(OH)3 ppt.
AlN + 3H2O   Al(OH)3¯ + NH3 
3. Calcinations of aluminium hydroxide gives pure anhydrous alumina.
  Al2O3 + 3H2O
2Al(OH)3 
Aluminium extraction from the purified Bauxite (Alumina):
Aluminium is obtained by the electrolysis of pure anhydrous alumina at 10000C along with fused
Cryolite (3NaF.AlF3) and fluorspar (CaF2). This acts as electrolyte.
Electrolysis is carried out in a rectangular iron box lined inside with carbon. This acts as cathode.
Carbon rods are suspended in the electrolyte acts as anode.
During the electrolysis aluminum is obtained at cathode and oxygen gas is liberated at anode.
Reactions:
AlF3
Al3+ + 3F- (ionisation)
(of cryolite)
At cathode: Al3+ + 3e- 
 Al (Reduction)
At anode: 12F 
 - 6F2 + 12 e- (oxidation)
2Al2 O3 + 6F2 
 4AlF3 + 3 O2 
The O2 liberated attacks the carbon anodes to form CO & CO2. Hence they are to be replaced.
Refining of aluminium by Hoope’s method:-
210
CHEMISTRY
Aluminium obtained by the above method contains impurities like silicon, copper, manganese etc. It
is refined by Hoope’s method.
The electrolytic cell used for refining of aluminium consists of an iron tank lined inside with carbon. It
contains three layers of fused masters which differ in the specific gravities. The top layer contains
pure aluminium and a series of graphic rods kept in it acts as a cathode. The middle layer acts as an
electrolyte which contains a mixture of fluorides of sodium, barium and aluminium in the fused state
saturated with alumina. The bottom layer contains impure aluminium and the carbon brings acts as
anode. Impure aluminum is mixed with copper and silicon to increase its density.
On passing current, aluminium ions from the middle layer are discharged at the cathode (upper layer)
as pure aluminium, while an equivalent amount of aluminium from the bottom layer passes into the
middle layer. Aluminium obtained by this method is 99.98% pure.
Q. Why is alumina dissolved in cryolite during the electrolysis of Al2O3?

To lower the melting point and increase the electrical conductivity of alumina (Al2O3)
Q. What is fluorspar? Why is it added to electrolytic mixture during the electrolysis
of alumina?
Fluorspar is calcium fluoride i.e. CaF2. It is added to the electrolytic mixture to reduce the fusion
temperature of Al2O3.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND USES OF ALUMINIUM:
(a) Dil. or conc. HCl reacts with aluminium to liberate Hydrogen gas
2Al + 6HCl 
 2AlCl3 + 3H2
(b) Hot conc. sulphuric acid dissolves aluminium and liberates sulphurdioxide
2Al + 6H2SO4 
 Al2 (SO4)3 + 6H2O + 3SO2
(c) With dil. HNO3 Aluminium forms aluminium nitrate and ammonium nitrate.
211
8 Al  30HNO3  8 Al  NO3 3  3NH 4 NO3  9H 2O
(d) Sodium hydroxide reacts with aluminium to form sodium meta aluminate and sodium aluminate
2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O 
 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
Sodium meta aluminate
2Al + 6NaOH 
 2Na3AlO3 + 3H2
Sodium aluminate
(e) Aluminium combines with
i) Chlorine to form aluminum chloride.
ii) Nitrogen to form aluminum nitirde.
2Al + 3Cl2 
 2AlCl3
2Al + N2 
 2AlN
Reducing properties of aluminium:
Aluminium powder acts as a powerful reducing agent due to high electropositivity and its greater
affinity for oxygen.
1) It reduces oxides of iron, chromium and Manganese to their respective metals
Fe2O3 + 2Al 
 Al2O3 + 2Fe + heat
Cr2O3 + 2Al 
 Al2O3 + 2Cr + heat
3Mn3O4 + 8Al 
 4Al2O3 + 9Mn + heat
2) It reduces carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide to carbon
4Al + 3CO2 
 2Al2O3 + 3C
2Al + 3CO 
 Al2O3 + 3C
Gold Schmidt’s Aluminothermic process:
The process of reducing Fe2O3 to Fe by using Al as reducing agent is called Aluminothermic pro-
cess.
A mixture of 3 parts of Ferric oxide and 1 part Aluminium powder is called thermite.
Thermite is placed in a crucible with a hole at its bottom. The crucible is lined inside with, magnetite.
Thermite mixture is covered with a mixture of aluminum powder and barium peroxide.
This mixture is called ignition mixture.
A magnesium ribbon is placed in ignition mixture, which acts as a fuse.
When magnesium ribbon is ignited ignition mixture catches fire and the reduction of Fe2O3 takes
place to form iron.
212
CHEMISTRY
Fe2 O3  2 Al  Al2 O3  2Fe  200K .Cal
Iron obtained in molten form is directly used for welding purposes. Hence it is also called thermit
welding.
Mg ribbon
Ignition mixture Fireclay

(BaO2 + Al) crucible
Fe2O3+Al
(Thermite mixture)
Magnesite lining
Tapping plug
Composition and uses of Aluminium alloys:
Q. Aluminium metal rendered passive towards concentrated nitric acid. Why?

It produces a protective film of oxide on its surface.
Q. What is thermite? Give the principal reaction in Aluminothermic process.
Thermite is a mixture of 1 part of aluminium powder and 3 parts of ferric oxide.
The reaction involved in thermic process is
2Al + Fe2O3 
 2Fe + Al2O3 + heat
Q. What is ignition mixture and give its function in thermite welding.
A mixture of barium peroxide and Al powder is called ignition mixture.
The reaction between these two is highly exothermic. So the heat produced provides the high
temperature required for the reduction of Fe2O3 by ‘Al’ powder.
Q. What is ammonal? Give its use.
A mixture of aluminium powder and ammonium nitrate is called ammonal. It is used in making
bombs.
Q. Why is aluminium used in making the parts of aircraft?
213
Aluminium is a light metal and resistant to corrosion. Hence it is used in making the parts of aircraft.
Q. Why is aluminium used in place of copper in electrical wires?
Al is a light metal, good conductor of electricity and shows resistance to corrosion. So it is used in
place of Cu, in electrical wires.
PREPARATION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF POTASH ALUM
Potash alum:
Alums are double sulphates having the general formula.
general formula of alum is M2SO4. (SO4)3. 24H2O
M = Monovalent cation.
M1 = Trivalent cation.
Formula of potash alum (or) common alum is K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O
Formula of chrome alum is K2SO4. Cr2 (SO4)3. 24H2O.
Preparation of potash alum:
1) It is prepared by mixing equimolar solutions of potassium sulphate and aluminium sulphate followed
by concentration.
K 2 SO4  Al2  SO4 3  24H 2O  K 2 SO4 .Al2  SO4  3 .24H 2O
2) It is prepared by boiling alunite with dil. H2SO4 followed by treating with calculated amount of
K2SO 4.
K 2 SO4 .Al2  SO4 3 .4 Al  OH  3  6 H 2 SO4  K 2 SO4  3Al2  SO4 3  12H 2O
K 2 SO4  Al2  SO4 3  24H 2O  K 2 SO4 .Al2  SO4  3 .24H 2O
When potash alum is dissolved in water:

Aqueous solution of potash alum is acidic in nature.
Acidic nature is due to hydrolysis of aluminium ion
Al3+ + 3H2O Al (OH)3 + 3H+
Uses of potash alum:
Potash alum is used
1. in the purification of water
2 . in tanning of leather
3 . as a styptic to arrest bleeding
PREPARATION, PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE OF DIBORANE:
Boranes:
Boron hydrides are known as boranes.
214
CHEMISTRY
General formula of stable boranes is BnHn+4 and that of unstable boranes is BnHn+6.
Electron deficient compounds:
The compounds in which the central atom has incomplete octet are called electron deficient com-
pounds. Ex: (1) BF3 (2) AlCl3 (3) B2H6
Preparation and properties of diborane:
Diborane is prepared
i) By the reduction of boron trichloride with lithium aluminium hydride
4BCl3 + 3LiAlH4 
 2B2H6 + 3AlCl3 + 3LiCl
ii) By subjecting a mixture of boron trichloride vapours and hydrogen gas to silent electric discharge.
2BCl3 + 6H2 
 B2H6 + 6HCl
iii) By the reaction of BF3 with LiH at 1770C
2BF3  6 LiH  B2 H 6  6 LiF

Properties:
1. It burns in oxygen to give boron trioxide.
B2H6 + 3O2 
 B2O3 + 3H2O + 480Kcal
2. It reacts with water giving boric acid and hydrogen.
B2H6 + 6H2O 
 2H3BO3 + 6H2
3. It reacts with ammonia at high temperature to form Borazole
3B2H6 + 6NH3 
 2B3N3H6 + 12H2
Borazole
4. It reacts with aq. KOH to form potassium metaborate and H2.
B2 H 6  2KOH  2H 2 O  2KBO2  6 H 2 
5. With Cl2 at 250C it forms BCl3 and HCl
B2 H 6  6Cl2  2BCl3  6 HCl

Borazole:
B3N3H6 is known as Borazole. It is also called inorganic benzene, since it resembles benzene in
structure.
215
Diborane when heated to 1200C with ammonia gives diammoniate of diborane. This on heating to
2000C gives Borazole.
0
B2H6 + 2NH3 120
 C
 B2H6, 2NH3
Diammoniate of diborane
3B2H6 2NH3 2000C  2B3N3H6 + 12H2


Structure of Diborane:
Diborane (B2H6) is an electron deficient molecule. It has only 12 valence electrons. It cannot have 14
electrons to show similar structure like ethane C2H6.
To explain the formation of bonds with 12 electrons, the following bridge structure has been pro-
posed for diborane.
It is a non-planar molecule. The two BH2 groups lie on one plane. Out of two bridge hydrogens one
lies above the plane and the other below the plane.
In diborane there are two types of bonds (a) 4 B – H bonds (b) 2 B – H – B bonds.
Methylation of diborane gives tetra methyl diborane  CH 3  4 B2 H 2  . This proves that diborane
has two bridge hydrogens and four terminal hydrogens.
Orbital structure :
216
CHEMISTRY
In diborane both boron atoms undergo sp3 hybridization.
The B-H-B bonds are formed by the overlapping of sp3, s, sp3 orbitals.
The B – H – B bonds are also called banana or tau bonds.
The B – H are formed by the overlapping of sp3, s orbitals of B and H respectively.
B – H bonds are considered to be two centered two electron bonds.
B – H – B bonds are considered to be three centered two electrons bonds. They are also called
bridge bonds.
217
IV A GROUP ELEMENTS
(CARBON FAMILY)
GENERAL PROPERTIES:
Carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin(Sn) and lead (Pb).are the elements of carbon family.
Their general outer electronic configuration is ns2np2.
Catenation:
Self-linking of atoms of the element to form long chains and big rings is called catenation.
Carbon exhibits highest catenation power, due to high C – C bond energy. (348 KJ mol-1)
Metallic character:
The metallic character increases down the group from carbon to lead. In this group C, Si are non-
metals, Ge is a metalloid, Sn, Pb are typical metals
Oxidation number of lead:
The stable oxidation number of lead is +2, due to inert pair effect.
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON:
Allotropy:
The existence of an element in more than one physical form is called allotropy.
crystalline and amorphous allotropes of carbon:
The crystalline allotropes of carbon are diamond and graphite.
Amorphous allotropes of carbon are coal, coke, wood charcoal, animal charcoal, sugar charcoal,
lampblack, gas carbon and petroleum coke.
Structure of diamond and graphite:
Diamond:
Diamond is the crystalline allotrope of carbon.
In diamond each carbon is in sp3 hybridised state and is tetrahedrally bonded to four other
carbons by strong C – C or sp3 – sp3 sigma bonds. This results in the formation of a giant three-
dimensional polymeric structure.
The C – C bond length in diamond is 1.54A0 and bond angle is 1090 281.
Graphite:
Graphite is the crystalline allotrope of carbon.
218
CHEMISTRY
Graphite has two-dimensional layer like structure. Each layer consists of hexagonal rings made
up of carbon atoms.
In Graphite, each carbon atom is in ‘sp2’ hybridized state and forms three covalent bonds with
adjacent carbon atoms. The fourth electron is present in the pure ‘p’ orbital.
The layers of graphite are held together by weak vanderwaals forces.
The distance between two adjacent layers of graphite is 3.4 A0.
The C – C bond length is 1.42 A0 and bond angle is 1200.
Graphite
Q. Diamond is very hard, while Graphite is soft in nature and used as lubricant. Ex-
plain?
In Diamond each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbons by strong C – C covalent bonds to
give a giant three dimensional polymer. Thus diamond is very hard.
Graphite has two dimensional layer like structure. The layers of Graphite are held together by weak
vanderwaals forces. When pressure is applied, the layers can easily slide one over the other. This
makes the Graphite soft. Thus it is used as Lubricant.
Q. Diamond is bad conductor while Graphite is a good conductor of electricity. Ex-
plain?
In Diamond each carbon atom is in sp3 hybridised state. So all four valency electrons of carbons are
involved in bonding. These are no free electrons left over on carbon atoms. Thus it is bad conductor
of electricity.
In Graphite each carbon atom is in sp2 hybridised state. Each carbon is therefore left with one
electron in pure ‘p’ orbital. Due to the presence of these free electrons, graphite is a good conductor
of electricity.
Uses of Diamond and Graphite:
Diamonds are used
i) As precious stones for Jewellary.
ii) For cutting glass and drilling rocks.
Graphite is used
i) As lubricant
219
ii) As electrode
iii) In making lead pencils
iv) As moderator in nuclear reactors.
SILICON DIOXIDE (SILICA):
Crystalline and amorphous forms of silica:
Quartz is the purest crystalline form of silica. Sand is the crushed form of quartz. The other crystalline
forms of silica are tridymite, crystobalite.
Amorphous forms of silica are agate, jaspar and onyx.
Quartz:
Pure crystalline form of silica is called Quartz.
Uses:
1. transparent quartz is used in making optical instruments and lenses.
2. The opaque quartz is used in making vessels, which are acid and alkali resistant.
Carborundum:
Silicon carbide (SiC) is known as carborundum.
It is used as an abrasive.
Preparation of SiO2: -
It is prepared by burning silicon in air or oxygen.
Si + O2 
 SiO2
It is prepared by heating ortho silicic acid to 10000C, which is obtained by the hydrolysis of SiCl4.
SiCl4 + 4 H2O 
 H4SiO4 + 4 HCl
0
H4SiO4 1000
 C
 SiO2 + 2 H2O
Properties of SiO2:
With hydrogen fluoride, it gives silicon tetra fluoride
SiO2 + 4HF 
 SiF4 + 2H2O
With sodium hydroxide it forms sodium silicate.
SiO2 + 2NaOH 
 Na2SiO3 + H2O
With carbon when heated in an electric furnace. It gives silicon carbide. This is commonly called
carborundum.

SiO2 + 3C  SiC + 2 CO
Uses of silica:
i) It is used during construction of buildings.
220
CHEMISTRY
ii) It is used during manufacturing of glass and quartz.
Comparison of CO2 and SiO2:
In CO2, carbon forms double bonds with oxygen and hence it is a discrete molecule. Because of
large size silicon can not form double bond with oxygen. Hence SiO2 forms infinite three-dimensional
structure. Due to difference in the bonding, CO2 is a gas while SiO2 is a high melting solid.
FUEL GASES OF CARBON:

Fuel and good fuel:
A fuel is a form of matter that is used to produce heat energy by burning.
A good fuel is that which is cheap, easy to burn, leaves little ash and has a high calorific value.
Gaseous fuel:
Gaseous fuels are more advantageous because they
i) can be stored and transported easily.
ii) Have more heat content.
iii) Do not form ash on burning.
Blue gas:
Water gas (CO + H2) is called blue gas, because gases present in it burn with a blue flame.
Producer gas and water gas:
Mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen (CO + N2) is called producer gas.
221
Mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (CO + H2) is called water gas.
Both CO & H2 present in water gas are combustible while N2 present in producer gas is not com-
bustible so the calorific value of water gas is more than that of producer gas
Semi water gas and carbureted water gas:
A mixture of CO, H2 and N2 is known as semi water gas.
A mixture of water gas and hydrocarbons is known as carbureted water gas.
Manufacture of water gas:
i) Water gas is mainly a mixture of CO (40%) and H2 (50%).
ii) Water gas is prepared by passing steam over
White -hot coke.
H 2O 0
C +  steam  1100
 C
 CO + H2 ; D H = +121kJ
WATER
GAS
COKE
STEAM
AIR
Manufacture of water gas
Procedure:
The coke is heated and air is passed over it for 10 minutes. Coke burns and the temperature raises.
Now the supply of air is stopped and steam is passed over hot coke to get water gas. Its calorific
value is 2, 800 kcals/m3 (or) 11,286 KJ/m3
Uses: It is used
(a) as a fuel in industry.
(b) in the manufacture of NH3 by Haber’s process.
Manufacture of producer gas:
i) Producer gas is mainly a mixture of
CO (33%) and N2 (64%).
222
CHEMISTRY
ii) Producer gas is prepared by the incomplete combustion of coal, coke or charcoal.
2C+ O2  2CO, DH = -231kJ
COKE
OUT LET
RED HOT COKE
HOT AIR
ASH
GAS PRODUCER
Procedure:
The plant used for the manufacture of producer gas is called ‘gas producer’. It is a big cylindrical
furnace lined inside with fire bricks.
Coal is burnt in the furnace and temp is kept at 11000C and air is introduced. First CO2 is formed.
This CO2 while passing through hot coal beds gets reduced to CO.
C + O2  CO2 ; DH = -394kJ
CO2 + C  2CO ; DH = +163kJ
Thus a mixture of CO and N2 is formed.
It is the cheapest industrial fuel with a low calorific value 900 Kcal/m3 (or) 37623.
Uses: It is used
(a) in gas engines.
(b) as industrial fuel in manufacture of steel and glass.
(c) in the manufacture of ammonia.
223
ASSIGNMENT
224
CHEMISTRY
1. The reagent used in the causticisation of sodium carbonate is
1) Ca(OH)2 2) CaCO3 3) CaO 4) CaCl2
2. Which of the following deviates from the trend of density?
1) Li 2) Na 3) K 4) Cs
3. Alkali metals are very reactive because they have
1) high I.P 2) low I.P 3) high E.N 4) very low size
4. An element having electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 will form
1) acidic oxide 2) basic oxide 3) amphoteric oxide 4) neutral oxide
5. Which of the following hydroxides is highly basic?
1) RbOH 2) KOH 3) LiOH 4) NaOH
6. Alkali metals are:
1) strong oxidising agents 2) strong reducing agents
3) weak reducing agents 4) neither oxidising nor reducing agents
7. The softness of group IA metals increases down the group because.
1) the metallic bonding decreases with increases in atomic size.

2) I.P.decreases from Li to Cs
3) E-N increases from Li to Cs
4) Atomic size decreases from Li to Cs.
8. KCl and KF is added in Down’s electrolysis to reduce

1) conductivity of NaCl 2) mobility of ions
3) melting point of NaCl 4) None of the above
9. The electrolyte in the extraction of sodium by Castner’s process is
1) sodium hydroxide solution 2) aqueous sodium chloride

3) fused sodium hydroxide 4) fused sodium chloride
10. The biproduct of Down’s process is
1) sodium 2) chlorine 3) potassium 4) Fluorine

11. Sodium metal can not be stored in
1) Benzene 2) Alcohol 3) Kerosene 4) Toluene
12. A solution of sodium metal in liquid ammonia is blue due to the presence of
1) sodium atoms 2) sodium hydride 3) ammonated electrons 4) sodamide
13. Sodium is not observed in +2 state because of its
225
1) high first I.P 2) high second I.P 3) high ionic radius 4) high electronegativity
14. The products of electrolysis of common salt solution are
1) Na + Cl2 2) H2 + O2 3) NaOH + H2 + Cl2 4) NaOH + Cl2 + O2
15. The mettallic luster exhibited by sodium is explained by

1) diffusion of sodium ions 2) Oscillation of loose electrons
3) exeitation of free electrons 4) existence of body centred cubic lattice.
16. The raw materials in Solvay’s process are
1) NaCl, NH3, CaCO3 2) NaOH, CO2

3) NaCl, CO2 4) NaCl, CaCO3, H2SO4
17. Washing soda has the formula
1) Na2CO3 2) Na2CO3 H2O 3) Na2CO37H2O 4) Na2CO310H2O

18. Baking soda is
1) Na2CO3 10H2O 2) Na2SO4 3) Na2SO4 10H2O 4) NaHCO3
19. Soda lime is
1) NaOH 2) CaO 3) NaOH + CaO 4) Na2CO3
20. The superoxide among the following
1) BaO2 2) PbO2 3) KO2 4) SnO2
21. The gas that is evolved when NH4 NO3 is heated with sodium hydroxide solution is
1) N2 2) N2O 3) NH3 4) NO2
22. Sodium hydroxide is prepared by the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of
1) NaCl with pt electrodes 2) NaCl with graphite and iron electrode
3) Na2 CO3 with pt electrodes 4) Na2CO3 with Ni electrodes
23. Which of the following increases in magnitude as the atomic number of alkali metals increases?
1) Electro negativity 2) First ionisation energy

3) Ionic radius 4) Melting point
24. Alkali metals are good reducing agents because they easily
1) gain electrons 2) lose electrons 3) complete their octet 4) React with water
25. Causticisation process is used for the preparation of
1) Caustic soda 2) Caustic potash 3) Baryta 4) Slaked lime
26. Which of the following burns with an explosion in contact with water and air
226
CHEMISTRY
1) Na 2) Ca 3) Mg 4) Zn
27. Cesium Oxide is
1) Very strongly basic 2) Acidic 3) Weakly basic 4) Amphoteric
28. Sodium loses its luster on exposure to air due to the formation of
1) Na2O 2) Na2CO3 3) NaOH 4) Na2SO3
29. The by-product of Solvay’s process is
1) CaO 2) CaCl2 3) CO2 4) NaHCO3
30. The largest aqueous ion is
1) Rb 1 2) K  3) Na  4) Li 
31. Assertion : Cesium is used in photo electric cells
Reason : Cesium is most electropositive element
Choose the correct Answer
1) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A.
2) Both A and R are correct but R is not correct explanation of A.
3) A is correct but R is Incorrect.
4) A is Incorrect but R is correct.
32. Assertion : Li+ ion has lowest mobility in aquous solutions
Reason : Lithium has high Ionosation energy choose the correct Answer.
1) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A.
2) Both A and R are correct but R is not correct explanation of A.
3) A is correct but R is Incorrect.
4) A is Incorrect but R is correct.
33. In the outer compartments and the central compartment of Castner - Kellner cell, mercury acts as
1) anode, cathode 2) cathode, anode 3) cathode, cathode 4) anode, anode

34. In Down’s process the electrolyte used is
1) fused NaOH 2) aqueous NaCl
3) fused Na2 CO3 4) fused mixture of NaCl and KCl
35. Which of the following is higher for potassium than sodium?
1) Ionisation potential 2) standard reduction potential 3) Density 4) Metallic radius

36. Caustic soda is
1) efflorescent 2) deliquescent 3) hygroscopic 4) oxidant
37. Sodium carbonate crystals on exposure to air crumble into powder. This phenomenon is known as
227
1) efflorescence 2) deliquescence 3) chemiluminiscence 4) phosphorescence
38. The following compounds have been arranged in the order of increasing basic strength. Identify the
correct order
I : NaOH II. RbOH III. CsOH
1) I > II > III 2) II > I > III 3) III > II > I 4) I > III > II
39. Choosing correct statement(s) from the given statements
I. Solubility of carbonates of alkalimetals increases from Li2CO3 to Na2CO3
II. Sodium is liberated at cathode and chlorine liberated at anode in castner’s process
III. Fusion mixture is Na2CO3 + K2CO3
1) only III is correct 2) only II & III are correct
3) only I & III are correct 4) all are correct
40. (A) : F2 liberates O2 gas with hot and con NaOH
(B) : F2 is stronger oxidant
The correct answer is :
1) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
2) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
3) (A) is true but (R) is false
4) (A) is false but (R) is true
228
CHEMISTRY
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
1 3 2 2 1 2 1 3 3 2 2 3 2 3 2
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
1 4 4 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 4
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
1 2 2 4 4 2 1 3 3 2
229
1. Two metals X and Y form oxide, but Y also forms nitride when burnt in air. The metals X and Y are
1) Mg, K 2) K. Mg 3) Cs, K 4) Li, Na
2. Magnesium decomposes steam or boiling water with evolution of
1) O2 2) H2 3) both O2 and H2 4) None
3. Mg react with Con H2SO4 liberates which of the following
1) SO2 2) SO3 3) H2 4) O2
4. Magnesium does not give flame colour because it has
1) high excitation energy 2) low I.P
3) large size 4) low excitation energy
5. What happens when magnesium reacts with silver nitrate solution?
1) Mg(NO3)2 is formed 2) Mg displaces silver from AgNO3 solution

3) MgO is formed 4) both and ‚ are correct
6. Magnalium is an alloy of
1) Mg and Zn 2) Mg and Al 3) Cu and Sn 4) Mg and Cu

7. Magnalium alloy is used in
1) the construction of air crafts 2) making balance beams
3) making pistons of motors 4) all of the above
8. The wire of flash bulbs is made up by :
1) Cu 2) Mg 3) Ag 4) Ba
9. The hydration energy of Mg2+ is larger than that of
1) Be2+ 2) Al3+ 3) Na+ 4) None of these
10. Gypsum is
1) MgSO42H2O 2) CaSO4.2H2 O 3) 2CaSO4 4) CaSO4.3H2O
11. Anhydrite is
1) CaSO4 2) CaSO4.2H2O 3) CaSO4.3H2O 4) CaSO4 ½H2O
12. ‘Be’ has diagonal relationship with
1) Mg 2) Al 3) Na 4) B
13. Gypsum dissolves in
1) dilute alkalies 3) both in dil. alkalies & ammonium sulphate
2) ammonium sulphate 4) None of the above
14. Gypsum on strong heating gives
230
CHEMISTRY
1) CaSO4 2) CaSO4 ½H2O 3) CaO 4) CaSO4 H2O
15. Which of the following is correct when dil.HNO3 reacts with Magnesium metal
1) Mg + 2HNO3   Mg(NO3)2 + H2
2) Mg + 2HNO3   Mg(NO3)2 + 2H
3) 4Mg + 10 HNO3  4Mg(NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + 3H2O
4) All the above
16. Gypsum is used
1) for the manufacture of plaster of Paris 2) for the manufacture of cement

3) as drying agent in anhydrous form 4) All are correct
17. Which one of the following denotes the chemical formula for plaster of paris?
1) CaSO4. 2H2O 2) CaSO4.H2O 3) CaSO4. 3H2O 4) 2CaSO4.H2O

18. Plaster of Paris is formed when gypsum partially loses
1) SO2 2) water 3) oxygen 4) Ca
19. Plaster of Paris is hardened by
1) liberated CO2 2) changing into CaCO3
3) Uniting with water 4) giving out water
20. Setting of plaster of Paris is
1) dehydration 2) combination with CO2

3) oxidation with atmospheric oxygen 4) hydration to yield and another hydrate
21. Which of the following salts becomes plaster of Paris on being appropriately hydrated?
1) CaCO3 2) CaSO4 3) ZnCO3 4) MgSO4

22. Plaster of Paris sets to a hard mass in contact with water. The composition of hard mass is
1) CaSO4 2) CaSO4.H2O 3) CaSO4.2H2O 4) CaSO4Ca(OH)2
23. The solubility of gypsum in water increases in presence of ammonium sulphate due to the formation of :
1) double salt 2) complex salt 3) mixed salt 4) basic salt
24. Setting of plaster of Paris is an
1) endothermic reaction 2) exothermic reaction
3) neither exothermic nor endothermic 4) None
25. Magnesium metal is obtained by the electrolysis of ……… MgCl2
1) aqueous 2) fused anhydrous

3) alcoholic 4) solid
231
26. Plaster of paris used
1) in making casts for statues 2) in surgery for setting dislocated bones

3) in making black board chalks 4) all of the above
27. Mortar is a mixture of
1) slaked lime, sand and water 2) slaked lime, plaster of paris and water
3) MgCl2, Tar and lime 4) Lime, Portland Cement and Water
28. The function of sand in mortar is
1) to decrease the hardness

2) to make the mass compact
3) to decrease the plasticity of the mass
4) to prevent the excessive shrinkage because of which cracks may result
29. Hydraulic mortar is obtained by
1) heating calcium carbonate

2) heating aluminium silicate
3) heating calcium carbonate containing 10% Aluminium silicate
4) None of the above
30. In the setting of mortar to hard mass, slaked lime
1) absorbs CO2 from atmosphere 2) gives out water

3) absorbs water 4) None of the above
31. The correct statement among the following is
1) On setting, plaster of paris undergoes expansion

2) Heating gypsum at 1200C ± 50C gives plaster of paris
3) Heating gypsum at 2000C gives dead burnt (CaSO4)
4) All are correct
32. Beryllium resembles much with
1) Zn 2) Ra 3) Al 4) Hg
33. Which metal is extracted from sea water ?
1) K 2) Mg 3) Al 4) Be
34. Asbestos is a silicate mineral of Ca and
1) Magnesium 2) aluminium 3) Sodium 4) Potassium
35. Maximum I.P is of
1) Na 2) Mg 3) Be 4) Ca
232
CHEMISTRY
36. The mineral having the composition KCl.MgCl2.6H2O is known as;
1) cryolite 2) epsomite 3) carnallite 4) chlorapatite
37. (A) : Alkaline earth metals are stronger reducing agents than alkalimetals
(B) : Alkaline earth metals are harder than alkalimetals
The correct answer is
4) 4) (A) is false but (R) is true
38. (A) : Anhydrous MgCl2 can be obtained only by heating carnalite in presence of dry HCl gas
(B) : MgCl2 is highly deliquescent salt

The correct answer is
4) (A) is true but (R) is true
39. Identify the correct increasing order of heat of hydration of the ions
I. Be2+ II. Ca2+ III. Mg2+ IV. Ba2+

1) IV, II, III, I 2) II, I, III, IV 3) I, II, III, IV 4) I, III, II, IV
40. Choosing correct statement(s) from the given statements
I : All alkaline earth metals impart colour to the flame test
II. Mg + 2H2SO4 (dil.)  MgSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
III. The polarizing power of Be2+ is almost equal to that of Al3+ ion
1) only I is correct 2) only I & II are correct
3) only III is correct 4) All are correct
233
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
2 2 1 1 4 2 4 2 3 2 1 2 2 1 1
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
4 4 2 3 4 2 3 1 2 2 4 1 4 3 1
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
4 3 2 1 3 3 4 2 1 3
234
CHEMISTRY
1. Duralumin alloy consists of
1) 95% Al, 4% Sn, 1% Mn 2) 90%Al, 10% Cu
3) 95% Al, 3% Cu, 1% Mg , 1% Mn 4) 92% Al, 8% Mg
2. Conc. HNO3 is stored in the container of
1) Cu 2) Zn 3) Al 4) Ni
3. Which of the following with diborane does not produce hydrogen?
1) NaOH 2) Cl2 3) H2O 4) HCl
4. From diborane all the following can be prepared except
1) B2O3 2) H3BO3 3) BaBH4 4) B2(CH3)6
5. In alumino thermic process, the purpose of BaO2 used in ignition mixture is
1) to increase the rate of reaction 2) to oxidise Mg metal
3) to slow down the reaction 4) to weld the broken iron pieces
6. Aluminium vessels should not be washed with materials containing washing soda because it
1) is expensive
2) is easily decomposed
3) reacts with Al to form soluble aluminate
4) reacts with Al to form insoluble Al2O3
7. The alloy of ‘Al’ that does not contain ‘Mg’ is
1) Magnalium 2) Duralumin
3) g - alloy 4) Aluminium Bronze
8. Al and Ga have the same covalent radius because of
1) greater shielding power of s-electrons of Ga atoms

2) Poor shielding power to s-electrons of Ga atoms
3) Poor shielding power of d-electrons of Ga atoms
4) Greater shielding power of d-electrons of Ga atoms
9. Which of the statement about aluminium is not correct?
1) It liberates hydrogen from acids as well as alkalis

2) It liberates hydrogen from acid but not from alkalis
3) It liberates hydrogen from hot alkali solution
4) It liberates hydrogen from boiling water
10. In AlCl3, aluminium appears as cation and in NaAlO2, it appears as anion. So the nature of aluminium
is
235
1) acidic 2) basic 3) amphoteric 4) neutral
11. In the electrolysis of alumina during the manufacture of aluminium
1) Al2O3 under goes dissociation
2) AlF3 undergoes dissociation
3) Al2O3 and AlF3 both undergo dissociation
4) neither of the two undergoes dissociation
12. The ratio of moles of H2 produces when Al reacts with HCl and NaOH separately is
1) 1 : 1 2) 1 : 2 3) 2 : 1 4) 3 : 2
13. Al is not acted upon by pure water as
1) impurities in water are essential for the reaction to occur
2) it is protected by a film of Al2O3
3) it is light metal
4) it is not a reactive metal
14. Reactivity of borazole is more than that of benzene because
1) Borazole is a polar compound

2) Borazole is a non-polar compound
3) Borazole is an electron deficient compound
4) Of the delocalised electrons in Borazole
15. Thallium shows univalency instead of trivalency because of :
1) Lower nuclear charge 2) higher nuclear charge

3) Inert pair effect 4) presence of one electron in the ‘p’ orbital
16. When alumina is heated with carbon in nitrogen atmosphere, CO is formed along with ‘X’. ‘X’ on
hydrolysis forms ‘Y’ an amphoteric substance and ‘Z’ a colourless characteristic pungent smelling gas.
The shape of the molecule and hybridization of the central atom in ‘Z’ are.
1) Linear, sp 2) Angular, sp3

3) pyramidal, sp3 4) Tetrahedral, sp3
17. List - I List - II

A) Alum i) alloy
B) Inorganic benzene ii) Ca2 B6O11. 5H2O
C) Diborane iii) Mordant
D) Magnalium iv) B3 N3 H6
v) Odd electron bond
1) A - iii ; B - iv ; C - v; D - i 2) A - ii ; B - iii; C - v; D - iv
236
CHEMISTRY
3) A – iii ; B - i ; C - v ; D - ii 4) A - v ; B - ii ; C - iv ; D - i
18. Aluminium forms [AlF6]3- but boron does not form [BF6]3- because
1) the atomic size of B is small 2) of absence of vacant d-orbital in B atom

3) of high I.P of B-atom 4) B is non-metal
19. The gas evolved, when aluminium is heated with nitrogen and the product hydrolysed is
1) O2 2) H2 3) NH3 4) O3
20. Sodium metal reacts with Al2 O3 at high temp to give a sodium compound X, X reacts with CO2 in
water to form Y. Y is ______
1) na2 O2 2) Na2 O 3) Na2 CO3 4) Na AlO2
21. When bauxite powder is mixed with coke and reacted with Nitrogen at 2075K carbon monoxide and
X are formed. What is the gas formed when X is reacted with water.
1) NH3 2) N2 3) N2O 4) O2
22. Compound BCl3 on reduction with Li AlH4 gives hydride X along with other products the compound X
reacts with air explosively resulting in compound Y. Identify X and Y
1) B2 H6, B2 O3 2) B2 O3, B3 N3 H6
3) B3 N3 H6, B2 H6 4) B2 H6, H3 B O3
23. The Amphoteric metal of III period is diagonaly related to
1) Li 2) Be 3) B 4) Mg
24. Which of the following properties of Al are non typical of most other metals
1) Considerable temperature difference between Mp and Bp
2) Negative standard electrode potential
3) Electrical resistance increases with increase in temperature
4) Forms salts with alkalies
25. (A) : ‘Al’ shows passivity with con HNO3
(R) : ‘Al’ forms a protective layer of Al2O3 with con HNO3

1) both A and R are correct and R is correct explanation of A
2) both A and R are correct but R is not correct explanation of A
3) A is correct but R is wrong
4) A is wrong but R is correct
26. B2H6 reacts with NH3 at 1200C gives A which on strong heating gives compound ‘B’ and a gas the
compound is _____
237
1) B3N3H6 2) B2H62NH3 3) B2O3 4) H3BO3
27. (A) : ‘Al’ liberates H2 gas with both NaOH and HCl.
(R) : ‘Al’ is amphoteric metal
1) both A and R are correct and R is correct explanation of A
2) both A and R are correct but R is not correct explanation of A
3) A is correct but R is wrong
4) A is wrong but R is correct
28. The capacity of halides of boron to act as Lewis acids decreases in the order
1) B F3 > B Cl3 > B Br3 2) B Br3 > B Cl3 > B F3

3) B Cl3 > B F3 >B Br3 4) B Cl3 > B Br3 > B F3
29. The strongest basic oxide of the IIIA group elements
1) Al2O3 2) Ga2 O3 3) Tl2 O 4) Tl2 O3

30. When Bauxites powder is heated with caustic soda gives a compound of Alluminium Which an dilution
gives a PPt. of
1) Al2 O3 2) Al(OH)3 3) Fe(OH)3 4) Na Al O2
31. Al2O3 formation involves evolution of a large amount of heat which makes its use in _
1) De oxidizer 2) Indoor photography
3) Confectionary 4) Thermite welding
32. Al metal was dissolved by heating with least amount of aq. KOH the solution obtained was just neutralised
with H2 SO4 and allowed to stand to gives crystals of
1) Aluminium Sulphate 2) Potassium Sulphate

3) Both aluminium sulphate and potassium sulphate 4) Potash alum
33. Potash Alum ionises in aqeous solution to give
1) One type of ions 2) two type of ions

3) Three type of ions 4) Tour type of ions
34. A colourless gas which decomposes in the presence of grease and moisture reacts with NH3 at low
temperature gives an addition product A. A at high temperature decomposes to give B. B is isomorphic
with benzene. B is ______
1) B2H6 2) B3 N3 H6 3) C6 H6 4) B3 C3 H6
35. Al reacts with concentrated acids A, B, C with ‘A’ gives salt and H2, with B gives salt and SO2, with C
will not give any gas but in dilute conditions it reacts to give two salts. ‘C’ is___
238
CHEMISTRY
1) HCl 2) H NO3 3) H2 SO4 4) HClO4
36. Dry Cl2 gas is passed over hot mixture of allumina and coke A and B are formed. A on treatment with
caustic soda gives a precipitate. Precipitate is _____
1)AlCl3 2) Al(OH)3 3) Na AlO2 4) Na3 AlO3
37. ‘Al’ metal is burnt in air to get compound A and B, ‘B’ dissolves water to give a gas ‘C’A, B, C are ___
1) Al2O3, Al N, NH3 2) NH3, AlN, Al2O3
3) AlN, Al2O3, NH3 4) Al2O3, Al (NO3)3, NO
38. Potash alum is used as
i) Septic ii) Water softener

iii) Mordant iv) Fibre in the polymer industry
1) i, ii, iv 2) ii, iii, iv 3) ii, iv 4) All are correct
39. Which of the following compounds contain boron
i) Borax ii) Colemanite iii) Cristoballite iv) Kernite
1) i, ii, iii 2) ii, iii, iv 3) i, ii, iv 4) All are correct
40. Consider following reactions :
The correct combinations are
I. ZnO + C  Zn + CO
II. Cr2O3+ 2Al  Al2O3 + 2Cr
III. Al2O3 + 2Cr  Cr2O3 + 2Al
1. I, III 2) II, III 3) I, II 4) I, II, III
239
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
3 3 2 4 1 3 4 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 3
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
3 1 2 3 3 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 2 3 2
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
4 4 3 2 2 2 1 4 3 3
240
CHEMISTRY
1. Carbon and Silicon belong to IV group. The maximum co-ordination number of carbon in commonly
occurring compounds is four whereas that of silicon is six. This is due
1) large size of silicon 2) availability of d-orbitals in silicon
3) small size of silicon 4) high electronegativity of silicon
2. Which statement is correct with respect to the property of the elements with increase in atomic number
in the carbon family
1) Their metallic character decreases

2) The stability of +2 oxidation state increases
3) Their ionisation energies increases
4) Their atomic size decreases
3. Diamond is hard because
1) It is a crystalline allotrope of carbon

2) It is a giant molecule
3) All the valence electrons of each C atom are involved in strong s bonding
4) It has a high value of refractive index
4. Black lead is
1) Diamond 2) Graphite 3) Silicon 4) Tin

5. Graphite is soft, greasy and lubricant because
1) it has three dimensional structure 2) it has low density
3) it has weak inter layer forces 4) it is black
6. A and B are the compounds of carbon. A on passing over red hot cake, is converted to B. A and B
respectively are
1) CO and CO2 2) CH4 and C2H6 3) CO2 and CO 4) CCl4 and CHCl3
7. The bond energy is highest for
1) Sn  Sn 2) Ge  Ge 3) Si  Si 4) C  C
8. Point out the correct statement about silica
1) Silica is a high melting solid
2) It has a three - dimensional infinite structure
3) In silica, Si atom is tetrahedrally bonded
4) All are correct
9. Quartz is made of silicon and oxygen linked in a network arrangement that is similar to
1) Diamond 2) Graphite
3) Silicon carbide 4) Sodium chloride
241
10. Silica is easily soluble in
1) HNO3 2) HCl 3) HF 4) H2SO4

11. The percent of lead in lead pencils is
1) 0 2) 100 3) 80 4) 50
12. The hybridisation of C atom in CO2 is sp while the hybridisation of Si atom in SiO2 is
1) sp3 2) sp 3) sp2 4) sp3d
13. Which is formed when SiCl4 vapours are passed over hot Mg?
1) SiCl2 + MgCl2 2) Si+MgCl2 3) Mg2Si+Cl2 4) MgSiCl6
14. The low calorific value of producer gas is due to
1) the presence of large proportion of CO 2) the presence of large proportion of N2
3) the presence of small proportion of CO 4) the presence of small proportion of N2
15. Purest form of Silica is
1) Quartz 2) Sand stone 3) Onyx 4) Jasper

16. The inert pair effect is prominent with respect to the one of the IVA Group elements the elements is
1) C 2) Si 3) Ge 4) Pb
17. A crystalline allotropic form of a carbon has a C – C – C bond angle of 109O28| the allotrope A is
1) Insulator with C – bond length 1.54
2) Conductor with C – bond length 1.54
3) Insulator with C – bond length 1.42
4) Insulator with layered structure
18. A crystalline allotropic form of carbon ‘A’ is heated to the temperature of 2000OC in vaccum to get ‘B’
which is also allotropic form of carbon A and B are
1) Diamond & Graphite 2) Graphite & diamond

3) Diamond & coke 4) Graphite & coke
19. A & B both are non metals of the IVA Group elements A & B forms dioxides with oxygen. ‘A’ oxide is
gas ‘B’ oxide is solid . A & B are
1) Si & Pb 2) Si & Ge 3) C & Si 4) Ge & C

20. A crystalline allotropic form of carbon it is made by Acheson method in which C – C bond length is
1) 154OA 2) 1.42 AO 3) 1.39AO 4) 1.20AO
21. A non metal oxide of IVA group reacts with coke to form a hardest substance ‘X’ which on decompo-
sition gives two non metals of IVA, The X is ______
1) SiO2 2) CO2 3) SiC 4) H2C2O4
242
CHEMISTRY
22. CO2 is iso structural with
i) SnCl2 ii) HgCl2 iii) SCl2 iv) ZnI2
1) i, ii 2) ii, iii 3) iii, iv 4) ii, iv
23. Which of the following is amphoteric
i) BeO ii) Ag2O iii) CO2 iv) Sno2
1) i, iv 2) i, ii, iii 3) ii, iii 4) All are correct
24. CCl4 is used as fire extinguisher because
1) Its M.P is high 2) It forms covalent bond
3) Its b.p is low 4) It gives incombustible vapours
25. Carbon shows tetravalency due to:
1) sp2 hybridization 2) d3p hybridization

3) dsp2 hybridization 4) sp3 hybridization
26. In group IV A or 14 of the extended form of the periodic table with increase in atomic number, the
oxidising power of tetravalent species increases in the order:
1) Ge > Pb > Sn 2) Ge > Sn > Pb 3) Pb > Ge > Sn 4) Pb > Sn > Ge

27. Which form of the carbon has a two dimensional sheet like structure?
1) Diamond 2) Silicon 3) Graphite 4) Silica
28. Glass is soluble in:
1) HF 2) H2SO4 3) HClO4 4) aqua-regia
29. Calorific value is lowest for
1) Water gas 2) Producer gas 3) Semi water gas 4) Carbureted water gas
30. Mark the correct statement:
1) Water gas is used in the manufacture of methyl alcohol
2) Water gas has the highest calorific value
3) Water gas burns with luminous flame
4) The production of water gas is exothermic process
31. Which of the following is a semiconductor?
1) C 2) Pb 3) Ge 4) Sn
32. Which of the following is not hydrolysed?
1) CCl4 2) SiCl 3) SnCl4 4) PbCl4
33. Which of the following halides is least stable and has doubtful existence?
243
1) CCl4 2) SnI4 3) GeI4 4) PbI4
34. The number of carbon compounds is very large because:
1) Carbon is tetra-valent 2) It has non-metallicharacter
3) It shows allotropy 4) It has strong catenation property
35. The number and type of bonds between two carbon atoms in CaC2 are:
1) One sigma and one pi bond 2) One sigma and two pi bonds
3) One sigma and one and a half pi bond 4) One sigma bond
36. Which substance is used as lubricant?
1) Diamond 2) SiO2 3) Graphite 4) Quartz

37. Which does not exist?
1) [CCl6]2 - 2) [SiCl6]2- 3) [GeF6]2- 4) [SnCl6]2-
38. Regarding fuel gases
I) Water gas is called blue gas
II) Major component in producer gas is CO
III) The major component in semi water gas is N2
The correct combination is
1) I and III 2) II and III 3) I & II 4) All are correct

39. Maximum covalency exhibited by C and Si are respectively
1) 4, 6 2) 4, 4 3) 6, 6 4) 4, 8
40. Silica is attacked by
1) Concentrated H2SO4 2) Conc. H2SO4
3) Conc. HCl 4) HF
244
CHEMISTRY
KEY
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 1 3 1 1 2 2 1
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
4 1 1 3 2 3 4 1 4 4 4 3 1 3 1
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
3 1 4 4 2 3 1 1 1 4
245
MATHS
Contents
1. CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
2. LOCUS-AND-CONCURRENCY
3. TRIGONOMETRY
4. STATISTICS
246
MATHS
1 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
247
Introduction:
Let X1OX and YOY1 be two mutually perpendicular lines intersecting at the point O in a plane.
Y
x P(x, y)
M
y
X1 X
O L
Y1
These two lines are called reference lines or co-ordinate axes. The horizontal reference line X1OX is
called X-axis and the vertical reference line YOY1 is called Y-axis.
The point of intersection of these two axes O is called the origin. The plane containing the co-
ordinate axes is called co-ordinate plane or XY– plane.
Co-ordinates of a point:
Let P be a point in the XY–plane. Draw perpendiculars PL and PM to X-axis and Y-axis respec-
tively.
Let PL = y and PM = x. Then, the point P is taken as (x, y). Here, x and y are called the rectangular
Cartesian co-ordinates or simply co-ordinates of the point P. x is called x-coordinate or abscissa and
y is called y-coordinate or ordinate of the point P.
Convention of signs:
(i) Towards the right side of the Y-axis, x-coordinate of any point on the graph paper is taken positive
and towards the left side of the Y-axis, x-coordinate is taken negative.
(ii) Above the X-axis, the y-coordinate of any point on the graph paper is taken positive and below the
Y-axis, y-coordinate is taken negative.
Example: Plot the points A(2, 3), B(-1, 2), C(-3, -2), and D(4, -2) in the XY plane.
Solution:
248
MATHS
3  A (2, 3)
B(1, 2)
 2
1
X1 O 1 X
3 2 1 2 3
1

2 
C(3, 2) D(4, 2)
3
Point on X-axis:
Let P be a point on X-axis, so that its distance from X-axis is zero. Hence, the point P can be taken
as (x, 0).
P (x, 0)
 X
O
Point on y-axis :
Let P1 be a point on Y-axis, so that its distance from Y-axis is zero. Hence, the point P1 can be taken
as (0, y).
 P1(0, y)
X
O
Distance between two points:
249
Consider two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2). Draw perpendiculars AL and BM from A and B to x-
axis, AN is the perpendicular drawn from A on to BM.
From right triangle ABN, we have AB2 = AN2 + BN2
Here, AN = x2 – x1, and BN = y2 – y1
AB = x 2  x1 2  y 2  y1 2
Hence, the distance between two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is given by the formula,
2 2
AB =  x2  x1    y2  y1  units.
Note: The distance of a point A(x1 y1)from origin O (0, 0) is given by
OA = x1 2  y12
250
MATHS
2 LOCUS AND CONCURRENCY
251
Introduction:
Mark a fixed point O on a sheet of paper. Now, start marking points P1, P2, P3, P4,……. on the
sheet of paper such that OP1 = OP2 = OP3 = ……… = 4 cm. What do we observe on joining these
points by a smooth curve? We observe a pattern, which is circular in shape such that any point on the
circle obtained is at a distance of 4 cm for the point O.
It can be said that whenever a set of points satisfying a certain condition are plotted, a pattern is
formed. This pattern formed by all possible points satisfying the given condition is called the locus of
points. In the above given example, we have a locus of points which are equidistant (4 cm) from the
given point O.
The collection (set) of all points and only those points which satisfy certain given geometrical condi-
tions is called locus of a point.
Alternatively, locus can be defined as the path or curve traced by a point in a plane when subjected
to some geometrical conditions.
Consider the following examples.
1. The locus of the point in a plane which is at a constant distance ‘r’ from a fixed point ‘O’ is a circle
with centre O and radius r units.
2. The locus of the point in a plane which is at a constant distance from a fixed straight line is a pair of
lines, parallel to the fixed line. Let the fixed line be –!. The lines m and n form the set of all points
which are at a constant distance from –!.
3. The locus of a point in a plane, which is equidistant from a given pair of parallel lines is a straight line,
parallel to the two given lines and lying midway between them.
In the figure above, m and n are the given lines and line –! is the locus.
To prove that a given path or curve is the desired locus, it is necessary to prove that:
(i) every point lying on the path satisfies the given geometrical conditions.
(ii) every point that satisfies the given conditions lies on the path.
Worked out examples:
252
MATHS
1. Show that the locus of a point equidistant from the end points of a line segment is the perpendicular
bisector of the segment.
Solution:
The proof will be taken up in two steps.
Step I:
We, initially prove that the any point equidistant from the end points of a line segment lies on the
perpendicular bisector of the line segment.
Given:
M and N are two points on a plane. A is a point in the same plane such that AM = AN.
To prove:
A lies on the perpendicular bisector of MN.
Proof:
Let M and N be the two fixed points in a plane.
Let A be a point such that AM = AN and L be the midpoint of MN.

If A coincides with L, then A lies on the bisector of MN.
Suppose A is different from L.
Then, in DMLA and DNLA,
ML = NL, AM = AN and MP is a common side.
By SSS congruence property, DMLA @ “NLA.
 MLA = NLA ( corresponding elements of congruent triangles are equal) —— (1)

But MLA + NLA = 180° ( they form a straight angle)
 2 MLA = 180° (using (1))
 MLA = NLA = 90°
So, AL  MN and hence AL is the perpendicular bisector of MN .
A lies on the perpendicular bisector of MN .
Step II:
Now, we prove that any point on the perpendicular bisector of the line segment is equidistant from
the end points of the line segment.
253
Given:
MN is a line segment and P is a point on the perpendicular bisector. L is the midpoint of MN.
To prove:
MP = NP.
If P coincides with L, then MP = NP.
ℓ
P
|| ||
M L N
Suppose P is different from L. Then, in MLP and NLP,,

ML = LN
LP is the common side and
MLP = NLP = 90°
 By the SAS congruence property, MLP NLP

So, MP = PN ( The corresponding elements of congruent triangles are equal)
 Any point on the perpendicular bisector of MN is equidistant from the points M and N.
Hence, from the steps I and II of the proof it can be said that the locus of the point equidistant from
two fixed points is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining the two points.
2. Show that the locus of a point equidistant from two intersecting lines in the plane determined by the
lines is the union of the pair of lines bisecting the angles formed by given lines.
Solution:
Step I:
We initially prove that any point equidistant from two given intersecting lines lies on one of the lines
bisecting the angles formed by given lines.
Given:
AB and CD are two lines intersecting at O. P is the point on the plane such that PM = PN. Line –
! is the bisector of BOD and AOC.
Line m is the bisector of BOC and AOD.
To prove:
254
MATHS
P lies on either on line –! or line m.
Proof:
In POM and PON,

PM = PN,
OP is a common side and
PMO = PNO = 90°
 By RHS congruence property, POM PON

So, POM = PON, i.e. P lies on the angle bisector of BOD.
As –! is the bisector of BOD and AOC, P lies on the line –!.
Similarly if P lies in any of the regions of BOC, AOC or AOD, such that it is equidistant
from AB and CD , then we can conclude that P lies on the angle bisector –! or on the angle bisector
m.
Step II:
To prove that any point on the bisector of one of angles formed by two intersecting lines is equidistant
from the lines.
Given:
Lines intersect at O. Lines –! and m are the angle bisectors.
Proof:
Let –! be the angle bisector of BOD and AOC, and m be the angle bisector of BOC and
AOD.
Let P be a point on the angle bisector –!, as shown in the figure.
If P coincides with O, then P is equidistant from the line AB and CD .

Suppose P is different from O.
255
Draw the perpendiculars PM and PN from the point P onto the lines AB and CD respectively..
Then in POM and PON,

POM = PON, PNO = PMO = 90° and OP is a common side.
 By the AAS congruence property
POM @ PON
So, PN = PM (Q corresponding sides)
i.e., P is equidistant from the lines AB and CD .
Hence, from the steps I and II of the proof it can be said that the locus of the point which is equidis-
tant from the two intersecting lines is the pair of the angle bisectors of the two pairs of vertically
opposite angles formed by the lines.
Equation of a locus:
We know a locus is the set of points that satisfy a given geometrical condition. When we express the
geometrical condition in the form of an algebraic equation that equation is called the equation of the
locus.
Steps to find the equation of a locus:
1. Consider any point (x1, y1) on the locus
2. Express the given geometrical condition in the form of an equation using x, and y,
3. Simplify the equation obtained in step 2.
4. Replace (x1, y1) by (x, y) in the simplified equation obtained in step 3, which gives the required
equation of the locus.
The following formulas will be helpful in finding the equation of a locus.
1. Distance between two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is
AB = x 2  x1 2  y 2  y1 2
2. Area of the triangle formed by joining the points (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is
1 x1  x 2 x2  x3 a b
, where the value of = ad – bc
2 y1  y 2 y 2  y3 c d
3. Equation of the circle with centre (a, b) and radius r is given by

(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2
4. The perpendicular distance from a point P(x1, y1) to a given line ax + by + c = 0 is
ax1  by1  c
a 2  b2
256
MATHS
3 TRIGONOMETRY
257
Introduction:
A triangle has six elements viz., three angles and three sides. The study of these six elements and
various relations which exist between them is called trigonometry.
Angle:
A measure formed between two rays having a common initial point is called an angle. The two rays
are called the arms or sides of the angle and the common initial point is called the vertex of the angle.
B


O 
A
One of the rays is said to be the initial side and the other ray is said to be the terminal side ofthe angle.
The angle is taken positive when measured in anti-clockwise direction and is taken negative when
measured in clockwise direction.
B Initial side A
Terminal side  O 
–

O 
Initial side A Terminal side 
B
Systems of measurement of angle:

We have the following systems of the measurement of angle.
(1) Sexagesimal system:
In this system, the angle is measured in degrees.
1 th
Degree: When the initial ray is rotated through of one revolution, we
360
say that an angle of measure of one degree is formed at the initial point.
A degree is divided into 60 equal parts and each part is called one minute.
Further, a minute is divided into 60 equal parts called seconds.
So, 1 right angle = 90°
1° = 60' (minutes)
and 1' = 60'’ (seconds)
(2) Centesimal system:
In this system, the angle is measured in grades.
1 th
Grade: When the initial ray is rotated through of one revolution, an
400
angle of measure of one grade is said to be formed at the initial point. It is
written as 1g.
258
MATHS
One grade is divided into 100 equal parts called minutes and one minute is
further divided into 100 equal parts called seconds.
So, 1 right angle = 100 g
1g = 100' (minutes)
and 1' = 100'’ (seconds)
(3) Circular system:
In this system, the angle is measured in radians.
Radian: The angle subtended by an arc of length equal to the radius of a circle at its centre
is said to have a measure of one radian. It is written as 1c.
O
r r
1c
r
Relation between the units of the three systems:

When a rotating ray completes one revolution, the measure of angle formed about the vertex is 360°
or 400g or 2pc
so,
360° = 400g = 2pc
g
c
(or) 90° = 100 =
2
For convenience, the above relation can be written as,
D G R
= = 
90 100 2
where D denotes degrees, G denotes grades and R denotes radians.
Remember:

(1) 1° = radians
180
= 0.0175 radians (approximately)
180
(2) 1c = degrees

= 57°17’44'’ (approximately)
Examples:
1. Convert 45° into circular measure.
Solution:
259
Given, D = 45°
D R
We have, = 
90 2
45 R
So, = 
90 2
1 
  =R
2 2

i.e., R =
4
c
Hence, circular measure of 45° is .
4
2. Convert 150g into sexagesimal measure.
Solution:
Given, G = 150g
D G
We have, =
90 100
D 150
So, =
90 100
3
 D=  90 = 135
2
Hence, sexagesimal measure of 150g is 135°.
c
3. What is the sexagesimal measure of angle measuring ?
3
Solution:
c
Given, R =
3
D R
We have, = 
90 2

D 3
So, = 
90 2
2
 D=  90 = 60°
3
260
MATHS
c
Hence, the sexagesimal measure of is 60°.
3
Trignometric ratios:
Let AOB be a right triangle with AOB is 90°. Let  OAB be ‘’. Notice that 0°<  < 90°. i.e., 
is an acute angle.
hypotenuse
opp.side

A O
adj.side
We can define six possible ratios among the three sides of the triangle AOB, known as trigonometric
ratios. They are defined as follows.
1. Sine of the angle  (or) simply sinq:
side opposite to angle  OB

sin = =
hypotenuse AB
2. Cosine of the angle  or simply cos:
side adjacent to angle  OA

cos = =
hypotenuse AB
3. Tangent of the angle  or simply tanq:
side opposite to  OB
tan = side adjacent to  =
OA
4. Cotangent of the angle q or simply cot:
side adjacent to  OA
cot = side opposite to  =
OB
5. Cosecant of the angle  or simply cosec:
hypotenuse AB
cosec = side opposite to  =
OB
6. Secant of the angle q or simply secq:
hypotenuse AB
sec = side adjacent to  =
OA
Observe that,
1 1 1
(i) cosec = , sec = and cot =
sinθ cos  tanθ
261
sin  cos 
(ii) tan = and cot =
cos  sin 
Example:
3
If sin = , then find the values of tan and sec.
5
Solution:
5 3

A O
3
Given, sin =
5
Let AOB be the right triangle such that OAB = 
Assume that OB = 3 and AB = 5
Then, OA= AB 2  OB2
= 25  9 = 4
opposite side OB 3
So tan = adjacent side = =
OA 4
hypotenuse AB 5
and sec = adjacent side = =
OA 4
Trigonometric Identities:
1. sin2 + cos2 = 1
2. sec2 - tan2 = 1
3. cosec2 - cot2 = 1
Table of values of trigonometric ratios (TR) for specific angles:
262
MATHS
Worked out examples:

1. Find the value of sin45° + cos45°.
Solution:
1 1 2
sin45° + cos45° = + = = 2
2 2 2
sin45°+ cos45° = 2
2. Find the value of tan45°+ 2cos60° - sec60°
Solution:
tan 45°+ 2cos60° - sec60°
1
= 1 + 2   -2
2
=1+1-2=0
tan45°+ 2cos60° - sec60° = 0
3. Using the trigonometric table, show that

(i) sin230° + cos230° = 1
(ii) sec260° - tan260° = 1
Solution:
(i) sin230° + cos230°
2 2
 1   3 
=   + 
2  2 
1 3 4
= + = =1
4 4 4
Hence, sin230° + cos2 30° = 1
(ii) sec260° - tan260°
263
= 2 2 -  3 = 4 - 3 = 1
2
Hence, sec260° - tan260°= 1

4. Find the values of sin30°cos60° + cos30°sin60° and sin90°. What do you observe?
Solution:
sin30°cos60° + cos30°sin60°
1 1 3 3
=  + 
2 2 2 2
1 3 4
= + = =1
4 4 4
and sin90° 1
Hence, sin30°cos60° + cos30°sin60° = sin90°
tan 60  tan 30

5. Find the values of and tan30°. What do you observe?
1  tan 60 tan 30
Solution:
tan 60  tan 30
1  tan 60 tan 30
1
3 3  1
3
= 1 = 3
1  3. 2
3
1 1
= and tan30° =
3 3
tan 60  tan 30

Hence, = tan30°
1  tan 60 tan 30
6. Find the values of (cos90°.cos30° + sin90°.sin30°) and cos60°. What do you observe?
Solution:
 3 1 1
cos90°.cos30° + sin90°.sin30° = (0)  2  + (1)   = and
  2 2
1
cos60° =
2
Hence, cos90°.cos30° + sin90°.sin30° = cos60°.
By the observations made in the above given examples, the following formulae can be
deduced.
1. sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
264
MATHS
and sin(A – B) = sinA cosB - cosA sinB.
2. cos(A + B) = cosA cosB - sinAsinB
and cos(A – B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB.
tan A  tan B
3. tan(A + B) =
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
and tan(A – B) =
1  tan A tan B
Also, by taking A = B in the above relations, we get,
1. sin2A = 2sinAcosA
2. cos2A = cos2A - sin2A = 2cos2A - 1 = 1 – 2sin2A.
2 tan A
3. tan2A =
1  tan 2 A
Examples:
1. Find the value of sin75°.
Solution:
We have, sin75° = sin(45° + 30°)
= sin45°cos30° + cos45°sin30°
1 3 1 1 3 1
= + . =
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1
sin75° =
2 2
2. Find the value of cos75°.
Solution:
cos75° = cos(45° + 30°)
= cos45°cos30° - sin45°sin30°
1 3 1 1 3 1
= - . =
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1
cos75° =
2 2
3. Find the value of tan15°.
Solution:
We have, tan15° = tan(45° – 30°)
tan 45  tan 30

=
1  tan 45 tan 30
265
1
1
3 3 1  3 1   3 1 
= 1 = =
1 3 1  3  1  3  1
3
=
 3 1
=

2
3 1 2 3 4 2 3
= =2– 3
3 1 2 2
3 1
tan15° = or 2 – 3
3 1
4. Eliminate q from the equations x = p sin and y = q cos.
Solution:
Given, x = p sin and y = q cos
x y
 = sin and = cos
p q
We know that, sin2 + cos2 = 1
2 2
x  y
So,   +   = 1
p q
x2 y2
 + =1
p2 q2
x2 y2
Hence, the required equation is + =1
p2 q2
5. Eliminate q from the equations x =  sec and y =  tan.

Solution:
Given, x =  sec and y =  tan
= sec and = tan
We know that, sec2- tan2 = 1

2 2
 x  x
So,   -   = 1
 
x2 y 2
 – =1  x2 – y2 = 2
2 2
Hence, the required relation is x2 – y2 = 2
6. Find the relation obtained by eliminating q from the equations x = r cos+ s sin and y = r sin - s cos
.
266
MATHS
Solution:
Given, x = r cos + s sin
2
 x2 =  r cos   s sin  
= r2 cos2 + 2rs cos.sin + s2 sin2
Also y = r sin – s cos
 y2 = r2 sin2 + s2 cos2 – 2rs sin.cos
 x2 + y2 = r2 (cos2 + sin2) + s2 (sin2 + cos2)
= r2 (1) + s (1)
= r2 + s2
Hence, the required relation is x2 + y2 = r2 + s2
7. Obtain the relation between x and y, by eliminating q from the equations
x = cosec + cot
y = cosec - cot
Solution:
Given, x = cosec + cot and
y = cosec – cot
Multiplying these equations, we get
xy = (cosec + cot) (cosec - cot)
= cosec2 - cot2 = 1
Hence, the required relation is xy = 1
8. Eliminate  from the equations m = tan + cot and n = tan - cot
Solution:
Given,
m = tan + cot ———— (1)
n = tan - cot ————— (2)
Adding (1) and (2), we get
m + n = 2tan
mn
 tan =
2
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get
m - n = 2cot
m n
 cot =
2
 m n   m  n 
tan. cot =   . 
 2   2 
267
1 m2  n2
 tan. =
tan  4
m2  n2
1= (or) m2 – n2 = 4
4
Hence, by eliminating ‘’, we obtain the relation m2 – n2 = 4
268
MATHS
4 STATISTICS
269
Introduction
In the previous class, we studied frequency distributions (tables) and measures of central tendencies
of raw data. Now, we will study the graphical representation of statistical data, measures of the
central tendency of grouped data and the estimation of quartiles.
Statistical Graphs:
The information provided by a numerical frequency distribution is easily understood when repre-
sented by diagrams or graphs. The diagrams act as visual aids and leave a lasting impression on the
mind. This enables the investigator to make quick conclusions about the distribution.
There are different types of graphs or diagrams to represent statistical data. Some of them are:
1. Bar chart or bar graph (for unclassified frequency distribution)
2. Histogram (for classified frequency distribution)
3. Frequency polygon (for classified frequency distribution)
4. Frequency curve (for classified frequency distribution)
5. Cumulative frequency curve (for classified frequency distribution).
(a) Less than cumulative frequency curve.
(b) Greater than cumulative frequency curve.
Bar Graph:
The important features of bar graphs are:
1. Bar graphs are used to represent unclassified frequency distributions.
2. Frequency of a value of a variable is represented by a bar (rectangle) whose length (i.e., eight)
is equal (or proportional) to the frequency.
3. The breadth of the bar is arbitrary and the breadth of all the bars are equal. The bars may or may not
touch each other.
Example:
Represent the following frequency distribution by a bar graph
Solution:
Either of the following bar graphs (fig 1 or fig 2) may be used to represent the above frequency
distribution. The first graph takes value of the variable along the x-axis and the frequency along the y-
axis, whereas the second one takes the frequency along the x-axis and the value of the variable on
the y-axis.
All the bases should be of same width and uniform spaces should be left between consecutive bars.
270
MATHS
10 10
Value of Variable
Frequency 8 8
6
6
4
4
2
2
0
2 4 6 8 10
0 2 4 6 8 10
Value of Variable Frequency
Fig. (1) Fig. (2)
Histograms:
Classified or grouped data is represented graphically by histograms. A histogram consists of rect-
angles each of which has its breadth proportional to the size of concerned class interval and its height
proportional to the corresponding frequency. In a histogram, two consecutive rectangles have a
common side.
Hence, in a histogram, we do the following:
(i) We represent class boundaries along the x-axis
(ii) Along the y-axis, we represent class frequencies
(iii) We construct rectangles with bases along the x-axis and heights along the y-axis.
Example:
Construct a histogram for the frequency distribution below:
Solution:
Here, the class intervals are continuous.
The following histogram is drawn according to the method described above.
271
Scale: on x-axis 1 cm = 10 units

y on y-axis 1 cm = 1unit
10
9
8
7
Frequency
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 x
Classes
Histogram
Remarks:
The following points may be noted.
(1) A link mark ( ) made on the horizontal axis, between the vertical axis and first vertical rect-
angle, if there is a gap between 0 and the lower boundary of first class interval.
(2) We may shade all rectangles. A heading for the histogram may also be given.
Important Observations:
1. If the class intervals are discontinuous, the distribution has to be changed into continuous intervals
first and then the histogram has to be drawn.
2. Bar graphs also use rectangles. But bar graphs are used for unclassified frequency distributions,
where as histograms are used for classified frequency distribution. The breadths of rectangles in a
bar graph are arbitary, while those in histogram are determined by class size.
Frequency Polygon:
Frequency polygons are used to graphically represent classified or grouped data. It is a polygon
whose vertices are the midpoints of the top sides of the rectangles, forming the histogram of the
frequency distribution.
To draw a frequency polygon for a given frequency distribution, the middle values of the class inter-
vals are taken on x-axis and the corresponding frequencies on y-axis and the points are plotted on a
graph sheet. These points are joined by straight line segments which form the frequency polygon.
Example:
Construct a frequency polygon for the following data:
272
MATHS
Solution:
Here the class intervals are discontinuous.
Hence, first we convert the class intervals to continuous class intervals and then find midpoints of
each class intervals. We do this by adding 0.5 to each upper limit and subtracting 0.5 from each
lower limit.
Now, taking the midvalues of class intervals on the x-axis and the corresponding frequencies on the
y-axis, we draw a frequency polygon as below.
Scale:
on x-axis: 1 cm = 5 units
y on y-axis: 1 cm = 2 units
18
16
14
Frequency
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 x
Midvalues
of the classes
Frequency Polygon
Frequency curve:
Frequency curves are used to graphically represent classified or grouped data.
As the class-interval in a frequency distribution decreases, the points of the frequency polygon be-
273
comes closer and closer and then the frequency polygon tends to become a frequency curve. So
when the number of scores in the data is sufficiently large and the class-intervals become smaller
(ultimately tending to zero) the limiting form of frequency polygon becomes frequency curve.
Example:
Draw a frequency curve for the data given below
Solution:
For the given data, a table showing the mid-values of classes and frequency is made.
Now, taking the mid-values of the classes along the x-axis and the corresponding frequency along
the y-axis, we mark the points obtained from the above table in a graph sheet and join them with a
smooth curve, which gives the frequency curve as shown below
274
MATHS
Sacle:
on x-axis 1 cm = 5 units
y
on y-axis 1 cm = 2 units
18
16
14
12
Frequency
10
8
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 x
Mid values of the classes
Cumulative Frequency curves:

The curves drawn for cumulative frequencies, less than (or more than) the true limits of the classes of
a frequency distribution are called cumulative frequency curves. The curve drawn for the “less than
cumulative frequency distribution” is called the “less than cumulative frequency curve” and the curve
drawn for the greater than cumulative frequency distribution is called the “greater than cumulative
frequency curve”.
From these curves, we can find the total frequency above or below a particular value of the variable
curve.
Example:
For the given distribution, construct and draw the less than and or greater than cumulative frequency
curve.
Less than cumulative frequency distribution:
275
Greater than cumulative frequency distribution:
Scale: on x-axis 1 cm = 10 units

on y-axis 1 cm = 10 units
100
90
80 Less than
Cumulative frequency
cumulative
70
frequency curve
60
50
40
30 Greater than
cumulative
20
frequency curve
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
X
Class Boundaries
276
MATHS
Measure of central tendencies of grouped data:
In the pervious class, we studied measure of central tendencies of ungrouped or raw data. Now we
study the measures of central tendency of grouped data; (mean, median and mode)
Mean of grouped data:
If the frequency distribution of ‘n’ observations of a variable x has k classes, xi is the midvalue and fi
is the frequency of ith class, then mean x of grouped data is defined as
k
 fi xi
f1x1  f 2 x 2  ............  f k x k i 1
x  k
f1  f 2  .........  f k
 fi
i 1
k
 fi x i
(or) simply, x  where n   fi
n i 1
In grouped data, it is assumed that the frequency of each class is concentrated at its midvalue.
Example:
Calculate the arithmetic mean (AM) of the following data
Solution:
Let us write the tabular form as given below
Mean = x 
 fx  2800  56
N 50
Short-cut method for finding the mean of group data (Deviation method):
Sometimes, when the frequencies are large in number, the calculation of mean using above formula is
cumbersome. This can be simplified if the class interval of each class of grouped data is the same.
Under the assumption of equal class interval, we get the following formula for the mean of grouped
data.
1 k 
x  A    fiui   c
n  i 1 
where A = assumed value from among midvalues
C = length of class interval
277
K = number of classes of frequency distribution
k
N = total frequency =  fi
i 1
xi  A
ui  , i = 1, 2, 3, …….k and
C
xi = midvalue of the ith class
ui is called the deviation or difference of the midvalue of the ith class from the assumed value, divided
by the class interval.
Using this method; the previous example can be worked out as follows:
Here, A = 70; N = 50; C = 20; Sfiui = -35
1
 A.M. = A  f i u i   c
N
1
= 70   35 20
50
= 70 - 14 = 56.
Median of Grouped Data:
Before finding out how to obtain the median of grouped data, we first review what a median class is
If ‘n’ is the number of observations, then from the cumulative frequency distribution, the class in
th
n
which   observation lies is called as the median class.
2
Formula for calculating median:
n
F
Median (M) = L  2 C
f
Where, L = Lower boundary of median class
n
i.e., class in which   th observation lies.
2
N = total frequency
278
MATHS
F = cumulative frequency of class preceding the median class.
f = frequency of median class.
C = length of class interval.
Example:
Given below is the data showing weights of 40 students in a class. Find its median.
Solution:
To find the median, we prepare a cumulative frequency table as given below.
Here n = 40 is even
 Median = value of 40/2 or the 20th observation
From the column of cumulative frequency, the value of 20th observation is 49.
 Median = 49 kg
Note:
Here, in this example, we do not have any class interval. As there is no class interval, we can not use
the formula
Example:
Find the median of the following data
Solution:
To find the median, we prepare the following table
279
n 
  F
Median = L   2  C
f
n 35
Here n = 35    17  5
2 2
This value appears in the class interval 20-30.
L = actual lower limit of median class (20 - 30) = 20
F = 13; f = 3
C = 10 (class length)
 35 
  13 
 Median = 20   2 
 10
5
9
= 20   10  29
25
Note:
Here, in the table the class intervals are continuous. If the class intervals are not continuous, then we
first convert them into continuous ones and then find L.
Mode of grouped data:
1C
The formula for determining the mode of grouped data is L1    
1 2
Where L1 = lower boundary of modal class (class with highest frequency)

1 = f - f1 and 2 = f - f2 where f is the frequency of modal class.
f1 = frequency of previous class

f2 = frequency of next class
Rewriting the formula,
f  f1 C
Mode  L1  f  f   f  f 
1 2
f  f1  C
Mode = L1  2f  f  f 
1 2
Example:
The following information gives the monthly salaries of 100 employees. Find the mode of the data
Solution:
280
MATHS
Here the given classes are not continuous

Hence we first rewrite it as solution below.
From the above table it can be known that the maximum frequency occurs in the class interval 3500
- 4999.
 f = 37; f1 = 35; f2 = 27;
L1 = 3499×5; C = 1500
f  f1 C
 Mode = L1 
f  f1   f  f 2 
15002
= 3499  5 
28
= 3499×5 + 300 = 3799×5
Quartiles
In a given data, the observations that divide the given set of observations into four equal parts are
called quartiles.
First quartile or lower quartile: The observation which lies midway between the lower extreme
and the median when the given observations are arranged in ascending order is called the first quartile
or the lower quartile and is denoted as Q1.
Third quartile or upper quartile: The observation that lies in midway between the median and the
upper extreme observation of the data when arranged in ascending order is called the third quartile
or the upper quartile and is denoted by Q3
We can find Q1 and Q3 for an ungrouped data containing n observations as follows.
(1) We arrange the given n observations or items in ascending order then.
n
Lower or first quartile Q1 =   th item or observation if n is even
4
 n 1
=  th item or observation when n is odd.
 4 
281

Iit - Foundation - Set - IV

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Iit - Foundation - Set - IV

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Welcome to SRM Gateway

Wishing you all success.

5. CURRENT ELECTRICITY - I ........................................................................... 69

1. RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS & EQUILIBRIUM ................................ 91

2. METALLURGY .................................................................................................. 110

3. CARBON COMPOUNDS .................................................................................. 140

4. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ................................................................................... 152

5. IAIIAIIIAIVA ....................................................................................................... 190

1. CO - ORDINATE GEOMENTRY ............................................................................... 247

2. LOCAS AND CONCURENCY ....................................................................................

1 UNITS & DIMENSIONS

The elastic restoring force per unit area is called stress.

2. Shearing strain or Tangential strain (q):

The three types modulii of Elasticity and Poission’s ratio:

The total work done in stretching the wire by e is given by

The Young’s modulus ‘Y’ is calculated using the formula

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

31. 32. 33.

Liquids whose angle of contact is Liquids whose angle of contact is obtuse

T = Surface tension of the liquid

r = radius of the bore of the tube

 the vertical component T cos

1) 100mm 2) 75mm 3) 50mm 4) 30mm

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

The downward force due to 

Similarly the upward force on 

Net upward force on the cylinder or force

The coefficient of viscosity:

Then the coefficient of viscosity of water can be obtained.

P.E of unit volume of liquid at exit = d.g. h 2

Net gain in P.E of unit volume of liquid = d.g ( h 2 - h 1 )

2 Spinning of a ball in a current of air :

velocity of efflux, V  2gh

Stokes formula – Terminal Velocity :

1) 11.76 x 10-3 2) 23.52 ´ 10-3 3) 5.88 ´ 10-3 4) none

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

where  0 = permittivity of free space or vacuum; e = permittivity of the medium.

[F stands for Farad]

The intensity of electric field is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is N C 1 or Vm-1

So, the intensity of electric field at P is given by

1) If the charge is situated in a medium of dielectric constant K, then the electric

Electric potential (V) :

The problem is to find the potential ‘V’ at P

This can be extended to any number of charges.

Potential of a charged spherical conductor :

If the conductor is surrounded by a medium of dielectric constant ‘K’

Work done in moving +1 coulomb from B to A is w = FScos q

 Capacity of spherical conductor C = 4  0 R.

Instead if the conductor is surrounded by a medium of dielectric constant ‘K’

then its capacity C 1 = K 4  0 R or C 1 = KC

This P.D V1 is times the original P.D = V.

b) Variable condenser: There are two sets of equally spaced

Potential difference between A and B is V = V1 + V2 + V3 …….. (2)

1) F/6 2) F/24 3) F/8 4) F/12

4q r 4q r 4q r 4q r

50 V 40V 30V 20V 10V

1) 45x10+9J 2) 4.5x10-3J 3) 9x10-3J 4) zero

1) 8 x 106V 2) 9 x 106V 3) 18 x 106V 4) 36 x 106V

51. Capacity between A and B is

1) becomes 2 times 2) becomes ½ times 3) remains same 4) None

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Variation of Resistance with temperature:

Ohm’s law applied to a total circuit: